A fortune is near at hand: White land buyers on the Nemaha Half-Breed Tract,

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1 University of Nebraska at Omaha Student Work A fortune is near at hand: White land buyers on the Nemaha Half-Breed Tract, William T. Moran University of Nebraska at Omaha Follow this and additional works at: Recommended Citation Moran, William T., "A fortune is near at hand: White land buyers on the Nemaha Half-Breed Tract, " (1992). Student Work This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by DigitalCommons@UNO. It has been accepted for inclusion in Student Work by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@UNO. For more information, please contact unodigitalcommons@unomaha.edu.

2 A FORTUNE IS NEAR A T HAND: W H IT E LAND BUYERS ON TH E N EM AHA H A LF-BREED TRACT, A Thesis Presented to the D e p a rtm e n t o f H is to ry and the F a c u lty o f the G raduate College U n iv e rs ity o f N ebraska In P a rtia l F u lfillm e n t o f the R equirem ents fo r the M a ste r o f A rts Degree U n iv e rs ity o f N ebraska a t O m aha b y W illia m T. M o ra n M ay 1992

3 UMI Number: EP73122 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI EP73122 Published by ProQuest LLC (2015). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml

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5 THESIS ACCEPTANCE Accepted for the faculty of the Graduate College, University of Nebraska, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts, University of Nebraska at Omaha. Committee S'y4r~L~-7 Name Department b r ^ Q. Chairman Date /?? 2. s * S '- -r ^_: ^

6 ABSTRACT T h ro u g h o u t the 19th ce n tu ry, the federal governm ent p ro m o te d the a s s im ila tio n o f N ative A m e ric a n s as in d iv id u a ls w ith in w h ite society. A llo tm e n t o f la n d in severalty, o r th e g ra n tin g o f la n d to in d iv id u a l In d ia n s, w as one m eans to achieve a s s im ila tio n because it w as believed th a t In d ia n s w o u ld adopt the lifestyle o f w h ite fa rm e rs once th e y received la n d. T h o u g h th e a tte m p t g e n e ra lly fa ile d, the g o ve rn m e n t re m a in e d u n d e te rre d in its efforts to achieve th a t end. In 1887, C ongress passed the Dawes S everalty A c t w h ic h m ade a llo tm e n t in severalty th e s ta n d a rd p o lic y on m o st reservations th ro u g h o u t the U n ite d States. One clear fa ilu re o f a llo tm e n t in severalty occurred on th e N em aha H a lf-b re e d T ra c t, a re serva tio n esta b lish e d in N e b raska to b e n e fit the m ixe d -b lo o d s o f several G reat P lains trib e s. T h o u g h C ongress created th e re serva tio n b y tre a ty in 1830, it d id n o t begin to a llo t th e la n d u n til Once the la n d became available to the m ixed-bloods, m o s t o f th e m s o ld th e ir a llo tm e n ts to w h ite s. T h is th e s is d e s c rib e s th e m a jo r p u rch a se rs o f m ixed-blood la n d on the H alf-b reed T ra ct, in c lu d in g Jam es W. Denver, the C om m issioner o f In d ia n A ffa irs; S tephen F. N u cko lls, the fo u n d e r o f N ebraska C ity; a g roup o f G erm an im m ig ra n ts w h o so u g h t to e sta b lish a so cia lis tic society^at th e ir se ttle m e n t called Arago; and several p ro m in e n t lo ca l la n d speculators.

7 TABLE OF CONTENTS M ap L is t... i In tro d u c tio n... ii A ckn o w le d g m e n ts... iv I. "F o r T h e ir H a lf-b re e d ": The N em aha H a lf-b re e d T ra c t a n d th e S peculator's D re a m...1 II. "No W h ite Person S h o u ld Be Perm itted.. Jam es W. D enver on the H alf-b reed T ra c t III. "A F in ger in E very Pie": The A ctivitie s o f S tephen F. N u c k o lls and H is B ro th e rs IV. "The M o st B e a u tifu l V iew M y Eyes Ever Looked O n": The S e ttle m e n t o f Arago b y G erm an-a m erican L ib e ra ls V. Lessons N ot Learned: F ro m H alf-b reed T ra c t F a ilu re s to D awes A ct C a la m ity C o n clu sio n s: F rom 1857 to T oday B iblio gra p h y, 162

8 MAP LIST The H alf-b reed T ra c t... 2a N ebraska T e rrito ry, a C u ltu ra l G roups in N ebraska, a b o u t a In d ia n Land Cessions in N ebraska... 9a P acific R ailroad Surveys, ,... 20a Jam es W. D enver's Pacific R ailroad B ill, a N em aha H alf-b reed T ra c t w ith Im p o rta n t T o w ns...41a G ro w th o f C ounties in N ebraska... 53a M o d e m N em aha C o u n ty... A p p e n d ix M o d e m R ich a rd son C o u n ty... A p p e n d ix

9 ii INTRODUCTION W ith in th e pages o f N ebraska H is to ry, th e state h is to ric a l so ciety q u a rte rly, several a u th o rs have described h o w th e N em aha H a lf-b re e d T ra c t cam e in to existence. W ritin g in 1935, N em aha C o u n ty J u d g e C h a rle s O. S now exp la in e d h o w the gove rn m e n t e sta b lish e d th e tra c t's b o u n d a rie s ; d iv id e d i t in to to w n s h ip s, ra nges a n d s e c tio n s ; a n d d e te rm in e d b y ce n su s w h ic h m ix e d -b lo o d s w ere e lig ib le to receive a llo tm e n ts. Judge S now possessed an expertise in these areas fo r he had served as a n a b s tra c to r, a n d as N em aha C o u n ty C le rk a n d J u d g e betw een th e years 1898 and As m u c h as anyone, he u n d e rs to o d th e lo ca l deeds w h ic h are th e fo u n d a tio n o f p rim a ry source m a te ria l fo r re search in g th e H alf-b reed T ract. In th e second a rtic le (1957), h is to ria n B e rlin B. C h a p m a n exp a n d ed on th e to p ic s covered b y S now a n d in c lu d e d c o n s id e ra b le s ta tis tic a l d a ta a b o u t th e ages and e th n ic b a c k g ro u n d s o f th e m ix e d - bloods. He d e te rm in e d th a t tw o -th ird s o f th e allottees w ere m in o rs, th u s h e lp in g to e x p la in w h y th e la n d passed so q u ic k ly in to w h ite h a n d s. A single g u a rd ia n often h e ld several a llo tm e n ts and sold th e m fo r a q u ic k source o f cash. C h a p m a n detailed la te r legal e fforts to d e te rm in e th e a c tu a l va lu e o f th e la n d w h e n th e m ixe d -b lo o d s received i t in F ro m th e d e lib e ra tio n s o f th e In d ia n C la im s C o m m issio n in 1947, he fo u n d th a t one exp e rt e stim ate d the la n d to be w o rth $ an acre, as co m pared to th e $.6 4 p e r acre th a t m ixe d -b lo o d S usie D e ro in a c tu a lly received fo r h e r a llo tm e n t. A lth o u g h th is illu s tr a tio n c o n tra s te d th e h ig h e s t va lu e e stim a te a g a in st th e low est a m o u n t received, i t becam e cle a r th a t m o s t m ixed-bloods sold th e ir la n d fo r less m oney th a n it was w o rth. In a 1986 a rticle, G regory J. Johansen described th e co n tro ve rsy re g a rd in g the lo ca tio n o f th e tra c t's w estern b o u n d a ry and p ro vid e d m ore in fo rm a tio n a b o u t the a llo tm e n t process. A ll th re e a u th o rs agreed th a t m o s t m ix e d -b lo o d s s o ld th e ir a llo tm e n ts q u ic k ly, b u t th e three o m itte d d e scrip tio n s o f th e w h ite m en w h o b o u g h t th e la n d. T h is th e sis, th e n, is th e fir s t s c h o la rly w o rk to id e n tify th e m a jo r p u rc h a s e rs o f N em aha H a lf-b re e d T ra c t la n d s.

10 Id e n tify in g these b u y e rs re q u ire d th is a u th o r to spend tw o h u n d re d h o u rs s tu d y in g the deed records located in the N em aha a n d R ich a rd son C o u n ty co u rth o u s e s. The research yielded fa s c in a tin g re s u lts. A fte r in itia tin g th e a llo tm e n t process, th e C o m m is s io n e r o f In d ia n A ffa irs d ire cte d th e p rim a ry la n d s p e c u la tio n rin g on th e tra c t. The fir s t and second c h a p te rs d e scrib e th e tra c t's c re a tio n, th e c o m m is s io n e r's a ctivitie s, and tra n s c o n tin e n ta l ra ilro a d h isto ry, an e sse n tia l b a c k g ro u n d sin ce ra ilro a d s p e c u la tio n m o tiv a te d some o f th e w h ite b u y e rs. The re m a in d e r o f the thesis id e n tifie s o th e r s ig n ific a n t specu la to rs, describes a n u n u s u a l g ro u p o f G e rm a n im m ig ra n ts on th e tra c t, a n d p ro vid e s b io g ra p h ic a l in fo rm a tio n on in d iv id u a l m ixed-blood allottees. E v e n ts on th e H a lf-b re e d T ra c t cast d o u b t o n th e w is d o m o f a llo tm e n t in severalty, th e p ra ctice o f g ra n tin g la n d to in d iv id u a l In d ia n s ra th e r th a n to trib e s to be h e ld in com m on, as a w a y o f g ra d u a lly a s s im ila tin g the Native A m e rica ns in to m a in stre a m society. In s h o rt, th e h is to ry o f th e N em aha H alf-b reed T ra c t holds valuable lessons fo r anyone in te re ste d in u n d e rs ta n d in g th e fa ilu re s o f federal In d ia n p o licy.

11 ACKNOW LEDGMENTS W ritin g h is to ry is d e m a n d in g w o rk th a t re quire s th e a ssistance o f m a n y people. The fo llo w in g in d iv id u a ls c o n trib u te d to th e c re a tio n o f th is thesis. D r. M ich a e l Tate, an a u th o rity on N ative A m e ric a n h is to ry and th e O ld W est, chaired m y th esis com m ittee and guid e d me th ro u g h a ll aspects o f m y w o rk. D r. B ruce G arver served on m y co m m itte e and offered v a lu a b le suggestions, especially re gard in g tra n s p o rta tio n h is to ry, w h ile I to o k several courses fro m h im. The th ird com m ittee m e m b e r w as D r. P h ilip Vogel, w h o encouraged me in the fin a l weeks as I com pleted m y w o rk. D r. J e ro ld S im m ons suggested w here to lo o k fo r in fo rm a tio n a t lo c a l c o u rth o u s e s in s o u th e a s te rn N ebraska. I co m m e n d a ll o f m y h is to ry in s tru c to rs a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f N ebraska a t O m aha. In th e c o u rth o u s e s, N em aha C o u n ty C le rk J o A n n R o h rs and D e p u ty R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty R egister o f Deeds P a tric ia S c o tt g u id e d me th ro u g h th e deed re cord s. I am in d e b te d to th e fo llo w in g people fo r se n d in g m e in fo rm a tio n fro m d is ta n t places th a t I d id n o t have th e resources to v is it on m y ow n: B ill D obbins, R esearch A s s is ta n t a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f O k la h o m a L ib ra ry ; R honda C u rtis o f th e C lin to n C o u n ty (Ohio) H is to ric a l Society; G e rt D ie tric h o f B u ffa lo, New Y o rk; a n d M a iy B e ll, D ire c to r o f L ib ra ry and A rch ive s a t th e B u ffa lo a n d E rie C o u n ty H is to ric a l Society. R esearch A ssociate B e tty L o u d o n helped m e locate m a n u s c rip t c o lle c tio n s a n d o th e r so u rce s a t th e N e b ra s k a S ta te H is to ric a l Society. The fo llo w in g lo ca l persons a ssisted me: lib ra ria n B o n i H a th a w a y o f A u b u rn ; lib ra ria n K athleen G rie p e n stro h o f N ebraska C ity ; and R ic h a rd Z e n tn e r, H a ro ld P rich a rd a n d F ra n k Reavis o f F a lls C ity. D r. M y ro n B a lla in and Leo D ie tric h, a d m in is tra to rs a t th e A u b u rn P u b lic S chools, encouraged m e to earn m y m a s te r's degree. F e llo w te a ch e r S cott V anderboegh ta u g h t me how to use the w o rd processor and p rin te d the fin a l copy o f the thesis. F in a lly, I w is h to th a n k m y p a re n ts, w ife and c h ild re n fo r enco u ra g in g me in th is p ro je c t a n d a cce p tin g the h a rd s h ip s th a t accom panied it. It is m y hope th a t th is h is to ry o f the N em aha H a lf-b reed T ra c t w ill be u s e fu l and in te re s tin g to its readers. T h ro u g h o u t th e p ro je ct, I have

12 V le a rn e d m u c h a b o u t w ritin g h is to ry ; and th a t i t is a process o f slo w c o n s tru c tio n. W h ile th is p a p e r w ill in c re a s e k n o w le d g e a b o u t so u th e a ste rn N ebraska, I hope it w ill in s p ire o th e r w rite rs to co rre c t m y m is ta k e s a n d a d d m o re to th is s to ry, th e re b y y ie ld in g a c lo s e r a p p ro x im a tio n o f w h a t re a lly happened. In te re s tin g events have ofte n o c c u rre d in one's o w n c o u n ty. I fo u n d th e h is to ry o f s o u th e a s te rn N ebraska, w here I live, to be d ra m a tic and s u rp ris in g.

13 1 CHAPTER ONE "FOR T H E IR HALF-BREED": T H E N E M A H A H ALF-BREED TRACT AN D TH E SPECULATO R S D R E AM O n S e p te m b er 21, 1857, L o u is N eal received a c e rtific a te o f a llo tm e n t th a t granted h im a 320-acre parcel o f la n d in fee s im p le fro m th e U n ite d States governm ent. T h a t same day th is m ix e d -b lo o d In d ia n sold h is la n d to a w h ite m a n,l th e fir s t o f m a n y In d ia n la n d sales to w h ite s on the Nem aha H alf-b reed T ra ct, a reservation created in 1830 to b e n e fit the m ixed-blood In d ia n s o f several G reat Plains trib e s. J u s t th re e days e a rlie r, C o m m is s io n e r o f In d ia n A ffa irs Ja m e s W. D e n ve r h a d w r itte n fro m N e b raska C ity to h is w ife, "...w e w e n t over to th e H a lf B reed's T ra ct, w here we were su rro u n d e d b y th e c la im a n ts w h o asked a th o u s a n d questions a b o u t w hen th e ir la n d s w o u ld be set a p a rt to th e m -h o w m u c h each w o u ld be e n title d to ---& c., & c. We to o k d in n e r w ith L o u is Neal, a h a lf breed Otoe, w ho is ra th e r in te llig e n t a n d appears to be a clever fe llo w."2 W as it c o in c id e n ta l th a t Louis Neal w as th e fir s t to receive and sell h is a llo tte d land? O r was there some co n n e ctio n betw een Neal's m eeting w ith D enver and h is receiving th e fir s t a llo tm e n t? S tro n g evidence suggests th a t C om m issioner D enver m a n ip u la te d th e a llo tm e n t process as p a rt o f a la n d sp e cu la tio n scheme. One c e rta in ty is th a t th is tra n s a c tio n exem plifies how w h ite speculators acquired la n d fro m m ixe d - blood In d ia n s d u rin g the n in e te e n th ce n tu ry. T h is th e sis explores th e process b y w h ic h several g ro u p s o f w h ite s p e c u la to rs o p e ra te d on th e N e m a ha H a lf-b re e d T ra c t d u rin g th e a llo tm e n t period, fro m S eptem ber 1857 th ro u g h S eptem ber 1860, w h e n m o s t o f th e m ixed-bloods sold th e ir land. Events on th e H a lf-b reed T ra c t reveal th e h a rm fu l re s u lts o f a n in e tee n th -c e n tu ry p o lic y to assign la n d to in d iv id u a l In d ia n s in severalty, o r fee sim ple, ra th e r th a n to trib e s to be h e ld in co m m o n.3 g y th is p o lic y th e federal g o ve rn m e n t s o u g h t to b re a k u p th e re s e rv a tio n system, to w eaken th e a u th o rity o f tr ib a l leaders, a n d to tra n s fo rm in d iv id u a l In d ia n s in to s e lf-s u p p o rtin g "w h ite "

14 2 fa rm e rs. In s te a d, th e In d ia n s sold th e ir la n d to w h ite s e ttle rs o r s p e c u la to rs a t b a rg a in p rice s and becam e m ore d e p e n d e n t th a n ever u p o n th e g o ve rn m e n t fo r s u p p o rt. T h is m isg u id ed p o lic y w as executed p iecem eal b y dozens o f tre a tie s u n til Congress enacted a n a tio n -w id e a llo tm e n t law, the Dawes S everalty A ct, in F e b ru a ry o f The Dawes A c t a ccele ra te d In d ia n la n d sales and le ft m a n y In d ia n s in p o ve rty, w ith o u t la n d to h u n t on or jo b s k ills to succeed in a w h ite m a n 's w o rld.^ H ad p o litic ia n s stu d ie d the deleterious affects o f a llo tm e n t in seve ra lty on th e H a lf-b re ed T ra ct, th e y m ig h t have avoided the la rg e r debacle o f the Dawes S everalty Act. C ongress created the N em aha H alf-b reed T ra c t on J u ly 15, 1830, w ith A rtic le X o f the T re a ty o f P rairie d u C hien, in w h ic h th e Otoe In d ia n s ceded la n d to b e n e fit the m ixed-b lo o d s o f the "O m ahas, Iow ays, O ttoes, fo r them selves, and in b e h a lf o f th e Y a n k to n and S antie b a n d s o f S ioux." The re serva tio n la y w est o f th e M is s o u ri R iver betw een the B ig a n d L ittle N em aha R ivers, and its w e ste rn b o u n d a ry w as to m eet b o th riv e rs te n m ile s above th e ir m o u th s in a d ire c t lin e.5 E x tra o rd in a rily, th e g o vern m e n t d id n o t begin to a llo t the la n d u n til the fa ll o f 1857, n o r issue la n d p a te n ts u n til th re e years a fte r th a t. The delay stem m ed fro m a p ro v is io n o f A rtic le X b y w h ic h the m ixed-bloods were to h o ld th e ir la n d "in th e sam e m a nner, and b y th e sam e title th a t o th e r In d ia n title s are h e ld ; b u t the P resident o f the U n ite d States m ay th e re a fte r assign to any o f th e s a id h a lf-b re e d s, to be h e ld b y h im or th e m in fee s im p le, a n y p o rtio n o f said tra c t n o t exceeding a section, o f s ix h u n d re d a n d fo rty acres to each in d iv id u a l."6 S im p ly stated, th e P re s id e n t c o u ld assign in d iv id u a l m ixe d -b lo o d s u p to 640 acres in fee sim p le la n d w h ic h th e y w ere free to h o ld or sell w ith o u t re s tric tio n s. T hough m ixe d -b lo o d s m ig h t have benefited if th e y were w illin g to cu ltiva te the la n d lik e w h ite farm ers, allo tte e s were m ore lik e ly to sell th e ir la n d, th u s opening In d ia n C o u n try to w h ite ingress tw e n ty -fo u r years before it was le g a lly p e rm itte d. Isaac M ccoy, a B a p tis t m is s io n a ry to the fro n tie r In d ia n s, w a rn e d C ongress o f th a t e v e n tu a lity as e a rly as T h u s th e g o vern m e n t w a ite d to a llo t th e la n d u n t il a fte r w h ite s e ttle m e n t h a d a lre a d y b e g u n. W h e n p o litic ia n s opened N ebraska w ith the K a n sa s-n e b ra ska A c t o f M a y 30,

15 .c Q. CO O) C> o» u. Source: Gregory J. Johansen, MITo Make Some Provision for Their Half-Breed,1 The Nemaha Half-Breed Reserve, ," Nebraska History (Spring 1986).

16 3 1854, th o u s a n d s o f w h ite se ttle rs entered the te rrito ry, th u s fo rc in g the fe d e ra l g o ve rn m e n t to m ake fin a l d e te rm in a tio n c o n c e rn in g th e H a lf- Breed T ra c t.7 The tw enty-seven year delay in a llo ttin g the la n d w as p ro b a b ly the re s u lt o f concern b y Congress th a t w h ite s w o u ld invade the re serva tio n i f m ixe d -b lo o d s were able to sell la n d deeded to th e m as in d iv id u a ls. A n u n a n sw e re d questio n is w h y Congress did n o t firs t g ra n t th e la n d to the m ix e d -b lo o d s to be held in com m on, as the tre a ty h a d p ro vid e d, and issu e fee sim p le p a te n ts la te r if w h ite s were p e rm itte d to settle n earby. In th a t w ay, the m ixed-bloods w o u ld have been able to use the la n d w h ile th e y w a ite d fo r th e ir in d iv id u a l a llo tm e n ts. The p robable answ er is th a t th e m ixe d -b lo o d s w ere n o t b o u n d to each o th e r b y co m m o n a n c e s try or cu sto m s. They sprang fro m d iffe re n t tribes, lived a p a rt fro m each other, a n d fe lt no allegiance to th e ir fellow s. A m ore c y n ic a l in te rp re ta tio n w o u ld be th a t the p o litic ia n s s im p ly neglected to a llo t the la n d, th e re b y d e p riv in g a g e n e ra tio n o f people b e n e fits to w h ic h th e y w ere e n title d. P erhaps it is best to give Congress the b e n e fit o f the d o u b t re g a rd in g the in te n tio n s o f its m e m b e rs. B y lo o k in g a t th e w id e r h is to r y o f c o n g re s s io n a l d e a lin g s w ith th e In d ia n s, i t a p p e a rs th a t C ongress re p e a te d ly trie d to sa fe g u a rd In d ia n s and p ro te c t th e ir la n d fro m e n cro a ch m e n t b y w h ite s. Even before independence, co lo n ia l le g isla tu re s p ro h ib ite d in d iv id u a l c o lo n is ts fro m a c q u irin g In d ia n la n d, p rim a rily b e ca u se in d ig n a n t In d ia n s m ig h t a tta c k v u ln e ra b le w h ite s e ttle rs. C ongress passed o r am ended tra d e and in te rco u rse law s in 1790, 1793, 1796, 1799, 1802, and 1822 w h ic h re gula te d dealings w ith th e In d ia n s. These la w s e s ta b lis h e d a lic e n s in g system fo r tra d e rs, o u tla w e d th e p riv a te a c q u is itio n o f In d ia n la n d, and m ade crim e s a g a in s t In d ia n s p u n is h a b le b y l a w. 8 M o s t c o n flic t betw een w h ite s a n d In d ia n s stem m ed fro m d is p u te s over la n d. In the in te rco u rse la w o f 1790, the firs t C ongress p ro h ib ite d th e p riv a te p u rch a se o f In d ia n la n d s b y w h ite s, b u t d id n o t s p e c ific a lly p r o h ib it e n c ro a c h m e n t because it w as considered u n n e c e s s a ry since o ffe n d in g w h ite s w ere p u ttin g th e ir ow n live s a t ris k. T h a t d a n g e r a p p a re n tly d id n o t deter the offenders, so in 1793 C ongress set a $ 1,0 0 0

17 4 fin e a n d tw elve m o n th s im p ris o n m e n t fo r w h ite s w ho settled, surveyed, o r m a rke d b o u n d a rie s on In d ia n la n d s, and it provided fo r th e rem oval o f th o se w h ite s. B y sp e cific te rm s o f th e C o n s titu tio n, o n ly th e fe d e ra l g o ve rn m e n t co u ld m ake tre a tie s w ith In d ia n s, and o n ly C ongress co u ld a p p ro p ria te fu n d s to com pensate In d ia n s fo r ceded land. The in te rc o u rs e la w o f M a y 19, 1796, e s ta b lis h e d a d e ta ile d b o u n d a ry lin e b etw een w h ite s a n d In d ia n s, a n d was th e fir s t la w th a t d e sig n a ted a separate "In d ia n C o u n try." In 1822, Congress am ended previous in te rc o u rs e law s to p ro te c t In d ia n s in p ro p e rty s u its a g a in st w h ite s b y p la c in g th e b u rd e n o f p ro o f on th e w h ite s. In general, i t m ay be co n clu d e d th a t th e tra d e a n d in te rc o u rs e law s d e m o n s tra te d the sincere in te n t o f C ongress to p ro te c t In d ia n rig h ts. The S uprem e C o u rt also endorsed In d ia n la n d so ve re ig n ty in the 1810 case o f F le tch e r v. Peck and in the 1823 decision o f J o h n s o n and G raham 's Lessee v. M c ln to s h.9 The governm ent's m a in p ro b le m was e n forcing th e p ro te ctive law s give n th e vastness o f th e fro n tie r a n d th e avarice o f m a n y w h ite s w ith w h o m th e In d ia n s came in to contact. Traders sold ille g a l goods along the e x te n sive fro n tie r; w h ite s q u a tte rs o ccu p ie d In d ia n la n d ; a n d m a n y o ffic ia ls and ju d g e s failed to enforce p ro p e rty law s because th e y believed w h ite s w o u ld p u t th e la n d to b e tte r use. The in te rc o u rs e la w s w h ic h p ro h ib ite d w h ite e n cro a ch m e n t slow ed the m ovem ent o f s q u a tte rs onto In d ia n la n d s, b u t could n o t p reve n t it. B y 1830, th e In d ia n th re a t in the E a s t h a d s u b s ta n tia lly su b sid e d and the federal g o v e rn m e n t s o u g h t to rem ove In d ia n s to th e re g io n w e s t o f th e M is s is s ip p i R ive r. D u rin g A n d re w J a c k s o n s p re sid e n cy, C ongress accelerated In d ia n re m o va l, a rg u in g p a te rn a lis tic a lly th a t re m o va l w as b e st fo r th e b e le a g u e re d In d ia n s. S ince th e federal g o ve rn m e n t received a la rg e p o rtio n o f its fu n d s b y s e llin g la n d in th e p u b lic d o m a in, and w h ite h u n g e r fo r la n d seem ed in s a tia b le, p ressu re m o u n te d on p o litic ia n s to a cq u ire la n d b y tre a ty, rem ove the In d ia n s, and to sell the la n d to w h ite settle rs. 10 In th e fir s t decades o f th e n a tio n 's h is to ry, C ongress tre a te d w ith In d ia n trib e s as i f th e y were separate, b u t s u b o rd in a te n a tio n s, th u s e x p la in in g w h y e a rly tre a tie s ty p ic a lly g ra n te d la n d in co m m o n. Y et P re sid e n t Thom as Je fferson favored a llo tm e n t in fee sim p le because th e

18 5 c o n ce p t co rre sp o n d e d to h is v is io n o f a n a tio n o f s e lf-s u ffic ie n t s m a ll fa rm e rs. Je ffe rs o n opposed ce n tra lize d g o ve rn m e n t and believed th a t in d iv id u a ls, w h e th e r w h ite or In d ia n, could best govern th e ir ow n a ffa irs i f p e rm itte d to do so. He reasoned th a t a llo ttin g la n d to in d iv id u a l In d ia n s w o u ld fo s te r th e d e ve lo p m e n t o f th e c a p ita lis tic a ttitu d e s re q u ire d fo r th e m to p ro sp e r, a n d th a t th e y w o u ld be m o re e a s ily a s s im ila te d in to w h ite society. C ongress gave o n ly m o dest fee s im p le g ra n ts d u rin g Je ffe rso n 's presidency, p re fe rrin g to assign la n d to each trib e as a w hole. T h o u g h In d ia n s had a "rig h t o f occupancy" u n d e r th is reasoning, c o n tro l u ltim a te ly rested w ith th e federal governm ent. 1 * The fir s t in d iv id u a l g ra n t appeared in an 1805 tre a ty w ith th e C h o cta w s in w h ic h tw o m ix e d -b lo o d g irls, th e d a u g h te rs o f a w h ite m a n n a m e d S a m u e l M itc h e ll, received 5,1 2 0 acres o f A la b a m a la n d. As a s ig n o f th in g s to come, th e M itc h e ll fa m ily acquired, d ivided, a n d q u ic k ly sold th e la u d. E a rly tre a tie s often conta in e d p ro v is io n s fo r th e a llo tm e n t o f 160 to acres to im p o rta n t trib a l leaders. S uch d is trib u tio n s w ere n o t p a rt o f a se t p o lic y o r p ro g ra m to in d u c e In d ia n s to change th e ir life s ty le s, as w o u ld o c c u r la te r, b u t were s im p le p a y m e n ts to In d ia n leaders to encourage concessions to the governm ent. The d is trib u tio n s u s u a lly ended u p in the h a n d s o f tra d e rs and self-seeking agents. The g o vern m e n t established a p o licy o f sorts in the 1810s and 1820s w h e n it s p e c ific a lly d is trib u te d in d iv id u a l a llo tm e n ts so th a t re c ip ie n ts c o u ld re pay th e ir debts to tra d e rs, th o u g h it revised th e p ra ctice in th e 1830s b ecause In d ia n leaders began to r u n u p d e b ts w ith a c c o m m o d a tin g tra d e rs in a n tic ip a tio n o f the a llo tm e n ts. In q u ic k fa shio n, th e In d ia n s had becom e dependent on the a llo tm e n ts as a fo rm o f cre d it. *2 The g o ve rn m e n t executed th e a llo tm e n t p ro v is io n s o f tre a tie s in d iffe re n t w ays depending on th e trib e s involved, th e ir lo ca tio n s, a n d th e tim e s. T he w o rs t abuses o c c u rre d in th e S o u th, e s p e c ia lly to th e m e m b e rs o f th e Five C ivilize d T rib e s. A m id extrem e c o m p e titio n fo r s o u th e rn la n d, th e g o vernm ent prom ised the In d ia n s la n d s in severalty, b u t it rem oved trib e s to the W est before in d iv id u a ls were able to b e n e fit fro m th e ir a llo tm e n ts. The case o f the Cherokees is ty p ic a l o f th e process in th e S o u th. F o llo w in g th e C herokee tre a tie s o f 1817 a n d 1819,

19 6 C ongress granted 311 persons separate a llo tm e n ts in N o rth C a ro lin a and G eorgia, b u t th e sta te s challe n g e d th e fe d e ra l g o v e rn m e n t's r ig h t to co n ve y th e la n d. These In d ia n s w ere n o t c o m p e n s a te d u n t il th e e n a c tm e n t o f th e T re a ty o f New E ch o ta in 1835, b y w h ic h th e p ressured C herokees ceded th e ir re m a in in g trib a l la n d s in A la b a m a, G eorgia, Tennessee, and N o rth C a ro lin a in exchange fo r seven m illio n acres in p re s e n t O kla h o m a, and some m o n e ta ry co n sid e ra tio n s. S im ila r events b e fe ll th e C hoctaw s, C hickasaw s, and Creeks, w hose tre a ty p ro v is io n s p ro d u c e d the sam e co n vu lsive effects. The In d ia n s w o u ld cede trib a l la n d s in exchange fo r a llo tm e n ts in severalty, m oney and g ifts; th e n the g o v e rn m e n t w o u ld sell th e excess la n d s to w h ite s e ttle rs, w ith th e proceeds to be given to th e In d ia n s in tru s t. Soon w h ite s e ttle m e n t w o u ld e xe rt new p ressure fo r rem oval, and th e g o ve rn m e n t w o u ld force th e In d ia n s to ta ke la n d fu rth e r w est. In tre a tie s w ith S o u th e rn trib e s, a lie n a tio n o f the a llo tm e n ts w as m ade easy so th a t w h ite sp e cu la to rs and se ttle rs m ig h t acquire the land. *3 In th e N orth, p rovisio ns fo r a llo tm e n t in se veralty firs t appeared in th e tre a tie s o f W h ile in s tru c tin g the negotiators, A c tin g S ecretary o f W a r George G ra h a m suggested th a t n a tiv e s w h o d id n o t w is h to rem ove to the W est sh o u ld each be given "a life estate" w h ic h could pass to th e ir c h ild re n in fee sim ple. Lewis Cass and o th e r n e g o tia to rs soon fe lt th a t th e tre a tie s p ro m is e d too m u c h in in d iv id u a l a llo tm e n ts and a n n u itie s since N o rth w e s t In d ia n trib e s, s p u rre d on b y tra d e rs and s p e c u la to rs, cam e to expect th e a llo tm e n ts -a n d w o u ld n o t agree to tre a tie s th a t d id n o t provide fo r th e m. The p ro b le m w o rse ned over the n e x t decade because trib e s were in c re a s in g ly o b lig a te d to tra d e rs w ho so u g h t la n d ra th e r th a n fu rs as paym ent. A llo ttin g la n d in se ve ra lty fe ll o u t o f fa vo r w ith Congress in th e 1830s, p a rtly due to th e o b je ctio n s o f Lew is Cass, w h o h a d been a p p o in te d S e cre ta ry o f W a r. T h o u g h the Senate te m p o ra rily disallow ed a llo tm e n t in severalty in 1843, th e p ractice reappeared in tre a tie s w ritte n in the 1850s due to a g ita tio n fro m E a ste rn h u m a n ita ria n s w h o view ed it as a panacea w h ic h w o u ld h e lp a ssim ila te In d ia n s in to w h ite society. P rio r to th e passage o f th e D aw es A c t in

20 7 1887, C ongress had p a tented m ore th a n 1 7,000,000 acres to in d iv id u a l In d ia n s, generally w ith d isa stro u s effects. The 1825 and 1830 T reaties o f P rairie d u C h ie n o c c u rre d a t the h e ig h t o f In d ia n rem oval fro m th e O ld N orthw est. The firs t tre a ty created b o u n d a rie s betw een th e S io u x, th e Sacs-Foxes to th e s o u th, a n d th e C hippew as to th e n o rth. C o n flic ts betw een the trib e s forced th e second tre a ty in w h ic h the S io u x and Sacs-Foxes each ceded tw e n ty -m ile s trip s o f la n d betw een n e ig h b o rin g trib e s as b u ffe r zones, m o s t o f w h ic h were la te r given to the W innebagos. In 1837, the S ioux ceded th e ir la n d s east o f the M ississip p i R iver in re tu rn fo r $ 3 0 0,000 to be invested a t 5 p e rce n t in te re s t, a sso rte d cash a n d d e b t p a ym e n ts, a n d a n n u itie s to h e lp p ro m o te a g ric u ltu ra l developm ent. In practice, th e In d ia n s re lie d on th e a n n u itie s fo r subsistence and d id n o t use th e m to develop fa rm in g. The 1830 T re a ty o f P ra irie d u C h ie n also created th e N em aha H a lf-b re e d T ra c t w ith its p ro v is io n fo r a llo tm e n t in fee sim ple. W h ite tra d e rs had m ix e d e m o tio n s a b o u t a llo tm e n t in se ve ra lty because, a lth o u g h th e y m ig h t o b ta in la n d a t b a rg a in p rice s, re m o va l o f In d ia n s to th e w e st deprived th e m o f th e ir greater source o f p ro fits. T ra d e rs u s u a lly opposed re m o v a l a n d favored tre a tie s p ro v id in g fo r th e p a y m e n t o f In d ia n tra d e debts p rio r to paym ents to In d ia n s. 15 S everal trib e s fro m the O ld N o rth w e st w ere re lo cate d a lo n g th e e astern bord e rs o f Kansas and N ebraska, w here th e y faced re m o va l again because th e y blocked p o te n tia l ro ute s o f the Pacific ra ilro a d. F o llo w in g a W a r D e p a rtm e n t survey in 1853, Congress p la n n e d to select one o f fo u r possible ro ute s fo r th e road. S o u th e rners argued th a t th e s o u th e rn ro u te passed th ro u g h re gions th a t w ere a lre a d y p o litic a lly o rganize d, th u s m a k in g th a t ro u te m ore d e sira b le. Because th e tw o c e n tra l ro u te s passed th ro u g h regions w h ic h were unorganized in 1853, p ro p o n e n ts o f th e ce n tra il ro u te s h a d to fa c ilita te th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f K a n sa s and N ebraska te rrito rie s, and to begin rem oval o f the so-called In d ia n b a rrie r. T h a t p ro s p e c t s a tis fie d w h ite fa rm e rs because th e existence o f In d ia n C o u n try prevented th e m fro m a c q u irin g land. Illin o is S enator S tephen A. D ouglas, th e m a in p ro p o n e n t o f te rrito ria l o rg a n iza tio n, ca m paig n e d to rem ove th e In d ia n b a rrie r, to open K ansas a n d N e b ra s k a fo r w h ite

21 Q CC < o to -lig.tt- 'Ō W «i)rc Q O U V- 00 >< csj O H p w H *< CO < &2 S3 W 2: Source: James C. Olson, History of Nebraska (Lincoln; University of Nebraska Press, 1966).

22 8 s e ttle m e n t, and to p rom o te the c o n s tru c tio n o f ra ilro a d s a n d te le g ra p h lin e s to th e Pacific. D ouglas had sponsored th e firs t te rrito r ia l b ills in 1844 a n d 1848, b u t th e y fa ile d to w in a p p ro va l. L ik e w is e, Illin o is R epresentative W illia m A. R ich a rd son's te rrito ria l b ill passed th e H ouse on F e b ru a ry 10, 1853, b u t the Senate refused to act on it. P o litic ia n s fro m C a lifo rn ia and O regon su p p o rte d th e b ill because o rg a n ize d te rrito rie s w o u ld in s u re safer o verland tra v e l to th e W est, th e re b y h a s te n in g th e c o n s tru c tio n o f th e P acific ra ilro a d. S o u th e rn le a d e rs opposed o rg a n iz in g th e te rrito rie s because th e y w a n te d to preserve the region as a place to b a n is h s o u th e rn In d ia n trib e s, a n d because th e y feared th a t o rganiza tio n w o u ld je o p a rd ize a s o u th e rn ro u te fo r th e ra ilro a d. Since th e M is s o u ri C om prom ise o f forbade th e c re a tio n o f slave states n o rth o f M is s o u ri s s o u th e rn b o u n d a ry, the p roposed te rrito rie s offered the S o u th no new regions in w h ic h to extend slavery. To w in s o u th e rn s u p p o rt fo r a new b ill, D ouglas s o u g h t to offer s o u th e rn p o litic ia n s a m a jo r co n cession. B y a m e n d in g a n e a rlie r t e r r ito r ia l b ill in tro d u c e d on D ecem ber 14, 1853, b y Io w a S e n a to r A u g u s tu s C. Dodge, one th a t m ade no m e n tio n o f sla ve ry, D o u g la s proposed th a t th e se ttle rs them selves w o u ld decide th e sla ve ry q u e stio n in each o f th e n e w ly -c re a te d te rrito rie s. T h is "p o p u la r s o ve re ig n ty" p ro v is io n e ffe ctive ly repealed th e M is s o u ri C o m p ro m ise a n d m ade i t possible to in tro d u c e slavery in to the new te rrito rie s. W ith o ve rw h e lm in g S o u th e rn s u p p o rt, th e b ill passed on M a y 30, T he K a n sa s- N e b raska A c t angered slavery opponents, increased se c tio n a l a n im o s ity, p re c ip ita te d violence in Kansas, s tim u la te d the g ro w th o f th e R e p u b lica n P arty, a n d hastened the o u tb re a k o f th e C iv il W ar. It also set events in m o tio n on th e H alf-b reed T ra c t because it forced C ongress to b e g in the a llo tm e n t p roce ss.17 Long before passage o f th e K a n sa s-n e b ra ska A ct, C ongress h a d enacted th e In d ia n C o u n try A c t in 1834 w h ic h designated th e la n d w est o f th e M is s o u ri R iver and th e State o f M isso u ri, and n o rth o f Texas, for th e exclusive use o f In d ia n s. No w h ite s were p e rm itte d to e n te r th e area, le t alone settle there, w ith o u t th e e x p lic it p e rm issio n o f th e gove rn m e n t. In , m o s t A m e ric a n s p e rce ive d In d ia n C o u n try as a h o s tile

23 9 w a s te la n d, and p e rh a p s th ir ty th o u s a n d In d ia n s w ere re lo cate d to the re gion b y B y 1853, C ongress had e x tin g u is h e d th e title o f the K ansas, Pawnee, O toe, a n d M is s o u ria to specific s trip s o f N e b ra ska in o rd e r to e s ta b lis h c le a r b o u n d a rie s b e tw e e n trib e s, to e lim in a te o ve rla p p in g h u n tin g areas, and to reduce in te r-trib a l co n flic ts. The F o rt Lara m ie T re a ty o f 1851 created a ro u te fo r tra ve le rs on th e O regon T ra il a n d established a b o u n d a ry between th e Pawnee and S ioux. B e g in n in g in M a rc h 1853, In d ia n C o m m is s io n e r G eorge W. M a n y p e n n y in itia te d n e g o tia tions w ith trib e s in th e tw o fu tu re te rrito rie s to a cq u ire th e ir la n d s fo r w h ite settlem ent. A fte r the F o rt L a ra m ie T re a ty o f 1851, w h ic h caused increased fric tio n betw een In d ia n s a n d w h ite s, M a n y p e n n y concluded th a t w h ite se ttle m e n t and in te rra c ia l c o n flic t were in e v ita b le u n le ss th e In d ia n s w ere rem oved a n d is o la te d fro m w h ite e xpansion. He therefore called fo r le g isla tio n to organize th e te rrito rie s. A cco rd s signed on M a rc h 15 and 16, 1854, w ere im p o rta n t steps in advance o f th e K ansas-n ebraska A c t because th e y opened large areas o f la n d in e a ste rn N e b ra ska fo r fu tu re w h ite s e ttle m e n t. In th e M a rc h tre a tie s, th e O m aha, Otoe, and M is s o u ria trib e s ceded n e a rly five m illio n acres o f la n d a lo n g th e M is s o u ri R iver. B y J u n e, s h o rtly a fte r th e passage o f th e K a n sa s-n e b ra ska A ct, M a n y p e n n y h a d n e g o tia te d n in e tre a tie s w ith the eastern b o rd e r trib e s in the new te rrito rie s. The tre a tie s p ro vid e d fo r la n d cessions w e st o f th e M is s o u ri River, th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f s m a lle r areas w ith in th e old re serva tio n s fo r In d ia n s e ttle m e n t, and th e eve n tu al a llo tm e n t o f p lo ts to in d iv id u a l I n d i a n s. 20 M a n y p e n n y represented a new g e n e ra tio n o f g o ve rn m e n t o ffic ia ls w h o h a d adopted th e idea o f la n d in severalty as a panacea fo r In d ia n a d ju s tm e n t to w h ite society. M a n y p e n n y believed th a t a llo tm e n t in s e v e ra lty w o u ld help "civilize " the In d ia n s, a n d he in c lu d e d in c e n tiv e s a n d p u n is h m e n ts w ith in the tre a tie s to prom ote co o p e ra tio n am ong the trib e s. T h o u g h he a w a rd e d p lo ts u p to a q u a rte r-s e c tio n in size, re s tric tio n s prevented In d ia n s fro m s e llin g th e ir la n d and d isco u ra g e d th e m fro m ro v in g. The g o v e rn m e n t c o u ld revoke th e ir p a te n ts a n d w ith h o ld th e ir a n n u ite s i f th e In d ia n s d id n o t se ttle on th e ir p lo ts. M a n y p e n n y in c lu d e d a s lid in g scale fo r the p a ym e n t o f a n n u itie s, w h ic h,

24 PONCA DAKOTA OMAHA PAWNEE OTO MISSOURIA Cultural Groups in Nebraska, about 1800 > v 'S 1865 r KEY Oto and Missouri Dakota M M $ '> Ponca Om aha Kansas INDIAN LAND CESSIONS ' Cheyenne and Arapaho Dakota, No.Cheyenne, and Arapaho Source: Bradley H. Baltensperger, Nebraska: A Geography (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, Inc., 1985).

25 10 a t th e d is c re tio n o f the president, could be paid in m oney o r expended fo r e d u c a tio n a n d vo ca tio n a l tra in in g. The governm ent p ro m ise d to b u ild a g r is t m ill, sa w m ill a n d b la c k s m ith shop, a n d p ro v id e a m ille r, b la c k s m ith and fa rm e r to th e In d ia n s fo r te n ye a rs. These tre a ty p ro v is io n s and M anyp e n n y's a ttitu d e s reflected th e in flu e n c e o f E a ste rn h u m a n ita ria n s w ho s o u g h t to a c c u ltu ra te th e In d ia n s. U n fo rtu n a te ly, th e tre a tie s failed to achieve th e ir objectives due to In d ia n re sista n ce to c u ltu r a l change, th e in flu x o f la n d -h u n g ry w h ite s, a n d th e g ro w in g se ctio n a l c o n flic t over s l a v e r y.21 In d ia n C om m issioner Jam es W. D enver n egotiated th e Pawnee T re a ty o f S eptem ber 24, 1857, a t N e b ra ska C ity, b y w h ic h th e Pawnees sold th e ir cla im to la n d in N ebraska. It co n ta in e d p ro v is io n s s im ila r to those fo u n d in the M a n y p e n n y tre a tie s, re fle c tin g e ith e r D enver's confidence in a llo tm e n t in severalty, o r th e fa c t th a t he w as new to th e p o s itio n a n d m e re ly im ita te d h is predecessor. W h ile a w a itin g th e proceedings, D enver traveled to th e H a lf-b re e d T ra c t and evaluated th e la n d fo r speculation. 22 A fte r passage o f the K a n sa s-n e b ra ska A ct, w h ite s a cq u ire d la n d p rim a rily th ro u g h p re -e m p tio n o r th ro u g h m ilita ry b o u n ty la n d w a rra n ts. The P re-em ption A c t o f 1841 allow ed q u a lifie d persons to secure a parcel o f 160 acres b y liv in g on it, im p ro vin g it, and p a yin g $ per acre to the g o ve rn m e n t. Since 1776, C ongress had g ra n te d m ilita ry b o u n ty la n d w a rra n ts to so ld ie rs o f A m e rica n w ars, g ivin g th e m la n d fro m s p e c ia lly d e s ig n a te d areas o f th e p u b lic d o m a in. The la n d w a rra n ts is s u e d p rim a rily in N ebraska betw een 1854 and 1862 were those g ra n ts given to ve te ra n s o f th e M e xica n-a m e rica n W ar. The congressional a ct o f M a rc h 2 7, 1852, p e rm itte d so ld ie rs to tra n s fe r th e ir la n d w a rra n ts to o th e r p e rsons, a n d it co n ta in e d no residence re q u ire m e n t. S p e cu la to rs soon b o u g h t large n u m b e rs o f these w a rra n ts fro m soldiers w h o w ere w illin g to p a rt w ith th e m a t less th a n th e re a l valu e o f th e la n d.2 3 B y 1857, s e ttle rs and sp e cu la to rs had claim ed m u c h o f th e b e st la n d in e astern N e b ra ska, le a v in g th e H a lf-b re e d T ra c t as a coveted, b u t fo rb id d e n, expanse o f la n d to w h ite m en. In 1838 the Reverend Isaac M ccoy, a B a p tis t m is s io n a ry sta tio n e d in B ellevue, N ebraska, w as selected to e s ta b lis h th e b o u n d a rie s o f th e

26 11 re s e rv a tio n. F e a rin g th e in tru s io n o f w h ite s e ttle rs, M cc o y opposed s u b d iv id in g th e tra c t and is s u in g p a te n ts to in d iv id u a l m ixe d -b lo o d s, b u t he fa vo re d m a rk in g th e o u te r b o u n d a rie s to p re v e n t la n d d is p u te s b e tw e e n w h ite s a n d m ix e d -b lo o d s. M cc oy k n e w th e d a n g e r fro m experience fo r he had been a m is s io n a ry to the P otaw atom is w h e n th e y h a d ceded a 130-m ile tra c t along the W abash R iver in 1826, in exchange fo r in d iv id u a l g ra n ts and a n n u itie s, W h ile fifty = e ig h t s tu d e n ts in h is m is s io n s c h o o l h a d received 160 acres each, th e y a n d th e o th e r re c ip ie n ts c o u ld n o t h o ld th e ir la n d s in th e face o f u n re le n tin g w h ite p ressu re to sell. U n fo rtu n a te ly, J o h n C. McCoy, Isaac's son, b o tch e d th e H a lf-b reed T ra c t survey so th a t the w estern b o u n d a ry w as m a rke d along a lin e e ig h t m iles, ra th e r th a n te n m iles, fro m th e m o u th o f th e L ittle N em aha R iver. In 1841 Isaac M cc oy reported th e nam es o f 121 m ixe d - b lo o d s w h o m he th o u g h t had le g itim a te c la im s to re s e rv a tio n l a n d s. 24 Y et the g o ve rn m e n t d id n o th in g w ith th e in fo rm a tio n fo r th irte e n years, a p p a re n tly u n a w a re o f h o w th e d e la y m ig h t a ffe c t th e n u m b e r o f c la im a n ts. F in a lly, on J u ly 31, 1854, tw o m o n th s a fte r passage o f the K ansa s-n e b ra ska A ct, Congress ordered th e tra c t to be surveyed and the la n d a llo tte d to th e m ixe d -b lo o d s in fee s im p le.2 5 The tim in g suggests th a t C ongress s o u g h t to p ro te c t th e m ixe d -b lo o d s fro m w h ite s q u a tte rs b y g iv in g th e m clear title to th e ir la n d s. O n M a y 14, 1856, Jo se p h L. S h a rp w as a p p o in te d special co m m is s io n e r to re p o rt th e n u m b e r and n a m e s o f th e m ix e d -b lo o d s, a fu ll fifte e n ye a rs a fte r Isa a c M cc oy's census. The n u m b e r o f eligible c la im a n ts had ris e n to 373, a th re e fo ld increase since The federal governm ent could no lo n g e r postpone a llo ttin g th e la n d s i f c la im a n ts were to receive s u b s ta n tia l p o rtio n s. A n o th e r developm ent th a t p ro fo u n d ly affected the H a lf-b re ed T ra c t w as th e e ffo rt to b u ild a Pacific ra ilro a d d u rin g th e years before th e C iv il W a r. In fa c t, th e ra ilro a d f it th e p la n s o f several H a lf-b re e d T ra c t specu la to rs, especially Jam es W. Denver. The im p e tu s to b u ild th e road arose fro m several sources, in c lu d in g increased im m ig ra tio n fro m E urope a n d th e w e stw a rd m ovem ent w h ic h w as a lre a d y w e ll u n d e rw a y. Some people headed w e st fo r la n d o r gold, w h ile o th e rs s o u g h t to escape the co n g e stio n a n d la c k o f o p p o rtu n itie s in th e E ast. The a c q u is itio n o f

27 12 O regon in 1846 and C a lifo rn ia in 1848 le n t credence to M a n ife s t D e stin y, th e p o lic y o f A m e rica n expansion to th e Pacific. A fte r th e C a lifo rn ia gold d isco ve ry o f 1848, th o u s a n d s o f A m e rica ns h u rrie d w e st to m ake th e ir fo rtu n e s, b u t fa ilin g in th a t a tte m p t, stayed to s e ttle n e w la n d s. A g ita tio n fo r a Pacific ra ilro a d soon follow ed for, w ith o u t a ra ilro a d to th e E ast, C a lifo rn ia and O regon seemed isolated and v u ln e ra b le. A Pacific ra ilro a d w o u ld p ro v id e e ffic ie n t tra n s p o rta tio n, c o m m u n ic a tio n, m a il service, m ilita ry tra n s p o rt, th e s h ip m e n t o f p ro d u cts, and increased trade w ith A s ia.27 The p ro je c t seemed p o ssible based u p o n th e d ra m a tic g ro w th o f e a ste rn ra ilro a d s. B y 1850, A m e rica n s h a d b u ilt over n in e th o u s a n d m iles o f ra ilro a d, m o s tly in New E n g la n d and th e m id -A tla n tic states, a t a cost o f m ore th a n $ m illio n. The decade fro m 1850 to 1860 w itnessed the m o st su sta in e d ra il g row th o f the a n te -b e llu m period, as ra ilro a d m ileage trip le d and s h o rt lin e s m erged to fo rm a ra il n e tw o rk. M u c h n e w c o n s tru c tio n led to w a rd th e M is s is s ip p i R ive r to s a tis fy th e A m e ric a n u rge to m ove w est. The to ta l flo w o f goods a n d passengers s h ifte d fro m a lo n g th e O h io and M is s is s ip p i riv e rs to a n e a s t-w e s t d ire c tio n along th e tru n k lin e ra ilro a d s serving eastern se a p o rts.2 ^ The Pacific ra ilro a d w as firs t suggested b y v is io n a ry b u sin e ssm e n, ra ilro a d m en, and m issio n a rie s in the 1830s. A sa W h itn e y, a locom otives m a n u fa c tu re r fro m P h ila d e lp h ia, p ro m o te d th e fir s t p ro je c t to receive co n gressional a tte n tio n. O n J a n u a ry 28, 1845, he presented a m e m o ria l to C ongress u rg in g th e c o n s tru c tio n o f a ra ilro a d fro m Lake M ic h ig a n to th e m o u th o f th e C o lu m b ia R iver, th o u g h la te r v e rs io n s m oved th e proposed eastern te rm in a l to P rairie d u C hien on the M is s is s ip p i R ive r.2 ^ W h itn e y d e te rm in e d the ro u te based on its p ra c tic a b ility, th e a v a ila b ility o f tim b e r, th e advance o f p o p u la tio n in W isconsin, and the easy access o f th e te rm in a l to th e eastern citie s b y w a y o f the G reat Lakes. W h itn e y 's la te r p ro p o s a ls ca lle d fo r a p riv a te ly -o w n e d, b u t g o v e rn m e n t-fu n d e d ra ilro a d. He also urged C ongress to g ra n t th e b u ild e rs an expanse o f la n d th ir ty m iles w ide, on b o th sides o f the lin e along its e n tire le n g th, fo r a to ta l o f a b o u t 7 7,9 5 2,0 0 0 acres. W h itn e y favored g o ve rn m e n t c o n tro l to in s u re c o m p le tio n o f th e p ro je c t.3 0 O p p o n e n ts w o n d e re d i f la n d g ra n ts c o u ld s tim u la te c o n s tru c tio n in d is ta n t regions, a n d i f C ongress

28 13 c o u ld p re v e n t o v e rc h a rg in g and fra u d. W h itn e y 's p la n also faced c o m p e titio n fro m p roposa ls p ro m o tin g o th e r ro u te s, in c lu d in g one over th e Is th m u s o f Panam a. E ach region o f the c o u n try advanced its ow n p roposa ls, w ith so u th e rn e rs especially d is tu rb e d b y W h itn e y 's proposed n o rth e rn ro u te. Loca tin g the Pacific ra ilro a d th u s becam e an explosive p o litic a l q u e s tio n.^ 1 C ongress fo rm a lly considered W hitney's proposa l in th e session. T h o u g h th e Senate C om m ittee on P u b lic Lands favored it, the H ouse C o m m itte e on Roads and C anals p refe rre d a w a te r ro u te to th e W est. M is s o u ri S e n a to r T h o m a s H a rt B e n to n, a p ro p o n e n t o f an is th m ia n ro u te, crusaded again st the W h itn e y p la n w h ic h c o n trib u te d to its e v e n tu a l defeat in b o th houses o f C ongress. B e n to n m a y have re sente d W h itn e y 's p o p u la rity, as th e S enator considered h im s e lf to be th e p ro p h e t-p ro m o te r o f th e Pacific ra ilro a d and trade w ith A sia. B e n to n la te r offered h is ow n proposal fo r a Pacific ra ilro a d b e g in n in g in h is hom e state. O th e r repre se n ta tives fro m M is s o u ri favored a s o u th e rn ro u te to lin k u p w ith th e H a n n ib a l and St. Jo se p h R a ilro a d w h ic h s o u g h t la n d g ra n ts o f its ow n across M is s o u ri.32 j n th e T h irtie th C ongress ( ), W h itn e y 's o p p o n e n ts e xp lo ite d th e in cre a se d s e c tio n a lis m b y p ittin g n o rth e rn and s o u th e rn p o litic ia n s a g ainst each other. P roponents w o rke d fo r a com prom ise in the T h irty -F irs t Congress b y n o t in s is tin g on a n o rth e rn ro u te and em phasizing the w ide p u b lic s u p p o rt fo r th e p la n. O p p o n e n ts a rg u e d th a t th e g ra n t w o u ld p lu n g e th e n a tio n in to in s u rm o u n ta b le debt, th a t W h itn e y w o u ld p ro fite e r th ro u g h th e g ra n t a n d sales o f stock, and th a t foreigners m ig h t in v e s t to g a in c o n tro l o f th e p ro je c t. O p p o n e n ts also q u e stio n e d th e c o n s titu tio n a lity o f c h a rg in g taxes fo r th a t p o rtio n o f th e road o u tsid e o f e x is tin g states, and th e y feared th a t th e co u rts m ig h t g ra n t the com pany an irrevocable m onopoly. C ongress debated w h e th e r it could stop the p ro je ct once it w as approved, and, c o n tra d ic to rily, w h e th e r it w o u ld have s u ffic ie n t pow er to ensure th e p ro je c t's c o m p le tio n. F in a lly, W h itn e y s p la n w a s o p p o se d b y b u s in e s s m e n c o m m itte d to th e is th m ia n ro u te, those a ssociated w ith m a il service a ro u n d th e H o rn, and la n d sp e cu la to rs w h o d id n o t w a n t C ongress to give w e ste rn la n d to the ra ilro a d com panies.33

29 14 H is to ria n Lew is H aney c la im e d th a t th o u g h W h itn e y te n d e d to excessive o p tim is m, he w as no c ra c k -b ra in e d e n th u s ia s t, a n d th a t he w a s re m a rk a b ly u n s e lfis h w ith h is tim e and m o n e y in p ro m o tin g h is p la n. O nce, to d e flect c ritic is m, W h itn e y requested th a t C ongress n o t p a y h im fo r w o rk he proposed to do u n til the road w as com pleted a n d in o p e ra tio n fo r tw e n ty years. He also offered to consider a lte rn a te ro u te s to overcom e sectional differences concerning the road's lo ca tio n. A c c o rd in g to th e re p o rt o f one House com m ittee, Asa W h itn e y deserved m u c h o f th e e a rly c re d it fo r o rig in a tin g, re s e a rc h in g, and p ro m o tin g th e P a cific ra ilro a d.34 H a rtw e ll C arver w as a n o th e r e a rly p ro p o n e n t o f a P acific ra ilro a d w h o w a n te d p riv a te o w n e rs h ip, b u t p u b lic s p o n s o rs h ip. He proposed s ta rtin g a road a t e ith e r Lake M ich ig a n, the M is s o u ri R iver, or th e M is s is s ip p i River, and endin g it w ith branches to S an F ra n cisco and th e m o u th o f th e C o lu m b ia R iver, th e re b y se rvin g b o th C a lifo rn ia a n d O regon. A n in te re s tin g fe ature o f H a rtw e ll s p la n w as th a t he offered th e g o v e rn m e n t th re e choices fo r fu n d in g th e p ro je c t, tw o in v o lv in g th e g o v e rn m e n t sale o f la n d fo r co m p a n y stock, and th e th ir d re s e m b lin g W h itn e y 's la n d g ra n t proposal. H a rtw e ll envisioned colossal cars tw e n ty feet w ide, ro llin g on te n -fo o t-w id e tra cks, d e m o n stra tin g th a t th e concept o f standard-gauge tra c k had n o t ye t gained u n iv e rs a l acceptance. 35 Som e m en a d vo ca ted co m p le te g o v e rn m e n t c o n s tru c tio n a n d o w n e rs h ip because o f th e m a g n itu d e o f th e u n d e rta k in g and th e danger o f a p riv a te m o nopoly b e ing produced. In 1846, George W ilke s proposed a n a tio n a l road fro m th e M is s o u ri to th e P acific w ith co m plete p u b lic fin a n c in g, a rg u in g th a t adequate fu n d s were u n a v a ila b le p riv a te ly. He fe lt th a t c a p ita lis ts w o u ld g a in enough p ro fit fro m th e ra ilro a d p ro je c t th ro u g h increased busin e ss o p p o rtu n itie s. 36 W ith th e disco ve ry o f gold in C a lifo rn ia, o th e r p u b lic road advocates a rgued th a t o n ly co m plete g o v e rn m e n t in v o lv e m e n t c o u ld in s u re th e safe tra n s p o rt o f g o ld fro m C a lifo rn ia, and guarantee th e n a tio n s possession o f C a lifo rn ia. S e n a to r B e n to n becam e th e m o s t p ro m in e n t advocate o f a n a tio n a l ra ilw a y. He opposed a ll p rom o te rs o f p riva te p la n s as "sto ck-jo b b e rs, o r s p e cu la to rs w h o w o u ld get ric h b y s e llin g th e s to c k o f s h a k y co m panies. B e n to n proposed th e c o n s tru c tio n o f a ra ilro a d and a w agon road fro m St. Louis

30 15 to San Francisco, w ith a b ra n c h to the C o lu m b ia R iver. N ot s u rp ris in g ly, th e fir s t several h u n d re d m iles o f th e lin e s passed th ro u g h h is sta te o f M is s o u ri. H is b ill ca lle d fo r fu n d in g th ro u g h p u b lic la n d sales in C a lifo rn ia, O regon, and elsewhere in the U n ite d States. T h o u g h B e n to n advocated gove rn m e n t ow nership, he proposed th a t p riv a te co m panies o r in d iv id u a ls o p e ra te th e ra ilro a d a t re a so n a b le ra te s u n d e r s tr ic t gove rn m e n t su p e rvisio n and re g u la tio n. In order to g a in w ide s u p p o rt fo r h is "C e n tra l Pacific R a ilroad," B e n to n proposed a d d itio n a l b ra n c h e s and fu n d in g. 37 T h e d e s ir a b ility o f a tra n s c o n tin e n ta l r a ilro a d w a s fir m ly e s ta b lis h e d b y 1850, and th e debates w ith in C ongress s h ifte d fro m p ro je c t fe a s ib ility to selecting the best route. T h o u g h p o litic ia n s h a d n o t y e t solved the q u e stio n o f fe a s ib ility, th e y were d e te rm in e d to b u ild the ra ilro a d despite co n sid e ra b le obstacles and costs. B y 1850, eighteen sta te le g isla tu re s and n u m e ro u s o th e r m e m o ria lis ts had urged Congress to b u ild th e road. Some m e m o ria lis ts w a n te d to b u ild p riv a te ra ilro a d s w ith congressional aid, w h ile o thers w a nted C ongress its e lf to a u th o riz e, supervise, and subsidize a n a tio n a l road. The m a jo rity agreed w ith A sa W h itn e y th a t a g o v e rn m e n t-o w n e d ra ilro a d w a s in c o m p a tib le w ith A m e ric a n tra d itio n s a n d in s titu tio n s. E ith e r w ay, people recognized th a t s u c h a huge p ro je c t w o u ld re quire p u b lic m oney. T h o u g h C ongress saw s e ve ra l m a tu re P a cific b ills p rio r to 1850, m o s t d id n o t p a ss th e com m itte e stage and none gained approval, despite general agreem ent on th e m e rit o f the p ro je c t.38 D u rin g th e 1850s, the m a in issues conce rn in g the P acific ra ilro a d w ere the ro u te, fu n d in g, and the c o n tra c to r w ho w o u ld b u ild th e road. In 1852, th e H ouse C om m ittee on Roads and C anals s tu d ie d a v e rs io n o f th e W h itn e y p la n in w h ic h th e gove rn m e n t w o u ld sell W h itn e y a s trip o f la n d s ix ty m iles w ide fro m Lake M ich ig a n or th e M is s is s ip p i R iver to th e P a cific fo r te n cents p e r acre, to be p a id u p o n c o m p le tio n o f th e road. C o n s tru c tio n fu n d s w o u ld be provided b y la n d sales a long the ro u te.39 W h itn e y s s o u th e rn o p p o n e n ts offered th e ir o w n p la n in w h ic h th e g o v e rn m e n t w o u ld g u a ra n te e a five p e rc e n t p r o fit above th e c o s t o f c o n s tru c tio n, s u b je ct to a predete rm in e d m a x im u m a m o u n t. In re je ctin g

31 16 th e p la n, C ongress m u s t have d isa p p o in te d those heads o f c o n s tru c tio n co m panies th a t stood to g a in g ig a n tic p ro fits.4 *1 B y th e end o f 1852, it w as in c re a s in g ly a p p a re n t th a t no single g ro u p h a d s u ffic ie n t p o litic a l in flu e n c e to w in th e ra ilro a d c o n s tru c tio n rig h ts. Congress h a d debated th e issue fo r e ig h t years and seemed no closer to a decisio n. S o u th e rn p o litic ia n s were the m o s t cohesive g roup, and th e y h a d s u p p o rt w ith in th e a d m in is tra tio n o f in c o m in g p re s id e n t F ra n k lin Pierce. E ven they, how ever, c o u ld n o t overcom e th e u n ite d o p p o s itio n o f o th e r in te re s t g ro u p s a n d th e s t r ic t c o n s tru c tio n a lis ts w h o h e ld th a t i t w a s u n c o n s titu tio n a l fo r th e fe d e ra l g o v e rn m e n t to s p o n s o r in te r n a l im p ro v e m e n ts, le t alone a ra ilro a d p ro je c t o u ts id e o f th e o rg a n ize d s ta te s.41 P a cific ra ilro a d advocates in C ongress p ro m o te d several ro u te s d u rin g 1853 in an a tte m p t to defeat s e c tio n a l d iffe re n ce s, a n d th e y proposed to pay fo r th e m u ltip le lin e s th ro u g h la n d g ra n ts su p p le m e n te d b y d ire c t g o ve rn m e n t cash g ra n ts. The s tric t c o n s tru c tio n a lis ts fram ed th e debate as a states' rig h ts issue and argued a g a in st th e im p o s itio n o f c o s tly p rogra m s on in d iv id u a l states b y the federal g o vernm ent. D espite effective o p p o sitio n to the ra ilro a d b ills in 1853, congressional s e n tim e n t w as in c h in g to w a rd d ire c t g o ve rn m e n t su b sid ie s in the fo rm o f in te re s t- b e a rin g s to c k to p a y fo r c o n s tru c tio n. C o n cern in g the im passe over the ro a d 's lo ca tio n, O hio S enator S alm on P. Chase proposed th a t Congress b u ild th e ra ilro a d b e tw e e n K a n e s v ille (C o u n c il B lu ffs ), Io w a, a n d Independence, M is s o u ri, since th is c o rrid o r used b y o v e rla n d p ioneers w as a k n o w n ro u te to C a lifo rn ia and its c e n tra l lo c a tio n w o u ld serve as a "com prom ise" betw een co m peting sections. S o u th e rn e rs recognized th a t th e "com prom ise" served the in te re sts o f O hio and th e N o rth b e tte r th a n th o se o f th e S o u th. C hase's p roposal d id advance the idea th a t lo c a tin g th e ra ilro a d sh o u ld be based on objective f a c t s. 4 ^ Late in 1853, a Senate select com m itte e re p o rte d a b ill sponsored b y T e xa s S e n a to r T h o m a s J. R u s k w h ic h p ro p o s e d s u rv e y s b y g o v e rn m e n t engineers to locate th e ra ilro a d so le ly on g e o g ra p h ica l and to p o g ra p h ic a l m e rits. A c c o rd in g to th e R u s k b ill, p riv a te co m panie s w o u ld b u ild and operate the road, th o u g h the g o vern m e n t w o u ld provide

32 17 g ra n ts o f m o ney a n d la n d. To s a tis fy the s tric t c o n s tru c tio n a lis ts, the R u s k b ill gave state le g isla tu re s veto pow er over c o n s tru c tio n w ith in th e ir b o u n d a rie s. S tates rig h ts p ro p o n e n ts c o m p la in e d th a t th e m e a su re b rib e d in d iv id u a l states to go along w ith the p ro je c t despite o b je ctio n s. Som e se n a to rs fe lt th a t th e b ill g ra n te d c o n s tru c tio n co m p a n ie s too m u c h m o n e y and d is c re tio n, and enlarged the p o w e r o f th e executive b ra n c h a t th e expense o f th e le g isla tive, since th e W a r D e p a rtm e n t, u n d e r th e p resident's c o n tro l, w o u ld co n d u ct the surveys. The b ill died d u e to co n c e rn over fu n d in g, even th o u g h s e n a to rs a p p ro ve d o f th e s u rv e y proposal, w h ic h seemed the o n ly w a y to keep th e ra ilro a d issue before Congress and to end th e stalem ate. In an a tte m p t to salvage th a t p a rt o f the R u sk b ill, P ennsylvania S enator R ich a rd B ro d h e a d proposed a n e w b ill e xclu sive ly d ire c tin g th e W a r D e p a rtm e n t to c o n d u c t s c ie n tific surveys o f several p ro m is in g ro u te s to determ ine th e b e st lo c a tio n o f th e ro ad. P ro -ra ilro a d senators a tta ch e d the p roposa l as an a m e n d m e n t to th e H o u se m ilita r y a p p ro p ria tio n s b ill fo r th e fo llo w in g y e a r w h ic h a u th o riz e d th e S ecretary o f W ar to in itia te the surveys, and a p p ro p ria te d $ 1 5 0,0 0 0 fo r th e ir expenses. U pon passage b y th e H ouse, the p ro v is io n becam e th e firs t a p p ro p ria tio n le a d in g d ire c tly to th e c o n s tru c tio n o f th e P acific ra ilro a d. Two o th e r events heartened ra ilro a d p ro p o n e n ts d u rin g th e T h irty -T h ird C ongress: P resident F ra n k lin Pierce requested C ongress to a c t on th e ro a d in h is a n n u a l message, a n d th e fe d e ra l tre a s u ry re p o rte d a s u rp lu s o f fu n d s.43 The Pacific ra ilro a d surveys offered th e hope th a t C ongress c o u ld p u t asid e s e c tio n a l riv a lrie s a n d se lect th e b e s t ro u te based u p o n o b je c tiv e in fo rm a tio n. P ro p o n e n ts argued th a t n a tu re its e lf w o u ld d e te rm in e the best ro u te i f Congress w o u ld s im p ly send th e engineers o f th e T o p o g ra p h ic a l C o rp s in to th e fie ld. N o rth e rn e rs fe lt th a t A sa W h itn e y s n o rth e rn ro u te, fir s t proposed in 1844, w o u ld w in o u t, w h ile S o u th e rn e rs th o u g h t th a t th e surveys w o u ld s u p p o rt th e ra ilro a d across Texas a n d the S o u th w e st along the 3 2 n d para llel. Yet th e c o m p e titio n fo r th e ra ilro a d w as n o t due to th e N o rth -S o u th riv a lry alone, since m a n y c itie s a n d fin a n c ia l syn d ic a te s h a d in te re s ts in th e ra ilro a d as w e ll. V a rio u s c ity leaders foresaw th e boom in b u sin e ss a n d la n d values th a t

33 18 w o u ld b e n e fit th e road's eastern te rm in u s, and b u sin e ss g ro u p s hoped to p a rtic ip a te in th e ro a d 's c o n s tru c tio n. W henever one ro u te seem ed to g a m e r m ore a tte n tio n o r acquire an a p p a re n t advantage, in te re s t g roups fro m o th e r areas w o u ld w o rk to g e th e r to defeat th a t advantage. The s c ie n tific surveys seemed to be th e o n ly w a y to b re a k th e sta le m a te. S ince th e c o u n try could a ffo rd to b u ild ju s t one o r tw o tra n s c o n tin e n ta l lin e s, th e surveys created a "w in n e r ta ke a ll" m e n ta lity in C ongress and becam e th e focus o f a tte n tio n across the n a tio n.44 E ig h t routes enjoyed considerable p o litic a l s u p p o rt. A sa W h itn e y's n o rth e rn ro u te could begin e ith e r a t Chicago o r the tip o f Lake S u p e rio r. A second C hicago ra ilro a d, s u p p o rte d b y S te p h e n A. D o u g la s and p o w e rfu l busin e ssm e n, w o u ld ru n w estw ard th ro u g h C o u n c il B lu ffs and S o u th Pass. D ouglas's C hicago g ro u p w as in fierce c o m p e titio n w ith a g ro u p fro m St. Louis led b y T hom as H a rt B enton, w h ic h dem anded th a t th e lin e be b u ilt fro m St. Louis th ro u g h C ochetopa Pass n e a r th e 3 9 th p a ra lle l. The c o m p e titio n betw een the C hicago and S t. L o u is g ro u p s in d ic a te s h o w fa c to rs b e y o n d s e c tio n a l r iv a lr y o fte n re n d e re d c o n g re s s io n a l a c tio n im p o ssib le. S p rin g fie ld and St. J o s e p h w ere tw o o th e r M is s o u ri citie s th a t p ro m o te d roads th ro u g h th e ir citie s and were able to com m and s u p p o rt in Congress. The St. Jose p h g ro u p w a n te d to r u n its ro u te along th e e m ig ra n t tra ils in N e b raska a n d th e n th ro u g h S o u th Pass. T he S p rin g fie ld g ro u p w a n te d to r u n its ro a d to A lb u q u e rq u e and th e n to the Pacific along the 3 5 th p a ra lle l. S o u th e rn e rs w ere m u c h m ore cohesive in s u p p o rt o f th e ir three a lte rn a tiv e roads th a n w e re th e special in te re s t g roups fro m th e n o rth e rn states. O ne g ro u p fa v o re d r u n n in g th e ro a d w e s tw a rd fro m M e m p h is a lo n g th e 3 5 th p a ra lle l; a n o th e r g ro u p favored a ro u te along th e 3 5 th p a ra lle l to F u lto n o n th e Red River, w ith branch e s to K ansas C ity, C o u n c il B lu ffs, th e G u lf o f M exico, and Puget S ound; a n d a th ir d g ro u p led b y Texas S e n a to r R u s k favored a ro u te fro m V ic k s b u rg th ro u g h Texas a n d th e n a lo n g th e G ila R ive r ro u g h ly a t th e 3 2 n d p a ra lle l. T h o u g h th e s o u th e rn g ro u p s fo u g h t h a rd fo r th e ir in d iv id u a l ro u te s, th e y w ere w illin g to cooperate w ith one a n o th e r to guarantee th a t the road w o u ld com m ence som ew here fro m th e S o u th.45

34 19 Fear th a t th e P acific coast region w o u ld be le ft w ith o u t adequate defense due to th e s itin g stalem ate led Congress to a u th o riz e th e P acific ra ilro a d surveys. F ro m th e s ta rt i t became a p p a re n t th a t th e su rveys m ig h t cause p ro b le m s o f th e ir ow n. C ritic s q u e stio n e d th e a b ility o f S e cre ta ry o f W a r Jefferson D avis, a fo rm e r se n a to r fro m M is s is s ip p i and fu tu re le a d e r o f th e C onfederacy, to prom ote the surveys in an u n b ia se d m a n n e r. T h o m a s H a rt B e n to n d o u b te d th a t D a vis w o u ld give o th e r ro u te s th e sam e c o n s id e ra tio n th a t he w o u ld give to h is fa vo re d 3 2 n d p a ra lle l ro u te. B e n to n also lin k e d M a jo r E m o ry o f th e T o p o g ra p h ic a l C orps, w h ic h w o u ld oversee th e surveys, to p ro p e rty th a t he ow ned in a p a p e r to w n in s o u th e rn C a lifo rn ia, a n d to th e p re s id e n t o f th e A tla n tic a n d P acific R ailroad, R obert J. W alker, w ho was E m ory's b ro th e r-in -la w. No im p ro p rie ty w as ever proved, b u t B e n to n 's a tta c k s dam aged th e c re d ib ility o f the surveys fro m th e s ta rt.46 Congress passed the Pacific R a ilro a d S urvey b ill on M a rc h 2, 1853, a n d ordered the S ecretary o f W a r to s u b m it a fu ll re p o rt to C ongress b y J a n u a ry o f 1854, ju s t te n m o n th s la te r, a date so e a rly as to m ake e x e c u tio n o f th e o rd e r u n lik e ly. U n d e r s u c h tim e p re s s u re, th e T o p o g ra p h ic a l C orps executed the surveys m ore as re connaissa n ce s to d e te rm in e th e m e rits o f each ro u te ra th e r th a n m in u te s tu d ie s. The s u rv e y p a rtie s were to co lle ct c a re fu l o b se rva tio n s re g a rd in g e le va tio n, grades, passes, clim a te and resources along the proposed ro u te s. D avis o rig in a lly o rdere d fo u r p a rtie s to e xa m ine fo u r p roposed ro u te s : th e n o rth e rn ro u te betw een th e 4 7 th a n d 4 9 th p a ra lle ls fro m S t. P a u l w e s tw a rd a long th e M is s o u ri River; a n o th e r betw een th e 3 8 th and 3 9 th p a ra lle ls fro m the A rka n sa s R iver th ro u g h the C ochetopa Pass to th e S a lt Lake; th e th ir d along the 3 5 th p a ra lle l fro m F o rt S m ith v ia A lb u q u e rq u e to C a lifo rn ia ; and the fo u rth along th e T u la re and San J o a q u in valleys to search fo r m o u n ta in passes in C a lifo rn ia th a t could co n n e ct w ith ro u te s a lo n g the 3 5 th o r 3 2 n d para llels. D avis d id n o t o rig in a lly send a p a rty to e xp lo re th e proposed ro u te a lo n g th e 3 2 n d p a ra lle l, h is favored ro u te, p o s s ib ly because he believed th a t th e m e rit o f th e ro u te h a d a lre a d y been e s ta b lis h e d b y p re vio u s a rm y e x p lo ra tio n s in th e S o u th w e s t. W hen o p p o n e n ts began to s e rio u s ly q u e s tio n th a t ro u te due to th e la c k o f

35 20 a va ila b le w a te r and tim b e r and danger fro m In d ia n s, D avis s e n t a fifth p a rty in to th e fie ld to explore s tre tc h e s o f th e ro u te th a t h a d been c riticize d. A serious om ission was m ade in n o t sending a p a rty to explore th e S ie rra Nevadas along the 3 5 th p a ra lle l to d e te rm in e i f a c e n tra l lin e c o u ld be b u ilt fro m th e S a lt Lake to San Francisco. H is to ria n W illia m H. G o etzm ann has concluded th a t D avis and h is advisors selected fo r s tu d y th o se ro u te s w ith th e g re a te st p o litic a l s u p p o rt, re le g a tin g s c ie n tific co n sid e ra tio n s to a secondary role. Iro n ic a lly, th e la te r tra n s c o n tin e n ta l ra ilro a d w as n o t b u ilt along a n y o f th e su rvey ro ute s, o r even a lo n g a n y o f th e e ig h t h e a v ily p ro m o te d ro u te s, th o u g h p o rtio n s o f w e s te rn ra ilro a d s were e ve n tu a lly b u ilt along each o f the e ig h t ro u te s.47 The P acific ra ilro a d surveys in te n s ifie d th e c o m p e titio n betw een n o rth e rn and s o u th e rn p o litic ia n s, and betw een in te re s t g ro u p s, ra th e r th a n b re a k in g th e d e a d lo c k b y in d ic a tin g th e b e s t s in g le ro u te im p a rtia lly. The surveys a c tu a lly in d ic a te d th e e xiste n ce o f several e x tre m e ly a ttra c tiv e ro u te s and d e m o n stra te d th a t w e s te rn la n d s were m o re v a lu a b le th a n p re vio u sly im agined. P o litic a l and b u sin e ss leaders w ere th u s encouraged to fig h t even m ore s tre n u o u s ly fo r th e ir p refe rre d ro u te s since th e stakes were h ig h e r, and th e y c o u ld argue th e m e rit o f th e ir ro u te u s in g d a ta collected fro m th e surveys. The N o rth e rn su rvey g ro u p dem o n stra ted th e fe a s ib ility o f routes te rm in a tin g a t S eattle o r F o rt V a n c o u v e r, th o u g h th e leader o f th e p a rty, Isaac I. S tevens, a fo rm e r A rm y e n g in e e r a n d th e n e w g o ve rn o r o f th e W a s h in g to n T e rrito ry, d am aged th e c re d ib ility o f h is re p o rt b y g re a tly u n d e re s tim a tin g th e p ro b a b le costs o f c o n s tru c tio n and m in im iz in g th e d iffic u lty o f tu n n e lin g in th e F a r W est. The p a rty th a t explored the m o st c e n tra l ro u te, betw een th e 3 8 th and 3 9 th p a ra lle ls, rejected th e u t ilit y o f th e C o ch e to p a Pass w h ic h h a d been h e a v ily p rom oted b y Thom as H a rt B e n to n a n d th e St. L o u is in te re s ts. T h u s th e re s u lts o f th e C e n tra l p a rty w ere m ixe d. O n th e one h a n d, th e y d e m onstrated the uselessness o f th e C ochetopa Pass a n d th e v a s t s u p e rio rity o f a ro u te b y th e M e d ic in e B o w R ive r a n d L a ra m ie P la in s a lo n g th e 4 1 s t p a ra lle l, ra th e r th a n a lo n g th e 3 8 th p a ra lle l. U n fo rtu n a te ly, th e le a d e r o f th e p a rty, L ie u te n a n t J o h n W. G u n n is o n, w as k ille d b y In d ia n s in c e n tra l U ta h, and replace d b y th e

36 PACIFIC RAILROAD SURVEYS, Source: William H. Goetzmann, Army Explorations in the American West, (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, Inc*, 1959; reprint ed., Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979).

37 21 le ss-e xperie n ce d L ie u te n a n t E. G. B e c k w ith w hose re p o rt c a rrie d less w e ig h t w ith th e T o p o g ra p h ica l O fficers and C ongress. A s a re s u lt, th e s u p e rio r ro u te along the 4 1 s t p a ra lle l received less co n sid e ra tio n because o f th e lesser s ta tu re o f th e m a n p re se n tin g th e re port. The 3 5 th p a ra lle l ro u te v ia A lb u q u e rq u e proved to be p h y s ic a lly a n d p o litic a lly viable. N ot o n ly d id the ro u te offer a p o sitive to p o g ra p h y, b u t its c e n tra l lo c a tio n offered the p o s s ib ility o f com prom ise betw een th e S p rin g fie ld, M e m p h is and A rk a n s a s fa ctio n s, a n d a g ro u p fro m C airo, Illin o is w h ic h S e n a to r D ouglas w as w illin g to s w itc h h is s u p p o rt to i f i t appeared th e P acific ra ilro a d w o u ld n o t b e g in in C hicago. T h e 3 5 th p a ra lle l ro u te gained in c re a s in g s u p p o rt th ro u g h th e 1850s, th o u g h it lo s t in itia l p o litic a l advantage w hen p a rty leader L ie u te n a n t A m ie l W eeks W h ip p le o ve re stim a te d th e costs o f c o n s tru c tio n a lo n g th e ro u te. The fo u r th p a rty, w h ic h o p e ra te d in C a lifo rn ia its e lf, d e m o n s tra te d th e existence o f passes w h ic h co u ld serve the 3 5 th and 3 2 n d p a ra lle l ro ute s, a lth o u g h p a rty le a d e r L ie u te n a n t R. S. W illia m s o n in d ic a te d th a t th e 3 5 th p a ra lle l ro u te w as cle a rly sh o rte r and b e tte r th a n th e 3 2 n d p a ra lle l ro u te due to the lo c a tio n o f the p ra ctica b le passes. The C a lifo rn ia p a rty also id e n tifie d tw o possible ro u te s th a t could connect th e C a lifo rn ia and W a s h in g to n se ttle m e n ts, tra ils on the eastern and w e s te rn sides o f the Cascade M o u n ta in s. A t th e v e ry least, th e surveys in d ic a te d th a t several ro u te s w ere e q u a l to o r b e tte r th a n th a t along the 3 2 n d p a ra lle l. S o u th e rn leaders w ere lo a th e to a d m it th a t fa c t and s till m a in ta in e d th a t th e ro u te along th e 3 2 n d p a ra lle l o ffe re d th e o n ly p a th th a t w a s v ir t u a lly free o f m o u n ta in s and ice. In F e b ru a ry 1855, S ecretary o f W ar D avis presented th e re s u lts o f th e Pacific ra ilro a d surveys and he concluded th a t th e p a th a lo n g th e 3 2 n d p a ra lle l w as th e m o s t p ra c tic a b le a n d e co n o m ica l ro u te fro m th e M is s is s ip p i R iver to the Pacific Ocean. H is re je c tio n o f th e o th e r ro u te s a n d h is easy d is m is s a l o f a rg u m e n ts a g a in s t th e 3 2 n d p a ra lle l ro u te le d h is o p p o n e n ts to c o n c lu d e th a t D a v is 's ju d g e m e n t w as h o p e le ssly biased, and Congress s p lit along se ctio n a l lin e s re g a rd in g h is re c o m m e n d a tio n. A c c o rd in g to G oetzm ann, th e co n ce p tio n, e xe cu tio n, a n d e v a lu a tio n o f th e P acific ra ilro a d surveys doom ed th e lik e lih o o d o f

38 22 a n y fe d e ra lly sponsored tra n s c o n tin e n ta l ra ilro a d p rio r to th e C iv il W ar. E ven th e m o st sincere a tte m p t to evaluate the proposed ro ute s, based on th e re s u lts o f the s c ie n tific surveys, u ltim a te ly fa ile d due to th e p o litic a l d e a d lo ck o f the 1850s. 50 The Senate passed C a lifo rn ia S e n a to r W illia m G w in 's b ill w h ic h ca lle d fo r th e federal governm ent to fu n d three roads th ro u g h la n d g ra n ts o f a lte rn a te sections tw elve m iles on each side o f the lin e, a n d delegating a u th o rity to set th e d e fin ite lo c a tio n o f each ro a d to th e c o n tra c to rs. W h ile th e H ouse fa ile d to a ct on G w in 's b ill, a th irte e n -m e m b e r H ouse select com m ittee considered a b ill w ith s im ila r fu n d in g proposals. A long w ith th e u s u a l a rg u m e n ts a b o u t p u b lic la n d g ra n ts, debate centered on a n a m e n d m e n t to s u b s titu te a single, c e n tra l ro u te to S an F ra n cisco fo r th e p ro p o s e d th re e ro u te s. T h e c o m m itte e fin a lly a tta c h e d th e a m e n d m e n t and se n t th e b ill to the fu ll House, w here it passed in th a t fo rm, b u t H ouse m em bers th e n reconsidered th e ir vote a n d re c o m m itte d th e b ill to th e select co m m itte e w here it died. O ne in te re s tin g aspect o f th e H ouse debate w as th a t Thom as H a rt B e n to n re p u d ia te d h is p re vio u s p o s itio n in fa v o r o f a n a tio n a l ra ilro a d, c la im in g th a t n e w c o n d itio n s dem anded p rivate enterprise. 5 1 No ra ilro a d b ill passed e ith e r house o f Congress d u rin g th e T h irty - F o u rth Congress ( ), th o u g h S enator G w in re in tro d u c e d h is b ill o f th e p revious year, and the House considered a s im ila r b ill. B o th b ills w ere ta b le d, an in d ic a tio n o f the c o n tin u in g p o litic a l d e a d lo ck due to the d e c lin e o f th e W h ig s' p o w e r a n d to ris in g vio le n ce in K a n sa s w h ic h h e ig h te n e d se ctio n a l te n sio n s. In th e House, th e S elect C o m m itte e on th e P a c ific R a ilro a d, c h a ire d b y fre s h m a n R e p re se n ta tive Ja m e s W. D enver o f C a lifo rn ia, proposed to locate the road along th e c e n tra l ro ute, b u t no a c tio n w as ta k e n on th e b ill due to th e lateness o f th e session. D u rin g th e election o f 1856, b o th R epublica n s a n d D e m o cra ts in c lu d e d s tro n g ly -w o rd e d p la n k s fa v o rin g th e P a cific ra ilro a d in th e ir p a rty p la tfo rm s, and P resident Jam es B u c h a n a n added h is s u p p o rt d u rin g h is a n n u a l address to Congress in early T h o u g h th e P acific ra ilro a d p ro je c t h e ld b ro a d s u p p o rt th ro u g h o u t th e c o u n try a n d in C ongress, p o litic ia n s c o u ld n o t overcom e se c tio n a l d isa g re e m e n ts re g a rd in g the

39 23 ro a d 's lo ca tio n. The deadlock w as n o t b roke n u n til a fte r th e s ta rt o f the C iv il W a r w h e n S o u th e rn m em bers o f Congress re sig n e d and le ft the N o rth e rn p o litic ia n s to locate th e Pacific ra ilro a d u n o p p o se d.52 W h e n R e p rese n ta tive D e n ve r fa ile d to w in re -e le c tio n in 1856, P re sid e n t B u c h a n a n a p p o in te d h im to the p o s itio n o f C o m m is s io n e r o f In d ia n A ffa irs in A p r il F o u r m o n th s la te r, D e n v e r a p p o in te d W illia m M. S ta rk as sp e cia l agent to a llo t acres to each e lig ib le m ix e d -b lo o d c la im a n t o n th e H a lf-b re e d T ra c t. 5 3 T tm N ebraska A d v e rtis e r firs t re porte d S ta rk 's a p p o in tm e n t on O cto b e r 1, 1857, and n o te d in th e same a rtic le th a t C o m m issio n e r D enver h a d b rie fly jo in e d A g e n t S ta rk on the re s e rv a tio n to supervise the a s s ig n m e n t o f m ix e d - blo o d la n d s. T his was w h ile D enver w aited to negotiate w ith th e Pawnees a t N ebraska C ity. The O ctober 2 9 th e d itio n stated th a t S ta rk 's w o rk had a ttra c te d th e a tte n tio n o f "la n d sh a rk s," m o stly n o n -re s id e n ts, w h o were eager to b u y reservation la n d fro m th e m ixed-bloods "fo r a song. "54 Tw o ye a rs before S ta rk 's a p p o in tm e n t as special agent, s u rv e y o r M ic h a e l M c M a n u s discovered th a t th e M cc oy lin e o f 1838, th e w e s te rn b o u n d a ry o f th e tra c t, w as e rroneous. D istre sse d to fin d th a t th e p ro p e rty th e y occu p ie d w as re serva tio n la n d, w h ite se ttle rs on the d is p u te d p ro p e rty d e fia n tly asserted th a t th e y w o u ld be rem oved o n ly b y force. C ongress yie ld e d to th e ir p re ssu re on J u n e 12, 1858, w h e n it e s ta b lis h e d th e erro n e o u s M cc oy lin e as the "tru e w e ste rn b o u n d a r y. "55 A n o th e r survey in O cto b e r 1858 revealed th a t th e re serva tio n co n ta in e d o n ly 120,6 76 acres, a loss o f a lm o st tw e n ty -th re e th o u s a n d acres, due to th e rem oval o f th e w e ste rn lin e eastw ard and the loss o f la n d caused b y s h ifts in the M is s o u ri R iver. W h e th e r o u t o f fairness, or to avoid a c o u rt challenge to its d e cisio n co n ce rn in g the w e ste rn line, Congress agreed to com pensate in d iv id u a l m ixe d -b lo o d s fo r la n d s w ith d ra w n fro m the re s e rv a tio n. B y th e A c t o f C ongress dated F e b ru a ry 28, 1859, th e g o v e rn m e n t sold e xclu d e d la n d s to w h ite s fo r $ p e r acre, and d iv id e d th e proceeds am ong the deprived m i x e d - b l o o d s. 56 B y th e s p rin g o f 1860, A g e n t S ta rk had assigned a ll la n d s w ith in th e re duce d H a lf-b reed Tra ct, and th e a llo tm e n t schedule w as approved b y In te rio r S e cre ta ry Ja co b T h o m p so n on A u g u s t 17, T h e n, on

40 24 S e p te m b e r 10, 1860, th e federal g o ve rn m e n t issued p a te n ts in fee s im p le to th e m ixe d -b lo o d In d ia n s, w ith an average a llo tm e n t o f a cre s.57 A lth o u g h no com prehensive s tu d y o f th e 389 allo tte e s has been m ade to in d ic a te h o w lo n g th e average a llo tm e n t was held, m o s t m ixe d - b lo o d In d ia n s sold th e ir la n d soon a fte r i t w as a ssig n e d to th e m. H is to ria n B e rlin B. C h a p m a n d e te rm in e d fro m a ra n d o m sa m ple th a t o n ly tw o o u t o f tw e n ty allo tte e s s till h e ld th e ir la n d in N em aha C o u n ty Ju d g e C harles O. S now stated th a t b y 1935 o n ly th e a llo tm e n ts m ade to A n n ice W elch and h e r five c h ild re n were h e ld b y th e fa m ilie s o f th e o rig in a l allottees. A n in sp e ctio n o f the Nem aha C o u n ty Deed Record reveals th a t m o st m ixe d -b lo o d s sold th e ir la n d before th e p a te n ts were issu e d in Septem ber, The a llo tte e s c o m m o n ly sold th e ir la n d as soon as A gent S ta rk issued fin a l ce rtificate s c o n ta in in g legal d e s c rip tio n s o f th e ir p ro p e rtie s, w h ic h began in A u g u s t T h o u g h th e m ixe d b lo o d s h a d w a ited tw enty-seven years a fte r the T re a ty o f P ra irie d u C h ie n to receive th e ir a llo tm e n ts, th e ir la n d passed la rg e ly in to w h ite h a n d s w ith in th re e years. W h y were w h ite m en so eager to b u y re serva tio n la n d? E a rly in 1857, th e N em aha H alf-b reed T ra c t occupied the la rg est c o n c e n tra tio n o f p rim e fa rm la n d in eastern N ebraska n o t ye t in w h ite h a n d s. R o b e rt W. F u rn a s e stim a te d th a t it co n ta in e d 162 sections, a guess th a t w as 27 s e c tio n s fe w e r th a n th e tru e to ta l.59 S ince th e T ra c t fro n te d th e M is s o u ri R iver fo r over th irty -s ix m iles, new to w n s co u ld be b u ilt th e re to p a rtic ip a te in riv e r tra d e. F u rth e r, its a ppeal w as in c re a s e d b y th e p o s s ib ility th a t an easte rn ra ilro a d m ig h t cross the riv e r in th a t area. The H a lf-b re e d la n d w as w o rth a t le a st $1.2 5 p e r acre since re serva tio n la n d w as considered s u p e rio r to n e a rb y p u b lic la n d th a t sold fo r th a t a m o u n t. W hen th e Otoe and M is s o u ri trib e s h a d ceded th e ir la n d b y tre a ty in 1854, th e y h a d received $ p e r acre. M o d e rn c la im s s p e c ia lis t T hom as H. LeD uc e stim a te d th a t th e la n d e xclu d e d fro m th e re s e rv a tio n ju s t w est o f th e 1838 M cc oy lin e w as w o rth $ p e r acre in O ne exaggerated c la im fro m 1856 w as th a t la n d in N e m a h a C o u n ty w as "as ric h as can be fo u n d in a ny o f th e States, w h e re it sells fro m $ 1 0 to $ 5 0 p e r a c re."8 1 A re p o rt b y th e C o u n ty A s s e s s o r

41 25 encouraged th e fo llo w in g response in 1856: "T h is show s th e average va lu e o f an acre o f la n d fenced and u n d e r good state o f c u ltiv a tio n, to be a b o u t $7, to w h ic h add the governm ent price, $ 1.2 5, and we have $ p e r acre...."6 2 S ince m ixe d -b lo o d la n d w as n o t enclosed o r u n d e r c u ltiv a tio n, th is fig u re serves as an estim ate o f th e p o te n tia l va lu e o f th e la n d. A re vie w o f th e la n d sales re cord s in N em aha C o u n ty fo r th is p e rio d in d ic a te s th a t the cost o f fa rm la n d was betw een th re e a n d seven d o lla rs p e r acre, depending on the p ro d u c tiv ity o f th e la n d. I f la n d c o u ld be p u rch a se d ch e a p ly fro m the m ixed-bloods, a s u b s ta n tia l p ro fit c o u ld be m ade b y the new ow ner. I t m ig h t seem th a t th e m ix e d -b lo o d s s h o u ld have h e ld th e ir a llo tm e n ts, a n d th a t th e y w o u ld have been w is e r to fa rm th e ir fe rtile g ro u n d. Since m a n y m ixe d -b lo o d s led the s e m i-n o m a d ic life s ty le th a t w as ty p ic a l o f G reat P lains In d ia n s, th e y used the la n d th e y occu p ie d fo r h u n tin g, fis h in g, a n d g a th e rin g.6 3 w h ite p o lic y m a k e rs h a d p re su m e d th a t th e m ixe d -b lo o d s w o u ld accept g reat c u ltu ra l changes w h e n th e y received th e ir p lo ts, th a t th e y w o u ld le a rn to fa rm, te n d th e ir crops d u rin g th e b e st h u n tin g m o n th s, b u ild p e rm a n e n t hom es, a n d a cq u ire p e rso n a l p ro p e rty, even th o u g h th e governm ent d id n o t provide tra in in g, e q u ip m e n t, o r even seed to m a ke fa rm in g a v ia b le a lte rn a tiv e. U n fo rtu n a te ly, th e re were few sources o f p u b lic c re d it to p u rch a se these v ita l su p p lie s, a n d th is a llo tm e n t p rin c ip le reflected w h ite, ra th e r th a n In d ia n, so cia l va lu e s. T h o u g h w h ite se ttle rs h a d s u rro u n d e d th e H a lf- B reed T ra c t, few m ixe d -b lo o d s had a cq u ire d w h ite w ays. M o s t o f th e m also la cke d m oney o r incom e and received no trib a l b e n e fits aside fro m th e 320 acre a llo tm e n ts. In a d d itio n, the la n d w as to be taxed as soon as it w as a llo tte d.64 A fte r w a itin g years to receive th e ir la n d s, th e m ix e d - b lo o d s p ro b a b ly d id n o t believe th e g o ve rn m e n t a s s u ra n ce s th a t th e a llo tte d la n d s were th e irs to keep. I f the g o vernm ent w as able to deprive w h o le trib e s o f th e ir reservations, h o w co u ld an in d iv id u a l m ix e d -b lo o d hope to preserve h is la n d? W ith o u t an incom e, th e m ix e d -b lo o d 's ta x d e b t w o u ld grow and cancel the va lu e o f the la n d. It is n o t s u rp ris in g, th e re fo re, th a t th e m ix e d -b lo o d s q u ic k ly accepted cash fro m w h ite sp e cu la to rs. Because tw o -th ird s o f a ll allottees were m in o rs, o u t o f

42 , th e ir la n d w as h e ld b y a d u lt g u a rd ia n s, som e o f w h o m w ere w h ite, w h o th e n co n tro lle d several la n d title s besides th e ir own. Jo se p h D e ro in cam e to c o n tro l a t le a st seven title s in th is m a n n e r. T h u s a s p e c u la to r co u ld a cq u ire a sizeable b lo c k o f la n d b y b u y in g several a llo tm e n ts fro m a single m i x e d - b l o o d. 6 5 A m o n g th e h o s t o f s p e c u la to rs to descend on these la n d s w as C o m m issio n e r o f In d ia n A ffa irs Jam es W. D enver w ho, w h ile in N ebraska to conclude a tre a ty w ith th e Pawnee, v is ite d th e H a lf- B reed T ra c t to evaluate la n d there fo r purchase. H is a ctio n s te s tify to the c o n flic t o f in te re s t betw een g o vern m e n t o fficia ls and p riv a te sp e cu la to rs th a t d o m inate d so m u c h o f 19th c e n tu ry federal In d ia n re la tio n s.

43 27 ENDNOTES "FOR T H E IR H A LF-BR EED" 1 N e m a h a C o u n ty (N ebraska) Deed R ecord, A : Deed re c o rd s are lo ca te d a t th e N e m a ha C o u n ty C o u rth o u s e in A u b u rn, N ebraska, in the office o f the C o u n ty C lerk. 2 G eorge C. B a rn s, D e n v e r, th e M a n (S tra s b u rg, V irg in ia : S h e n a n d o a h P u b lis h in g House, 1950), 138. ^T h e w o rd s "severalty" and "fee sim ple" are n o t n o rm a lly id e n tic a l te rm s. A llo tm e n t in severalty m e a n t th a t the re c ip ie n t ow ned th e la n d b y separate o r in d iv id u a l rig h t. Fee sim p le o w n e rsh ip m e a n t th e re c ip ie n t possessed th e la n d a b s o lu te ly and w ith o u t lim ita tio n to a n y p a rtic u la r class o f h e irs. F or th is thesis, the te rm s are used in te rc h a n g e a b ly, a n d n o t in a s tric tly legal sense, to m ean th a t th e m ix e d -b lo o d s received in d iv id u a l a llo tm e n ts o f la n d, ra th e r th a n as one m e m b e r o f a g ro u p o r trib e h o ld in g the la n d in com m on. ^ F ra n c is P aul P rucha, A m e rica n In d ia n P olicy in C risis: C h ris tia n R eform ers and the In d ia n (N orm an: U n iv e rs ity o f O k la h o m a Press, 1976), u. S., S ta tu te s a t Large. 7:328. T re a ty o f P ra irie d u C hien, A copy o f th e tre a ty is also a va ila b le a t th e N e b ra ska S tate H is to ric a l Society, L in co ln, N ebraska, M S u. S., S ta tu te s a t Large. 7:328; T re a ty o f P rairie d u C hien, ^ B e r lin B. C h a p m a n, "The N e m a ha H a lf-b re e d R e s e rv a tio n," N e b raska H is to ry 38 (M arch 1957): F ra n c is P a u l P ru c h a, T he G re a t F a th e r: T he U n ite d S ta te s G o v e rn m e n t and th e A m e ric a n In d ia n. 2 vols. (L in c o ln : U n iv e rs ity o f N e b raska Press, 1984), 1:18-19, 90-97, P rucha. The G reat F a th e r. 1:18-19, 90-97, QP rucha. The G reat F a th e r. 1:93-95, 109, , 199. H P rucha, The G reat F a th e r. 1:196.

44 28!2 p a u l W. Gates, "In d ia n A llo tm e n ts Preceding th e Dawes A ct," in The F ro n tie r C hallenge: Responses to the T ra n s -M is s is s ip p i W e s t, ed. J o h n G. C la rk (Lawrence: U n iv e rs ity Press o f Kansas, 1971), l^ G a te s, In d ia n A llo tm e n ts P receding th e D aw es A c t," in T h e F ro n tie r C hallenge l^ G a te s, "In d ia n A llo tm e n ts P receding th e D aw es A c t," in T h e F r o n tie r C h a lle n g e. 141, ; F ra n c is P a u l P ru c h a, T h e G re a t F a th e r: T he U n ite d S ta te s G o v e rn m e n t a n d th e A m e ric a n In d ia n, abridged ed., (Lincoln: U n iv e rs ity o f N ebraska Press, 1984), P rucha, The G reat F a th e r. 1:262, 268. l ^ P r u c h a, The G reat F a th e r. 1: ^P ru ch a, The G reat F a th e r. 1: l ^ A d d i s o n e. S h e ld o n, L a n d S yste m s a n d L a n d P o licie s in N e b raska (Lincoln: N ebraska S tate H is to ric a l Society, 1936), 8-9; P rucha, The G reat F a th e r, abridged ed., l^ S h e ld o n, L a n d S ystem s and Land P olicies in N e b ra s k a. 8-9 ; P rucha. The G reat F a th e r. 1: p ru c h a, The G reat F a th e r. 1: P rucha, The G reat F a th e r. 1: sh e ld o n, Land System s and Land Policies in N ebraska sh e ld o n, Land System s and Land Policies in N ebraska c h a p m a n, "The N em aha H a lf-b re e d R e se rvatio n," 4-7 ; G ates, "In d ia n A llo tm e n ts Preceding the Dawes A ct," in The F ro n tie r C h a lle n g e u. S., S ta tu te s a t Large. 10:332; C harles O. Snow, "H is to iy o f th e H alf-b reed T ra ct," N ebraska H is to ry 16 (M arch 1935): c h a p m a n, "The N em aha H alf-b reed R eservation," The N ew E le c tro n ic (G ro lie r) E n c y c lo p e d ia ed., s.v. "R a ilro a d."

45 29 ^ L e w is h. H aney, A C o n g re ssio n a l H is to ry o f R a ilw a y s in th e U n ite d S ta te s. 2 vols. (M adison: U n iv e rs ity o f W isconsin, 1908 a n d 1910; re p rin t ed., New Y ork: A u g u s tu s M. K elley P ublishers, 1968), 1: ; The New E le ctro n ic (Grolier) E n cyclo p e d ia ed., s.v. "R a ilro a d.m 2 9 u. S., C ongress, Senate, M e m o ria l o f A sa W h itn e y p ra y in g "A g ra n t o f la n d, to enable h im to c o n s tru c t a ra ilro a d fro m Lake M ic h ig a n to th e P acific O cean," S. Doc., No. 69, 2 8 th Cong., 2 n d sess., 23 J a n u a ry 1 845, S e ria l Set No. 451, p p. 1-3; H aney, C o n g re ssio n a l H is to ry o f Railways. 1: , u. S., Congress, Senate, M e m o ria l o f Asa W h itn e y. 2 3 J a n u a ry 1845, S e ria l Set No. 451, pp. 1-3; U. S., Congress, Senate, M e m o ria l o f A sa W h itn e y p ra y in g "A g ra n t o f p u b lic land, to enable h is c o n s tru c tio n o f a ra ilro a d fro m Lake M ich ig a n to the Pacific O cean." S. D oc., No. 161, 2 9 th Cong., 1st sess., 24 F e b ru a ry 1846, S erial Set No. 473, pp. 4, 7; U. S., C ongress, Senate, A sa W h itn e y, p ra y in g g ra n t o f la n d to enable th e c o n s tru c tio n o f a ra ilro a d fro m Lake M ich ig a n to th e P acific O ce a n. S. M isc. Docs., No. 28, 3 0 th Cong., 1st session, S erial Set No. 511, pp. 1-2; H aney, C ongressional H is to ry o f R ailw ays. 1: Haney, C ongressional H is to ry o f R a ilw a ys. 1: S., C ongress, Senate, M e m o ria l o f A sa W h itn e y. S. M isc D ocs., No. 28, 3 0 th Cong., 1st sess., S erial Set No. 511, pp. 1-2; U. S., C ongress, Senate, M e m o ria l o f A sa W h itn e y, p ro p o s in g to c o n s tru c t a ra ilro a d fro m Lake M ich ig a n to th e Pacific Ocean. S. Doc., No. 466, 2 9 th C ong., 1st sess., 31 J u ly 1846, S e ria l Set No. 478, p. 1; U. S., Congress, Senate, H o norable Jam es S. G reen and W illa rd P. H a ll. R epresentatives in C ongress fro m M is s o u ri, re g a rd in g B ill S g ra n tin g r ig h t o f w a v a n d la n d fo r the St. Joseph and H a n n ib a l R a ilro a d. S. R eports, No. 178, 3 0 th Cong., 1st sess., 19 J u n e 1848, S erial Set No. 512, pp. 1-2; Haney, C o ngressional H is to ry o f R ailw ays. 1: n a n e y, C ongressional H is to ry o f R ailw ays. 1: f-janey, C ongressional H is to ry o f R ailw ays. 1: n a n e y, C ongressional H is to ry o f R ailw ays. 1: n a n e y, C ongressional H is to ry o f R ailw ays. 1: lJ. S., C ongress, S enate, [T hom as H. B e n to n, re g a rd in g th e c o n s tru c tio n o f a ra ilro a d to th e P acific O cean!. Senate J o u rn a l, 3 1 s t

46 30 Cong., 1st sess., S erial Set No. 548, p. 110; Haney, C ongressional H is to ry o f R a ilw a ys. 1: n a n e y, C ongressional H is to ry o f R a ilw a ys. 2: H a n e y, C ongressional H is to ry o f R a ilw a ys. 2 : ^ B a r n s, D e n ve r: T he M a n ; H aney, C o n g re s s io n a l H is to ry o f R a ilw a ys. 2: W illia m H. G oetzm ann, A rm y E x p lo ra tio n in th e A m e ric a n W est (New Haven, C o n n e cticu t: Yale U n iv e rs ity Press, In c., 1959; re p rin t ed., L in co ln : U n iv e rs ity o f N ebraska Press, 1979), , ^H a n e v. C ongressional H is to ry o f R a ilw a ys. 1: n a n e y, C ongressional H is to ry o f R a ilw a ys. 2 : Q oetzm ann, A rm y E x p lo ra tio n G oetzm ann, A rm y E x p lo ra tio n G oetzm ann, A rm y E x p lo ra tio n G oetzm ann, A rm y E x p lo ra tio n ^B p o e tzm a n n. A rm y E x p lo ra tio n G oetzm ann, A rm y E x p lo ra tio n SOGoetzm ann, A rm y E x p lo ra tio n ; H aney, C ongressional H is to ry o f R a ilw a ys. 2: Haney, C ongressional H is to ry o f R ailw ays. 2 : S., Congress, Senate, M e m o ria l o f legislative a ssem bly o f Ne M exico th a t ra ilro a d and telegraph to Pacific m av pass th ro u g h T e rrito ry. S. M isc. D ocs., No. 36, 3 2 n d Cong., 2 n d sess., S e ria l Set No. 670, p. l; H aney, C ongressional H is to ry o f R a ilw a ys. 2 : ja m e s W. D enver to W illia m M. S ta rk, 4 A u g u s t 1857, H a lf- B re e d T ra c t, M S 726, N e b ra s k a S ta te H is to ric a l S o cie ty, L in c o ln, N ebraska.

47 31 ^ N e b ra s k a A d v e rtis e r (B ro w n ville ), 1 O cto b e r, p. 3, c. 1; 29 O cto b e r 1857, p. 2, c u. s., S ta tu te s a t Large. 11:327; G regory J. Jo h a n se n, "T o M ake Som e P ro visio n fo r T h e ir H a lf-b re e d,' The N em aha H a lf-b re e d Reserve, ," N ebraska H is to ry (S pring 1986): f > S n o w, "H is to ry o f th e H a lf-b re e d T ra c t," 39; C h a p m a n, "The N em aha H alf-b reed R eservation," 14; Johansen, "The N em aha H alf-b reed Reserve," ^ C h a p m a n, "The N em aha H alf-b reed R eservation," ^ C h a p m a n, "The N em aha H alf-b reed R eservation," ; Snow, "H is to ry o f th e H a lf-b reed T ra ct," 43. The firs t d o c u m e n t re la tin g to the H a lf-b re ed T ra c t is fro m the N em aha C o u n ty Deed Record, A :279. ^ N ebraska A d v e rtis e r. 20 D ecem ber c h a p m a n, "The N em aha H alf-b reed R eservation," N ebraska A d v e rtis e r. 20 Septem ber 1856, p. 3, c N ebraska A d v e rtis e r. 30 A u g u s t 1856, p. 3, c sn o w, "H is to ry o f the H alf-b reed T ra ct," p r u c h a, A m e ric a n In d ia n P o lic y in C ris is ; S now, "H is to ry o f th e H a lf-b re e d T ra c t," 41, ; C h a p m a n, "The N em aha H a lf-b re ed R eservation," c h a p m a n, "The N e m a h a H a lf-b re e d R e s e rv a tio n," ; N em aha C o u n ty Deed Record, A :

48 32 CHAPTER TWO "NO W H ITE PERSON SH O U LD B E PERM ITTED.. JA M E S W. D E N VER ON T H E H A LF-BREED TR ACT O n A u g u s t 4, 1857, In d ia n C o m m is s io n e r J a m e s W. D e n v e r a p p o in te d W illia m M. S ta rk as special agent to a llo t acres to each e lig ib le m ixe d -b lo o d c la im a n t w ith in N ebraska's H a lf-b re e d T ra c t. The N e b ra ska A d v e rtis e r fir s t re p o rte d S ta rk 's a p p o in tm e n t on O c to b e r 1, 1857, a n d n o te d in th e sam e a rtic le th a t C o m m is s io n e r D e n ve r had b rie fly jo in e d S ta rk on th e re s e rv a tio n to su p ervise th e a s s ig n m e n t o f m ix e d -b lo o d la n d s. 1 B y th e s p rin g o f 1860, S ta rk h a d a ssig n e d a ll p ro p e rtie s, a n d In te rio r S e c re ta ry J a c o b T h o m p s o n a p p ro v e d th e a llo tm e n t schedule on A u g u s t 17, T hen, on S e p te m b e r 10, the fe d e ra l g o vern m e n t issued p a te n ts in fee sim p le to th e m ix e d -b lo o d In d ia n s w h o received an average a llo tm e n t o f a c re s.^ D u rin g the th re e -y e a r a llo tm e n t p e riod, m a n y w h ite la n d se e ke rs v is ite d th e H a lf- B reed T ra c t, lu re d b y th e a v a ila b ility o f cheap re s e rv a tio n la n d. M o st w ere sm a ll-s c a le fa rm e rs w ho b o u g h t 160 acres o r so fo r hom esteads, b u t m a n y w ere w e a lth y s p e c u la to rs w h o p u rc h a s e d la rg e p a rc e ls, c o n fid e n t o f re sellin g th e m fo r fu tu re p ro fits. A m o n g these seekers w as one g ro u p o f la rg e -sca le la n d s p e c u la to rs w h o se m e m b e rs sh a re d s o m e th in g fa s c in a tin g in com m on: a ll were frie nds, relatives, o r b u sin e ss p a rtn e rs o f Jam es W. D enver. Tw o w ere w e a lth y O h io a n s, M a tth e w R o m b ach and A le xa n d e r S. B a lla rd ; one w as th e fu tu re stagecoach kin g, B e n H o lla d a y; and one w as a M is s o u ri congressm an, Ja m e s C raig, w ho w a s a lso th e p re s id e n t o f th e H a n n ib a l-s t. J o s e p h R a ilro a d. A s C o m m issio n e r o f In d ia n A ffa irs, D enver's jo b w as to p ro te c t th e in te re s ts o f th e n a tio n 's In d ia n people, in c lu d in g th e m ix e d -b lo o d s o f th e H a lf- B reed T ra c t. The record show s th a t D enver used h is p o s itio n to a llo w h is associates to b u y th e best re serva tio n la n d fo r them selves, a n d th a t th e y believed th e Pacific ra ilro a d m ig h t soon traverse th e ir p r o p e r t i e s.3

49 33 D e n ve r s b a c k g ro u n d reveals th a t he w as a b rig h t and aggressive in d iv id u a l w ith v a rie d in te re s ts. H is g ra n d fa th e r P a tric k h a d fle d N o rth e rn Ire la n d in 1799 a fte r p a rtic ip a tin g in a re b e llio n a g a in s t the B ritis h, and had m ig ra te d to s o u th e rn V irg in ia. W h e n th e g ra n d fa th e r died in 1831, h is son P a trick, Jam es D enver's fa th e r, relocated th e fa m ily to a fa rm several m ile s n o rth o f W ilm in g to n, O hio. T h o u s a n d s o f s m a ll fa rm e rs were leaving th e S o u th a t th a t tim e because it w as too d iffic u lt to com pete w ith slaveholders. Jam es, a t age fo u rte e n, w o rke d on th e fa m ily fa rm b y d a y and s tu d ie d a t n ig h t. He w as a s ic k ly y o u th, som etim es b e d rid d e n fo r m o n th s a t a tim e w ith w h a t he la te r d e s c rib e d as rh e u m a tis m. A fte r a se rio u s sickn e ss w h e n he w as tw e n ty, D enve r's p a re n ts u rg e d h im to seek a d iffe re n t o c c u p a tio n th a n fa rm in g. As D enver convalesced, he stu d ie d a broad range o f subje cts on h is ow n. He fir s t w o rke d as a grade school teacher in P latte C ity, M is s o u ri, th o u g h it is n o t cle a r w h y the y o u n g m a n chose to w o rk in th e W est. A fte r one ye a r, he re tu rn e d to O hio to s tu d y law, g ra d u a tin g fro m C in c in n a ti C ollege on M a rc h 5, 1844, a t th e age o f tw e n ty -fo u r. F a scin a te d w ith p o litic s, D enver m oved to X enia, th e p o litic a l c e n te r o f G reene C o u n ty, O hio, a n d p u rch a se d th e lo ca l D e m o cra tic new spaper. There, w ith h is la w office in the p r in t shop, D enver p u rsu e d tw o careers as an e d ito r and a la w y e r.4 A fte r a d is a p p o in tin g year in X enia, D enver sold h is b u sin e sse s a n d re tu rn e d to P latte C ity to tr y th e sam e tw o profe ssio n s in th e W est. P erhaps he fe lt th a t he c o u ld m ore e a sily d e te rm in e h is fate in P latte C ity, w h e re so cie ty w as less se ttle d, th a n in X e n ia w h e re he faced c o m p e titio n fro m m a n y experienced law yers. D u rin g h is th re e ye a rs in P latte C ity, D enver w o rke d w ith an e sta b lish e d la w y e r nam ed B e la M. H ughes, and he p u b lis h e d th e lo ca l D e m o cra tic new spaper. W h e n w a r b ro k e o u t a g a in st M exico in 1846, D enver assisted H ughes in re c ru itin g v o lu n te e rs fo r the M is s o u ri M ilitia, th e n enlisted h im s e lf and served as a c a p ta in in th e m a in ca m paig n fro m V e ra c ru z to M exico C ity. Illn e s s fo rce d h is re tu rn to O hio in O cto b e r 1847, w h e re he re c u p e ra te d fo r several m o n th s a t h is p a re n ts ' fa rm n e a r W ilm in g to n. A fte r h is h e a lth re tu rn e d, D enver rejoined h is la w p ra ctice and new spaper in P latte C ity.5

50 34 W hen new s o f th e C a lifo rn ia gold s trik e reached h im in 1848, he re tu rn e d to W ilm in g to n w h e re he e s ta b lis h e d an o u tfitte r's sto re to s u p p ly e m ig ra n ts to th e W est. Seeing the flood o f w e stw a rd tra v e le rs in 1849, he decided to m ove h is b u sin e ss to C a lifo rn ia b y th e n e x t year. T h is episode illu s tra te s D enver's a stu te b u sin e ss in s tin c ts, because tim e soon show ed th a t m e rc h a n ts in C a lifo rn ia p ro sp e re d m o re th a n th e ty p ic a l m in e r. In the s p rin g o f 1850, he organized a p a rty o f th ir ty - fo u r p ersons w h o traveled overland to C a lifo rn ia and a rrive d in S a cram ento in S e p te m b e r The n e x t m o n th he w o n e le ctio n to th e C a lifo rn ia Senate w here he served fro m 1851 to 1853, d u rin g w h ic h tim e he led the R e lie f E x p e d itio n th a t rescued overland e m ig ra n ts fro m th e snow s o f the S ie rra N evadas a n d th e d e se rts o f th e G re a t B a s in. D ue to h a rs h c ritic is m o f th e R e lie f E x p e d itio n in the A lta C a lifo rn ia, an o p p o s itio n n e w sp a p e r p u b lis h e d in S acram ento, D enver k ille d th e e d ito r, E d w a rd G ilb e rt, in a d u e l. A u th o r itie s cle a re d D e n v e r o f a n y c r im in a l re s p o n s ib ility since G ilb e rt h ad, a fte r b e ing in s u lte d b y h is o p p o n e n t, is s u e d th e ch allenge fo r th e fig h t. Yet, bad p u b lic ity fro m th e a ffa ir c a u s e d D e n v e r s u b s e q u e n t p o litic a l p ro b le m s. D e n v e r se rved as C a lifo rn ia S ecretary o f State fro m M a rch 1853 to O ctober B o th as a sta te s e n a to r a n d as S e c re ta ry o f S tate, he p ro m o te d th e P a cific ra ilro a d w h ic h C a lifo rn ia n s considered v ita l to th e econom ic in te re s ts o f th e ir state. D enver h im s e lf pressed th e sta te seal on p e titio n s to th e U n ite d S tates Congress re q u e stin g th e ra ilro a d 's c o n s t r u c t i o n. 6 D enver w on election to th e H ouse o f R epresentatives in N ovem ber 1854, d e fe a ting tw o fa vorite s o f C a lifo rn ia G overnor J o h n B ig le r. U n til th a t tim e, D e n ve r h a d been lo y a l to B ig le r w h o h a d a p p o in te d h im S e c re ta ry o f State, b u t th e tw o m en becam e b itte r enem ies d u rin g th e c a m p a ig n since D enver h a d defied th e g o ve rn o r s w ish e s in se e kin g the c o n g re s s io n a l se a t.^ D e n ve r jo in e d th e T h irty - F o u r th C o n g re ss on D e ce m ber 3, 1855, a t a tim e w h e n th a t in s titu tio n w as p a ra lyze d b y N o rth -S o u th co n te n tio n. D enver's in itia l tw o m o n th s in C ongress were w a ste d over th e fig h t fo r th e election o f a Speaker, since n e ith e r n o rth e rn o r s o u th e rn p o litic ia n s w o u ld accept someone h o ld in g a c o n tra ry vie w on th e s la v e ry issue. F o llo w in g th e C om prom ise o f 1820, slave a n d free

51 35 sta te s h a d ente re d th e U n io n in e q ual n u m b e rs. W ith th e a d d itio n o f la rg e te rrito r ie s a fte r th e M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n W a r, fo llo w e d b y th e C a lifo rn ia gold ru s h, th e w e s te rn m o vem e n t u p s e t th e c o n g re s s io n a l b a la n ce betw een free states and slave states. In 1850, th e p o litic ia n s created a n o th e r com prom ise in w h ic h C a lifo rn ia w o u ld e n te r th e U n io n as a free state, U ta h and New M exico w o u ld be te rrito rie s w ith o u t a n y p re d e te rm in a tio n re gard in g slavery, a n d n o rth e rn o fficia ls w o u ld enforce a m o re s trin g e n t fu g itiv e slave law. The K a n sa s-n e b ra ska A c t in 1854 le ft th e q u e s tio n o f sla ve ry in th e u n o rg a n iz e d te rrito rie s u p to th e c itiz e n s o f each te rrito ry. T h is a ct engendered b itte r c o m p e titio n w h ic h led to bloodshed in Kansas and greater a n tip a th y betw een th e N o rth and th e S o u th. B y th e tim e D enver entered C ongress, m o s t is s u e s w ere fra m e d b y s e c tio n a l c o n s id e ra tio n s a n d n e ith e r side seem ed open to co m pro m ise o r accom odation. 8 O n F e b ru a ry 21, 1856, D enver in tro d u c e d "a b ill to p rovide fo r th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a ra ilro a d and te le g ra p h ic c o m m u n ic a tio n betw een th e A tla n tic S tates and P acific ocean [sic], and fo r o th e r p u rp o se s," a n d he re queste d th a t th e b ill be referred to a select co m m itte e ra th e r th a n to a s ta n d in g com m ittee on roads and canals. In p e rh a p s a n o th e r a tte m p t to b re a k th e deadlo ck over the Pacific ra ilro a d, H ouse m em bers agreed to e s ta b lis h th e s e le c t c o m m itte e, a n d d e b a te so o n tu rn e d to th e c o m m itte e 's co m p o s itio n. O n F e b ru a ry 2 7 th, th e S p e a ke r a p p o in te d D e n ve r c h a irm a n o f th e n e w ly-fo rm e d Select C o m m itte e on th e P acific R a ilro a d, an im p o rta n t p o s itio n fo r h im since th e ra ilro a d w as th e m o st im p o rta n t issue fa cin g C a lifo rn ia n s. The com m ittee w as to have th irte e n m em bers, s ix fro m th e N orth, s ix fro m th e S outh, and w ith D enver as the s w in g vote necessary to b o th sides. D enver was a life -lo n g D e m o cra t w ho w as on frie n d ly te rm s w ith the so u th e rn p o litic ia n s, p e rh a p s le a d in g h im to th in k th a t he m ig h t be able to fa c ilita te le g is la tio n on th e P a cific ra ilro a d.9 In th e Senate, w here n o rth e rn and s o u th e rn states h a d equal re p re s e n ta tio n, s o u th e rn leaders co u ld s ta ll a n y ra ilro a d b ill i f th e ro ad w as g o in g to be b u ilt along a n o rth e rn ro ute. B u t s o u th e rn p o litic ia n s w ere q u ic k ly lo sin g th e ir a b ility to shape events in th e H ouse due to th e ra p id g ro w th o f p o p u la tio n a n d in d u s trie s in th e N o rth w h ic h gave

52 36 n o rth e rn e rs greater re p re s e n ta tio n and econom ic in flu e n c e. As a re s u lt, s o u th e rn leaders were m ore lik e ly to com prom ise in th e H ouse th a n in th e Senate. O n A p ril 4 th, R epresentative Lem u e l D. E vans o f Texas, a m e m b e r o f D e n v e r's c o m m itte e, in tro d u c e d a b ill c a llin g fo r th e c o n s tru c tio n o f th re e lin e s to th e ocean a lo n g n o rth e rn, c e n tra l, and s o u th e rn ro u te s. A s im ila r b ill was in tro d u c e d in th e Senate, b u t w as delayed in com m ittee, th u s effectively ru in in g its chances fo r passage in b o th houses o f Congress. The m a in opposing a rg u m e n t w as th a t th e b ill w a s too expensive. 10 D enver su cce ssfu lly re porte d h is ow n b ill to the H ouse on A u g u s t 1 6 th w ith ju s t tw o weeks re m a in in g in the session. Tw o e a rlie r a tte m p ts on J u ly 2 8 th and A u g u s t 4 th had failed due to the o p p o sitio n o f s o u th e rn c o m m itte e m em bers w ho d id n o t lik e its p la n to r u n one c e n tra l lin e w e s tw a rd. Y et th e b ill w as s k illfu lly conceived, a n d designed to g a in b ro a d s u p p o rt. Its purpose w as to fa c ilita te the c o n s tru c tio n o f a ra ilro a d a n d te le g ra p h ic c o m m u n ic a tio n fro m th e M is s o u ri R ive r to th e P a cific O cean, b etw een th e th irty -e ig h th a n d fo rty -fo u rth p a ra lle ls. D e n ve r propose d th a t e ig h t e x is tin g ra ilro a d com panies extend th e ir lin e s to a p o in t n e a r F o rt K e a rn y in N ebraska T e rrito ry, w ith one lin e shared b y a ll e x te n d in g fro m th a t p o in t to th e ocean. The e ig h t com panies w ere th e H a n n ib a l and St. Joseph R ailroad, th e Pacific R a ilro a d (of M is s o u ri), th e B u rlin g to n a n d M is s o u ri R ive r R a ilro a d, th e P h ila d e lp h ia, F o rt W ayne, a n d P latte V a lle y R a ilro a d, th e M is s is s ip p i and M is s o u ri R a ilro a d, th e Io w a C e n tra l A ir-l in e R a ilro a d, th e D u b u q u e and P acific R a ilro a d, and th e N o rth Iow a R ailroad. The b ill saved m oney b y ru n n in g o n ly one lin e a lo n g th e m o s t g e o g ra p h ica lly-fe a sib le ro u te, a n d it p ro m is e d to g a in b ro a d e r s u p p o rt b y a ppealing to the constitu e n cie s o f th e e ig h t ra ilro a d s o n th e eastern e n d.11 D enver's b ill fu rth e r p ro vid e d th a t th e lin e w o u ld be b u ilt to th e C a lifo rn ia b order, and fro m th e re to th e ocean along a ro u te approved b y th e C a lifo rn ia State Legislature. D enver assum ed th a t th e lin e w o u ld end in San F ra n cisco and th a t b ra n c h lin e s w o u ld be b u ilt to o th e r im p o rta n t c itie s. The b ill p ro vid e d fo r g ra n ts o f p u b lic la n d s fo r th e rig h t-o f-w a y a n d to cover c o n s tru c tio n costs. The b ill died due to th e o p p o s itio n o f

53 vo to 00 *3 3 O X 3 r l 3 3 X 3 rl r l 3 X X O 3 O 3 H 3 X r l X O > r l A, r l X X S s *H H r l 3 X 3 3 U 3 *3 3 3 > H id 5 3 O i-i O X X 3 3 *rl X a 3 3 r l X Cu X 3 3 O r l 3 3 x rl x O 3 o H 3!2 > 3 O Ah X i-l 3 o H *3 S H X X 3 3 TO A. X 3 X 3 *3 m 3 3 PQ *3 X 3 <x i-l H 3 3 O r l o. X 3 3 H O 3 D- CX O O w H r l X r l X 3 3 *3 3 X 3 X X H 3 rl i-l 3 3 r l r l 3 O o B 3 *rl X 3 X X 3 H X 3 3 sz; S ^ PQ W CO X i-t X H O X «I (=u X X X 00 H (fl 3 3 x o x x x X X S *-> *3 O C M T ) 3 U-l 3 X X X H X M * H QJ QJ 3 X QJ 3 X X Ph QJ S 0) r l > O H B) 3 X 'O 3 T3 O X r l X 3 H 13 O h qj y 3 X MOB) X QJ 00 CO 3 3 *H rl QJr l *-* 3 3 r l 3 H r l X X QJ QJ QJ X 3 X X O J -i X 00 X 3 H X QJ rl QJ > QJ X X 3 ~X X > >X X X O QJ *3 X X QJ U CO X o x x a qj 3 O E-t X X O- ^ r l t-i CO > P 4J 3 X X Q x '1 31 "3 3 O X 3 5 O 3 X 3 X X X O O X o 1-1 < P-H * cr 3 X a <j j

54 37 s o u th e rn p o litic ia n s w h o fe lt th a t he had placed the ro ad too fa r n o rth. W ith so little tim e le ft in th e session, D enver h a d no o p p o rtu n ity to w o rk o u t a n y a lte rn a tiv e proposals. Iro n ic a lly, the U n io n P acific R a ilro a d, the e ve n tu a l tra n s c o n tin e n ta l line, follow ed the ro u te suggested b y D enver in h is b ill, in d ic a tin g th a t D enve r's p ro p o sa ls w ere based on th e b e st in fo rm a tio n available a t th e tim e. The n a tio n h a d to w a it fo r th irte e n ye a rs fo llo w in g th e defeat o f D enver's b ill u n til th e c o m p le tio n o f th e tra n s c o n tin e n ta l ra ilro a d. As a congressm an, D e n ve r a lso w o rk e d d ilig e n tly to settle p riv a te la n d c la im s in C a lifo rn ia. A fte r th e U n ite d S ta te s h a d seized C a lifo rn ia fro m M exico, g o ve rn m e n t o ffic ia ls h a d to resolve th e m a n y co m petin g cla im s fo r o w n e rsh ip o f th e n e w ly -a c q u ire d la n d. In h is speeches before Congress, he showed a keen aw areness th a t w e s te rn la n d p re v io u s ly considered w o rth le ss had becom e ve ry va lu a b le, a n d th a t m oney could be m ade th ro u g h the ow n e rsh ip o f fro n tie r la n d. 12 W h e n D e n v e r fa ile d to w in re -e le c tio n to th e H o u s e o f R e p resentatives, P re sid e n t Ja m es B u ch a n a n, ju s t one m o n th in office, a p p o in te d h im C o m m issio n e r o f In d ia n A ffa irs on A p ril 8, In h is n e w p o s itio n, D enver had to execute old treaties a n d negotiate new ones. O ne o f h is fir s t a ssig n m e n ts as com m issio n e r w as to a llo t th e N em aha H a lf-b re e d T ra c t to e lig ib le m ixe d -b lo o d s. A t th is tim e, D enver le a rned th a t th e la n d w o u ld become available fo r purchase once th e m ixed-bloods received in d iv id u a l title s to th e ir a llo tm e n ts. A lth o u g h th e re are no d o c u m e n ts a vaila b le th a t describe th e p rio r sequence o f events, it is a p p a re n t fro m s u b s e q u e n t events th a t D enver a n d h is fa th e r-in -la w M a tth e w R om bach form ed a p la n to b u y H alf-b reed T ra c t la n d. D enver's w o rk on th e P acific R a ilro a d C om m ittee m ig h t have led h im to believe th a t th e ro a d w o u ld pass th ro u g h th e re servation, m a k in g h im a n d h is p a rtn e rs ric h m en. D espite th e p o litic a l im passe in C ongress, D enver m u s t have k n o w n th a t the ra ilro a d w o u ld e ve n tu a lly be b u ilt, a n d th a t it w o u ld extend fro m th e N o rth due to th e n o rth e rn m a jo rity in the H ouse. T h o u g h the c e n tra l ro u te b e st served th e N o rth, i t w as close e n o u g h to th e S o u th to s a tis fy th e in te re s t g roups in St. Louis, S p rin g fie ld, a n d St. J o s e p h, M is s o u ri. D e n v e r a lso k n e w th a t C o n g re ss w o u ld fu n d c o n s tru c tio n th ro u g h d ire c t g ra n ts o f m o n e y a n d la n d, a n d th a t

55 38 b u s in e s s m e n w o u ld becom e ric h b y c o n s tru c tin g th e ra ilro a d, s u p p ly in g th e b u ild e rs, or sp e cu la tin g on la n d along th e ro ute. 15 A fte r passage o f th e K ansas-n ebraska A ct, th e N em aha H a lf-b re e d T ra c t re m a in e d th e la s t u n to u c h e d expanse o f la n d in th e p ro b a b le p a th o f th e ra ilro a d. D e n ve r h im s e lf h a d proposed ru n n in g e ig h t e x is tin g ra ilro a d s th ro u g h th e c e n tra l c o rrid o r to a ju n c tio n n e a r F o rt K e a rn y. I f h is p ro p o sa l were accepted, th e ra ilro a d s w o u ld cross th e M is s o u ri R iver a t e ig h t p o in ts, w ith p e rhaps several lin e s ru n n in g d ire c tly th ro u g h th e H a lf-b re e d T ra c t. It appears th a t D e n ve r and h is a ssociates trie d to a n tic ip a te th e ra ilro a d 's p a th and p u rc h a s e la n d n e a r th e p o te n tia l cro ssin g sites on th e rive r. The H alf-b reed T ra c t in c lu d e d th ir ty - s ix m ile s a lo n g th e M is s o u ri River, in the m id d le o f th e c e n tra l c o rrid o r w h ic h ra n fo r 160 m ile s a lo n g th e riv e r b e tw e e n C o u n c il B lu ffs, Io w a, a n d In d e p e n d e n c e, M is s o u ri. In o th e r w o rd s, th e H a lf-b re e d T ra c t re presented o n e -fo u rth o f th e to ta l frontage in the c o rrid o r. The n e a re st w e s te rn te rm in a l o f an ex is tin g ra ilro a d w as th a t o f th e H a n n ib a l and St. Jo se p h R a ilro a d in St. Joseph, M isso u ri. Its president, Jam es C raig, w as a m e m b e r o f th e H ouse o f R e p rese n ta tive s and a close a sso cia te o f D enver. A second C ra ig ra ilro a d e v e n tu a lly extended fro m St. Jo se p h to C o u n c il B lu ffs and crossed a m a il road a t a place called C ra ig S ta tio n, n o w k n o w n as C raig, M is s o u ri. A person s ta n d in g to d a y on th e scenic lo o k o u ts a t In d ia n Cave S tate Park, in th e h e a rt o f th e fo rm e r H a lf-b re ed T ra c t, ca n c le a rly see th e s m a ll to w n o f C ra ig across th e riv e r. T h a t place, w h ic h is a lm o st d ire c tly across fro m w here D enver's g ro u p b o u g h t la n d on th e re serva tio n, w o u ld have m ade a p a rtic u la rly good site fo r ra ilro a d access onto th e H a lf B reed-t ract lands. 16 D e n ve r p e rs o n a lly in spected the H alf-b reed T ra c t fo r several days in S eptem ber 1857, w h ile w a itin g to confer w ith several h u n d re d Pawnee In d ia n s in N ebraska C ity a b o u t la n d cessions in Kansas, N ebraska, and Iow a. He w ro te to h is w ife Louise: "The o th e r day, to get rid o f th e e n n u i o f w a itin g on th e slow m o tio n o f th e Pawnees, I to o k a tr ip d o w n to th e H a lf B reed Lands, ly in g a long th e M is s o u ri R iver, betw een th e B ig and L ittle N em ahas, in th e hope, in p a rt, o f m e etin g y o u r fa th e r a n d others, a n d in p a rt to see th e c o u n try." 17 D enver s le tte r provokes a n in trig u in g

56 39 q u e s tio n. W h y w as M a tth e w R om bach, D enver's fa th e r-in -la w, on th e H a lf-b re ed T ra ct? R om bach and la w ye r A lexa n d e r S. B a lla rd had a rrive d on th e re serva tio n in A u g u s t and h a d begun n e g o tia tin g w ith th e m ix e d - b lo o d s, p e rh a p s th ro u g h A g e n t S ta rk, to b u y th e ir la n d. A fte r S ta rk a llo tte d th e fir s t o f th e a cre p ro p e rtie s in A u g u s t, R o m b a ch and B a lla rd began to b u y th e choicest parcels, especially a ro u n d A s p in w a ll, a s m a ll villa g e in N em aha C o u n ty n e a r th e R ich a rd son C o u n ty lin e. T h is suggests th a t S ta rk w as a llo ttin g th e best la n d to m ixed-b lo o d s w h o were w illin g to sell it im m e d ia te ly to R om bach and B a lla rd. D e n ve r jo in e d h is p a rtn e rs on the reservation in m id-s eptem ber, th o u g h i t is n o t clear w h a t he d id w h ile he w as there. Once th e m en had p u rc h a s e d th e ir la n d, D enver and R om bach re tu rn e d to th e ir respective d u tie s, w h ile B a lla rd re m a in e d in N e b ra ska T e rrito ry to m anage th e la n d h o ld in g s o f th e p a rtn e rs h ip. M a tth e w R om bach w as D enver's close frie n d, b u s in e s s p a rtn e r, a n d th e fa th e r o f D enver's w ife Louise. He w as b o rn in B aden, G erm any, in A t th e age o f eighteen, he e m ig ra te d to th e U n ite d S tates, a g a in s t th e w ish e s o f h is fa th e r, to seek h is fo rtu n e a n d to avoid forced service in th e arm y. B o rro w in g th e e q u iv a le n t o f $ fro m a re la tive, R o m b a c h w a lk e d th ro u g h F ra n ce to th e E n g lis h C h a n n e l w h e re he booked passage on a s a ilin g s h ip to New Y ork, a trip w h ic h to o k n in e ty days. He w o rke d s ix m o n th s fo r a G erm an c lo c k m a k e r in P h ila d e lp h ia, n in e m o n th s fo r a n o th e r c lo ckm a ker in Lancaster, O hio, a n d th e n m oved to C in c in n a ti w here he m anaged a b o a rd in g house u n til i t closed in 1832 d ue to a c h o le ra epidem ic. In J u ly 1832, R om bach m a rrie d C a th e rin e K a u tz, a n a tiv e o f B a d e n, a n d th e n s e ttle d o n a s m a ll fa rm n e a r G eorgetow n, O hio. R om bach, w h o w as n o t in te re s te d in fa rm in g, soon d e cid e d th a t he and h is w ife w o u ld m ove to New O rle a n s to fo llo w a b u sin e ss o p p o rtu n ity. Before b o a rd in g a b o a t in C in c in n a ti, C a th e rin e so s tro n g ly p ro te s te d th e m ove in to slave c o u n tr y t h a t R o m b a c h re consid e re d, and th e couple s e ttle d in W ilm in g to n, O h io w h e re th e y sp e n t the re s t o f th e ir lo n g lives. 19 In W ilm in g to n, R om bach operated a h o te l fo r tw o ye a rs, th e n a c o n fe c tio n a ry -b a k e ry fo r several m ore years u n til h is in v e s tm e n t s k ill

57 40 p e rm itte d h im to sell th e businesses in o rder to devote h is fu ll a tte n tio n to m a n a g in g h is ow n m oney. H is fa vo rite in ve stm e n ts w ere b a n k stocks, la n d, a n d gilt-edged se cu ritie s. B y 1855, he w as one o f th e w e a lth ie s t m e n in to w n. A lo n g w ith Jam es W. D enver, R o m b ach o rg a n ize d th e C lin to n C o u n ty N a tio n a l B a n k in W ilm in g to n in 1872, b e co m in g its firs t v ice -p re sid e n t, and a la te r p resident. Beside h is re p u ta tio n in b u sin e ss, R om bach also d e m o n stra ted h is a b ilitie s in p o litic a l a n d c h a rita b le w o rk. R o m b ach 's o n ly c h ild, Louise, grew u p to m a rry D enver in 1855, b u t it w o u ld p ro b a b ly be w ro n g to im agine th a t R om bach view ed D enver as "the son he never h a d." D enver w as ju s t s ix years y o u n g e r th a n M a tth e w R o m b a ch, a n d th e tw o m en sh a re d a close p e rs o n a l a n d b u s in e s s re la tio n s h ip. Together th e y m ade in ve stm e n ts, in c lu d in g th e p u rch a se o f large q u a n titie s o f la n d in Kansas, Colorado, and o th e r lo ca tio n s. T h o u g h D enver d id n o t p u rch a se H a lf-b reed T ra c t la n d in h is ow n n a m e, he m ig h t h a ve b e n e fite d fro m th e p u rc h a s e s m a d e b y h is associates fro m O hio. If th e p a rtn e rs p u rch a se d o th e r w e ste rn la n d s o f e q u a l v a lu e in D enver's nam e, he co u ld have sh a re d in th e p ro fits o f o w n e rs h ip w ith o u t lin k in g h is n a m e to la n d he a d m in is te re d as C o m m is s io n e r o f In d ia n A ffa irs. S u c h an a rra n g e m e n t m ig h t have re m a in e d in fo rm a l, p e rh a p s a g e n tle m a n 's a g reem ent b etw een D enver a n d R om bach. S ince R om bach w as D e n ve r s fa th e r-in -la w, he m ig h t s im p ly have m ade cash paym ents to Denver and k e p t h is nam e o u t o f the deed b o o ks. A fo rm a l agre e m e n t m ig h t have been a c o n tra c t file d som ew here s ta tin g th a t D enver ow ned "one u n d iv id e d th ir d o f a ll la n d s p u rc h a s e d b y..." R om bach and the o th e r p a rtn e rs. T h is is language fo u n d in n u m e ro u s c o n tra c ts in th e N em aha C o u n ty D eed R ecord, th o u g h none s p e c ific a lly m e n tio n D enver o r h is associates. D espite th e fa c t th a t D enver was n o t in clu d e d in a n y c o n tra c t o f th is s o rt file d in the N em aha C o u n ty Deed Record, th e fre q u e n cy o f these c o n tra c ts suggests th a t th e y w ere c o m m o n ly used in It is cle a r th a t D e n ve r c o u ld have p a rtic ip a te d fu lly in th e la n d -b u y in g schem e on th e H a lf-b re e d T ra c t w ith o u t h is nam e ever appearing in the la n d re cord s.21 One good piece o f evidence lin k in g D enver to H a lf-b re ed T ra c t la n d w a s a s ta te m e n t m ade b y F. L. W o o d w a rd, a lo n g tim e re s id e n t o f

58 41 A s p in w a ll, th e s m a ll villa g e w here R om bach a n d h is associates b o u g h t p ro p e rty. He d eclared th a t "the to w n s ite [A s p in w a lll w as ow ned b y a co m pany, G eneral Ja m es W. Denver, Louis Neal, a n d R u m b a c k [sic] and B a lla rd b e in g m em bers. D u rin g 1864 there w as a good deal o f tro u b le over title s. The to w n w as on a boom... G eneral D e n ve r h a d a large a m o u n t o f la n d n e a r A s p in w a ll, a n d th e D e n ve r e sta te s t ill h a s it. R u m b a c k w as D enver's fa th e r-in -la w. "22 W oodw ard, th e son o f th e to w n h a rn e s s m a k e r, w as seven ye a rs o ld w h e n he a rriv e d in A s p in w a ll in Since he live d in A s p in w a ll and n e a rb y N em aha C ity fo r decades th e re a fte r, and since the o th e r in fo rm a tio n in h is s ta te m e n t is a ccurate, it is safe to assum e th a t he w as c o rre c t in c la im in g th a t D e n ve r w as a m e m b e r o f th e g roup th a t ow ned p ro p e rty a t A s p in w a ll. The m a tte r-o f- fa c t to n e o f W oodw ard's sta te m e n t suggests th a t D enver's p a rtic ip a tio n w as c o m m o n ly k n o w n. A t its p e a k in th e m id s, A s p in w a ll w as a to w n o f a b o u t people. The to w n d e clin e d in th e 1870s w h e n a ra ilro a d w as b u ilt o n th e o th e r side o f th e M is s o u ri R ive r, a n d th e A tc h is o n a n d N e b raska R a ilro a d w h ic h operated in R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty d ra in e d aw ay m u c h o f the to w n 's re m a in in g tra d e.23 D avid Reavis, th e son o f R ich a rd son C o u n ty Ju d g e Is h a m Reavis, accused S ta rk o f u n e th ic a l and ille g a l a c tiv itie s in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e a llo tm e n t o f la n d s b y c la im in g th a t c e rta in to w n s "w ere lo c a te d on u n a llo tte d la n d s w h ic h w ere w ith h e ld fro m th e h a lf-b re e d s u n t il b a rg a in e d fo r in advance and deeds g o tten fo r c o n s id e ra tio n s as tr iflin g as a b o ttle o f w h iske y, a saddle o r a p o n y in som e in s ta n c e s w h e n the a llo ttin g agent w o u ld com plete th e tra n s a c tio n."24 The N em aha C o u n ty Deed Record does n o t s u p p o rt the triflin g a m o u n ts m e n tio n e d b y Reavis, fo r even in th e w o rs t case o f e x p lo ita tio n, C harles M. G rever p a id $ fo r S usie D e ro in 's acres, o r s ix ty -fo u r cents p e r a cre.25 B u t S ta rk m a y have w ith h e ld a llo tm e n ts u n til th e m ix e d -b lo o d s b a rg a in e d th e ir sale in advance. M a n y o f the m ixe d -b lo o d s live d elsew here and h a d no p la n s to fa rm th e ir n e w ly -a c q u ire d la n d s. O nce th e y received th e ir a llo tm e n ts, th e y also h a d to pay p ro p e rty taxes, a n d i t seems p la u s ib le th a t th e y w o u ld w a n t to sell th e ir la n d s q u ic k ly and fo r th e b e st possible p rice s. S ta rk was able to m a n ip u la te the a llo tm e n t process i f he desired

59 M ap c o u r t e s y D a t e a n d John Chaney, Auburn Auburn L >V T o I cj VrK L "!L j4 IM A Mo Li ±kj

60 42 because he selected sp ecific pieces o f la n d fo r th e m ix e d -b lo o d s and he c o n tro lle d th e o rd e r in w h ic h th e y received th e ir la n d. R eavis accused S ta rk o f a llo ttin g th e b e st pieces o f la n d to m ixed b lo o d s w h o agreed in advance to sell th e m. U ncooperative m ixed bloods received la n d on th e b lu ffs, sa n d fla ts, o r in a stre a m b e d.26 The N e m a ha C o u n ty Deed R ecord does seem to s u p p o rt th is a ccu sa tio n. O n n u m e ro u s occasions m ixe d bloods sold th e ir p ro p e rty on the same day, o r soon a fte r th e y had received th e ir certificate s o f a llo tm e n t. A lexa n d e r S. B a lla rd b o u g h t la n d fro m a m ixed-b lo o d nam ed J o h n P ilch e r on M ay 2, 1859, th e sam e d a y it w as a llo tte d, and th e n sold it a t cost to A lfred W. S ta rk o f G reene C o u n ty, O hio. Since A gent S ta rk and A lfre d W. S ta rk were fro m th e sam e c o u n ty in O h io, it seem s lik e ly th a t th e tw o m en were re la te d. A g e n t S ta rk h im s e lf b o u g h t 680 acres fro m B a lla rd fo r $ in J u ly A n o th e r in te re s tin g fig u re re la te d to D e n ve r's la n d in v e s tm e n t schem e on th e H a lf-b re ed T ra c t w as B en H o lla d a y, a w e a lth y fre ig h te r a n d th e fu tu re ow ner o f th e celebrated O verland Stage Line. H o lla d a y w a s a s u c c e s s fu l fro n tie r b u s in e s s m a n w h o h a d e a rn e d h is fo rtu n e p ro v is io n in g S tephen W. K earny's A rm y o f th e W est d u rin g th e M e xica n W a r, a fte r w h ic h he b o u g h t s u rp lu s oxen a n d w a g o n s fro m th e g o v e rn m e n t and entered th e fre ig h tin g b u sin e ss. W illin g to r is k a ll he ow ned fo r a la rg e r prize, H o lla d a y sold supplie s to th e M o rm o n s in U ta h, th e m in e rs in C a lifo rn ia, and to th e U. S. A rm y in is o la te d w e s te rn p o s ts.28 He had a lre a d y p u rchased five o f the best se ctio n s on th e H a lf- B reed T ra c t n e a r A s p in w a ll before R om bach and B a lla rd h a d a rriv e d. It is n o t cle a r w h e th e r H o lla d a y fir s t b o u g h t th e la n d fo r h im s e lf and la te r jo in e d D enver's g roup, o r w h e th e r he w as in vo lve d w ith th e m fro m th e b e g in n in g. I f he fir s t b o u g h t la n d fo r h im s e lf, R o m b a ch a n d B a lla rd a p p a re n tly decided th a t it w as b e tte r to in c lu d e th e w e a lth y b u s in e s s m a n in th e ir schem e th a n to try to o u tb id h im fo r la n d. N em aha C o u n ty la n d re c o rd s sh o w th a t b y S eptem ber 22, 1857, th e th re e m e n w ere b u y in g la n d to g e th e r, each m a n o w n in g a n u n d iv id e d th ir d o f a ll la n d s p u rc h a s e d b y th e p a rtn e rs h ip. H o lla d a y a cquired 800 lo ts in A s p in w a ll a n d over 1600 acres in A s p in w a ll P recinct.29

61 43 H o w H o lla d a y le a rn e d a b o u t th e a v a ila b ility o f H a lf-b re e d T ra c t la n d is a n o th e r u n c e rta in ty. H is b ro th e r A n d re w S. H o lla d a y, a d o c to r a n d th e fir s t m a y o r o f B ro w n v ille, m a y have fir s t to ld h im. A n d re w h im s e lf b o u g h t a n d sold la n d in N em aha C o u n ty, m a in ly to w n lo ts in B ro w n v ille, w here th e N ebraska A d v e rtis e r re g u la rly re p o rte d on th e s ta tu s o f th e H a lf-b re e d T ra c t b e g in n in g in H o lla d a y m a y also have le a rn e d a b o u t th e la n d fro m D enver, til th o u g h th e re is no d ire c t evidence to th a t effect. I f th a t w ere the case, it w o u ld in d ic a te th a t H o lla d a y and the O h ioans were a c tin g in co n ce rt fro m th e s ta rt. O th e r evidence, how ever, suggests th a t D enver and H o lla d a y m a y have been lo n g tim e a cq u a in tance s. In th e 1840s, H o lla d a y operated a h o te l and a general store in W eston, M isso u ri, w h ic h w as ju s t n in e m ile s fro m Platte C ity, w h e re a t th e sam e tim e D e n ve r p ra c tic e d la w a n d p u b lis h e d a n e w s p a p e r. D e n v e r s la w p a rtn e r, B ela M. H ughes, th e fo u n d e r o f W eston, w as H olladay's cousin, law yer, and business associate. H o lla d a y la te r show ed h ig h re gard fo r H ughes b y a p p o in tin g h im to a n im p o rta n t p o s itio n in one o f h is businesses. H ughes w as th e p re s id e n t o f R ussell, M a jo rs, a n d W a d d e ll's C e n tra l O v e rla n d C a lifo rn ia a n d P ike's Peak E xpre ss in M a rc h 1862, w h e n H o lla d a y, its m a jo r c re d ito r, a c q u ire d th e co m p a n y. T h o u g h H o lla d a y cla im e d th e top s p o t in th e c o m p a n y fo r h im s e lf, he re ta in e d H ughes as h is c h ie f legal co u n se l d u rin g th e tim e th a t he m ade th e co m p a n y in to th e centerpiece o f h is stagecoach lin e. D e n ve r a n d H o lla d a y m a y also have becom e a c q u a in te d a t th e s ta rt o f th e M e xica n -A m e rica n W ar, w h e n D enver w as c h ie f aide to H ughes w ho le d a g ro u p o f M is s o u ri v o lu n te e rs, a n d H o lla d a y w a s a n a rm y s u p p lie r. 30 B en H o lla d a y's in te re s t in p ro p e rty on th e H a lf-b re e d T ra c t w as p ro b a b ly tw o -fo ld, as a la n d s p e c u la tio n area and as a p o te n tia l s ta tio n fo r h is fre ig h tin g b u sin e ss w here he co u ld graze h is a n im a ls. S tephen B. M ile s, w h o ca rrie d th e m a il fro m Independence to S a lt Lake C ity d u rin g th e fiftie s a n d w ho com peted w ith H o lla d a y in th e fre ig h tin g b u s in e s s, o p e ra te d a s im ila r s ta tio n on a s e v e ra l-th o u s a n d acre tra c t o f la n d he a c q u ire d in 1856 n e a r D aw son, N ebraska T e rrito ry, ju s t a few m ile s fro m th e H a lf-b re e d T ra c t. W ith th e a c q u is itio n o f H a lf-b re e d T ra c t la n d,

62 44 H o lla d a y m a y have even considered m o vin g th e h e a d q u a rte rs fo r h is fre ig h tin g b u s in e s s fro m L e a venw orth to B ro w n v ille because, lik e m o s t fre ig h te rs, he s h ip p e d h is goods a lo n g th e P la tte R iv e r V a lle y, a n d B ro w n v ille w as a m ore co n v e n ie n t s ta rtin g p o in t. T h is is p la u s ib le because H o lla d a y su ffe re d a b u sin e ss slow dow n a fte r 1856 due to s tiff c o m p e titio n fro m R ussell, M ajors, and W a d d e ll w h o also sh ip p e d fro m L e a ve n w o rth. R elocation o f h is fre ig h tin g b u sin e ss to B ro w n v ille w o u ld have given h im a com petitive advantage. B y a n y m easure, H o lla d a y was a v a lu a b le p a rtn e r in th e la n d -b u y in g scheme because o f h is w e a lth, the use o f h is fre ig h tin g b u sin e ss, and h is close b u sin e ss re la tio n s h ip w ith th e M o rm o n s in the event th a t the Pacific ra ilro a d passed th ro u g h S a lt Lake C ity. 31 A s s u m in g th a t D e n ve r, R o m b ach, B a lla rd a n d H o lla d a y d id c o n s p ire to b u y la n d n e a r A s p in w a ll, th e y s t ill faced a n a d d itio n a l p ro b le m in th a t th e y co u ld n o t g u a ra n te e th a t a ra ilro a d w o u ld pass th ro u g h th e ir p ro p e rty. T h is ra ilro a d w as th e key to tu rn in g th e ir la n d s p e c u la tio n in to a tru e bonanza. T hey solved th is d ile m m a b y re c ru itin g la w y e r Jam es C ra ig o f St. Joseph, the firs t p re s id e n t o f th e H a n n ib a l and S t. J o s e p h R a ilro a d, a n d, fro m 1857 to 1861, th e D e m o c ra tic co n g re ssm a n fro m h is hom e d is tric t.32 C ra ig s ra ilro a d w as one o f th e e ig h t ro ads th a t D e n ve r s P acific ra ilro a d b ill w o u ld have a u th o riz e d to exte n d tra c k to F o rt K earny, in order to jo in th e tr u n k lin e to C a lifo rn ia. D e n v e r s b ill w as a re prieve o f sorts fo r th e H a n n ib a l a n d St. Jo se p h R a ilro a d and fo r th e citizens o f St. Joseph. In 1853, St. Jo se p h w as th e te rm in u s fo r one o f th e e ig h t m o st p o litic a lly and g e o g ra p h ic a lly via b le ro u te s proposed fo r th e Pacific ra ilro a d. W hen S ecretary o f W a r Je fferson D a vis organized th e P acific ra ilro a d surveys, he h a d overlooked th e St. Jo se p h ro u te in fa vo r o f fo u r others, th u s d a s h in g th e hopes o f th e city. D e n v e r s b ill te m p o ra rily revived those hopes and encouraged C ra ig and th e S t. Jo se p h b u s in e s s m e n to b e g in th in k in g o f b u ild in g a ra ilro a d n o rth w a rd to C o u n c il B lu ffs. In th a t w ay, even i f St. Jo se p h d id n o t becom e th e s ta rtin g p o in t fo r th e P acific ra ilro a d, th e new road w o u ld in te r s e c t o th e r ra ilro a d s th a t m ig h t e v e n tu a lly b e c o m e t h a t tra n s c o n tin e n ta l lin e. C raig la te r became the p re s id e n t o f w h a t w as th e n

63 45 ca lle d th e C o u n c il B lu ffs and St. Jose p h R a ilro a d. In th e fa ll o f 1857, w h e n la n d fir s t becam e a va ila b le to w h ite s on th e H a lf-b re e d T ra c t, it w as reasonable to th in k th a t C raig co u ld d ire c t th e ra ilro a d th ro u g h th e re s e rv a tio n a t w h a te v e r p o in t he selected. W ith C ra ig in v o lv e d in D e n ve r's g ro u p, th e p a rtn e rs h a d an e xce lle n t chance o f in s u rin g th e c o n s tru c tio n o f an im p o rta n t ra ilro a d th ro u g h A s p in w a ll. C ra ig h im s e lf la te r b o u g h t som e H alf-b reed T ra c t la n d. In J a n u a ry 1861, he delivered a fe w la te p a te n ts to m ixe d -b lo o d s on the H a lf-b re ed T ra c t o n b e h a lf o f th e governm ent, th e n p u rchased a t least 480 h a lf-b re e d acres.33 A fte r th e y p u rch a se d th e o rig in a l te n se ctio n s n e a r A s p in w a ll in S eptem ber 1857, th e p a rtn e rs w e n t th e ir separate w ays. D enver fin is h e d h is co n ference w ith th e Pawnees in N e b ra ska C ity, th e n tra v e le d to W a s h in g to n, D. C. to p re p a re th e a n n u a l C o m m is s io n e r's re p o rt to C ongress. R o m b a ch re tu rn e d to h is b u sin e sse s a n d in v e s tm e n ts in O h i o. 34 H o lla d a y c o n tin u e d to operate h is fre ig h tin g b u s in e s s fro m M is s o u ri, a n d in 1858 began to in v e s t in th e R u s s e ll, M a jo rs, a n d W a d d e ll fre ig h tin g co m p a n y, a firm th a t in itia lly p ro s p e re d w h e n it ente re d th e stagecoach busin e ss and operated th e P ony E xpress. W hen R ussell, M ajors, and W addell C om pany w e n t b a n k ru p t in 1862, H o lla d a y p u rc h a s e d and reorganized its stagecoach b u sin e ss. H is O ve rland Stage Lin e c a rrie d passengers a n d th e U. S. M a il fro m p o in ts on th e M is s o u ri R ive r to D enver and S a lt Lake C ity. Betw een 1862 a n d 1866, H o lla d a y o b ta in e d e ig h t m a il c o n tra c ts w h ic h p a id m ore th a n one m illio n d o lla rs a n n u a lly. In 1866, he s h re w d ly sold th e b u sin e ss to W ells, Fargo and C o m p a n y, before th e stagecoach lin e s were d riv e n to e x tin c tio n b y th e tra n s c o n tin e n ta l ra ilro a d. L a te r in life, H o lla d a y gained, b u t th e n lo st, several fo rtu n e s in th e steam ship b u siness and in m in in g. 35 B a lla rd re m a in e d in N ebraska to m anage th e n e w ly -a c q u ire d la n d s fo r th e p a rtn e rs h ip u n t il a t le a s t A u g u s t T h e re a fte r, B a lla rd 's s ig n a tu re s in th e N em aha C o u n ty Deed Record were n o ta rize d in Greene C o u n ty, O hio, in d ic a tin g th a t he had re tu rn e d to X e n ia. B en H o lla d a y a p p o in te d B a lla rd a n d Ja m e s M c M illa n, a n o th e r O h io la w y e r, as a tto rn e y s to h a n d le h is la n d s in N e b raska in a d o c u m e n t w r itte n in S e p te m b er 1857, b u t n o t file d in N em aha C o u n ty u n til M a y 1859, a fte r

64 46 w h ic h date M c M illa n 's nam e appeared in th e deed re cord as th e la n d agent fo r th e p a rtn e rs. A p p a re n tly B a lla rd served as la n d agent u n til th e s u m m e r o f 1859 w h e n he w as replaced b y M c M illa n. O f th e th re e p a rtn e rs, B a lla rd w as th e le a st k n o w n and le a s t w e a lth y. L a te r c o u rt d o cu m e n ts and le tte rs suggest th a t n e ith e r R om bach n o r H o lla d a y kn e w B a lla rd p rio r to th e ir in v e s tm e n t ve n tu re s in N ebraska, b u t th a t S ta rk h a d persuaded R om bach to in c lu d e B a lla rd in th e g ro u p. R om bach and B a lla rd q u a rreled in 1861 over the cost o f the N ebraska in ve stm e n ts, ju s t p rio r to th e la tte r m a n's death, th o u g h R om bach a n d H o lla d a y d id n o t fo rm a lly dissolve the three-m em p a rtn e rs h ip u n til n in e years la te r. 36 H ow d id D enver's service as C o m m issio n e r o f In d ia n A ffa irs relate to th e b igger p ic tu re o f In d ia n re la tio n s and to th e a llo tm e n t o f la n d in se ve ra lty? D id D e n ve r and h is associates b re a k a n y la w s b y th e ir a ctio n s? W h a t lessons sh o u ld have been learned fro m th e experience on th e H a lf-b re e d T ra c t a n d o th e r in s ta n c e s o f a llo tm e n t in se vera lty? D enver's te rm as C o m m issio n e r o f In d ia n A ffa irs o ccu rre d d u rin g a tim e o f tra n s itio n in In d ia n p o licy, to w a rd th e end o f th e p e rio d w h e n m o s t trib e s w ere rem oved to th e W est, b u t before th e fin a l f lu r r y o f a rm ed c o n flic t w h ic h follow ed th e C iv il W ar. As th e n a tio n expanded w e stw a rd, g o ve rn m e n t o fficia ls c o n tin u e d to tre a t n e w ly-e nco u n te re d In d ia n groups w ith th e sam e p a te rn a lis tic a ttitu d e s th e y had show n to e astern g roups a n d th e y trie d to locate trib e s in areas u n o ccu p ie d b y w h ite s. B u t as the w e stw a rd m ovem ent gained m o m e n tu m in th e 1850s it w as im p o ssib le to fin d places w ith o u t s e ttle rs, th u s le a d in g to in c re a s e d c o n ta c t and c o n flic t betw een w h ite s and In d ia n s. D enver also occupied th e office as th e tre n d to w a rd a llo tm e n t o f la n d in se v e ra lty w as g a in in g s u p p o rt am ong w h ite re lig io u s and h u m a n ita ria n groups in th e E a st.3 7 In 1849, C ongress tra n s fe rre d th e In d ia n O ffice fro m th e W a r D e p a rtm e n t to th e D e p a rtm e n t o f th e In te rio r, a ffirm in g th e b e lie f th a t open h o s tilitie s w ith In d ia n s w ere a th in g o f th e past. P re sid e n t Jam es P o lk signed th e new b ill in to la w on M a rc h 3, 1849, th e re b y c re a tin g th e In te rio r D e p a rtm e n t and tra n s fe rrin g the In d ia n O ffice. In th e process, C o n g re ss a ssig n e d c e rta in a n tith e tic a l re s p o n s ib ilitie s to th e n e w d e p a rtm e n t. The S ecretary o f th e In te rio r presided over b o th th e G eneral

65 47 L a n d O ffice w h ic h disposed o f p u b lic la n d s to b e n e fit w h ite s e ttle rs, and th e In d ia n O ffice, charged w ith p ro te c tin g In d ia n la n d rig h ts. A lth o u g h th is a rra n g e m e n t o ccu rre d in n o c e n tly, i t created d iffic u lt c o n flic ts o f in te re s t w h ic h u s u a lly favored w h ite se ttle rs.3 The decade o f th e 1850s w itnessed a ra p id tu rn o v e r o f m e n w ith in th e In te r io r D e p a rtm e n t w h o w ere in e x p e rie n c e d in In d ia n a ffa irs. O ffic ia ls th e re a tte m p te d to co n ce n tra te the In d ia n s on s m a ll reserves a p a rt fro m th e w h ite s and to encourage th e m to becom e "c iv iliz e d " and a g ra ria n. Likew ise, th e y assum ed the s u p e rio rity o f w h ite s a n d believed th a t In d ia n s w o u ld have to re tre a t in the face o f w h ite a d va n ce m e n t. In d ia n C o m m is s io n e r L u ke Lea, w h o to o k office in 1850, u rg e d th e c re a tio n o f a n a tio n a l system o f re serva tio n s w h ic h he fe lt w o u ld s a tis fy th e needs o f b o th races. W h a t little s ta b ility th a t d id e x is t in th e In d ia n O ffice in th e 1850s w as due to C h ie f C le rk C h a rle s E. M ix. He had entered the In d ia n O ffice as a c le rk in 1837, was a p p o in te d C h ie f C le rk in 1850, a n d served in th a t c a p a c ity u n til C o m m is s io n e rs o fte n re lie d fo r p o lic y guid a n ce on M ix w h o s tro n g ly favored th e re s e rv a tio n system. M ix prom oted the e sta b lis h m e n t o f perm a n e n t re serva tio n s large e n o u g h to m eet th e a g ra ria n needs o f th e In d ia n s, b u t too s m a ll to a llo w th e In d ia n s to rove and h u n t. He opposed the g ra n tin g o f large a n n u itie s to trib e s because he fe lt th a t th e y w eakened th e in c e n tiv e fo r In d ia n s to w o rk to w a rd th e ir ow n s u b s i s t e n c e. 3 9 M i x c o m p ile d th e ru le s a n d re g u la tio n s fo r o fficials o f the In d ia n Office in an 85-page p a m p h le t called th e O ffice C opy o f th e Laws. R e g u la tio n s. E tc.. o f th e In d ia n B u re a u P reviously, no one h a d assem bled the re g u la tio n s a n d d ire ctives p e rta in in g to th e In d ia n O ffice in one v o lu m e. M ix th e n e n fo rce d adherence to th e re g u la tio n s b y agents and p e rso n n e l to an e x te n t n o t p re v io u s ly w itn e s s e d. He also p e rs u a d e d c o m m is s io n e rs th a t th e e x is tin g slate o f law s were in a d e q u a te to p ro te c t th e In d ia n s a n d th e ir p ro p e rty. H enceforw ard, co m m issio n e rs labored to expand th e size and p o w e r o f the In d ia n Office. 40 G eorge W. M a n y p e n n y, w h o replaced Lea o n M a rc h 24, 1853, re vive d th e p ra c tic e o f a llo ttin g la n d in se veralty. B y e a rlie r tre a tie s, m a n y trib e s had been assigned to la n d s along the b o rd e rs in K a n sa s and

66 48 N e b ra ska, th e re b y fo rm in g an o b sta cle to w e s tw a rd w h ite e x p a n s io n. R e a liz in g th a t In d ia n rig h ts w o u ld be tra m p le d, he n e g o tia te d tre a tie s th a t a ssig n e d th e n a tiv e s to s m a lle r re s e rv a tio n s a n d p ro v id e d fo r a llo tm e n t o f la n d in severalty. B y th is tim e, it had become less feasible to rem ove th e In d ia n s fu rth e r w est. M a n y p e n n y hoped th a t e s ta b lis h in g s m a lle r p e rm a n e n t re serva tio n s w o u ld provide th e In d ia n s refuge fro m w h ite p ressure, and th a t a llo tm e n t o f la n d in severalty, g iv in g in d iv id u a l In d ia n s th e ir ow n p ro p e rty, w o u ld in s till w h ite va lu e s in th e m.41 L ike M ix, M a n y p e n n y opposed m o n e y a n n u itie s, a n d in s te a d fa v o re d p a y m e n ts in goods, to o ls, liv e s to c k, a n d v o c a tio n a l tra in in g. W h e n M a n y p e n n y n e g o tia te d tre a tie s, he re q u ire d th a t a n n u ity p a y m e n ts be re d u c e d a fte r a se t p e rio d in o rd e r to w e a n In d ia n s fro m th e ir dependency. He also in c lu d e d a p ro v is io n th a t th e p re s id e n t m ig h t expend p a ym e n ts on tools o r tra in in g in stead o f m a k in g th e p a ym e n ts in m o ney. D u rin g h is fo u r-y e a r te rm, M a n y p e n n y n e g o tia te d fifty -tw o tre a tie s w h ic h em braced these g u i d e l i n e s. 42 Ja m e s W. D enver served as In d ia n C o m m is s io n e r fro m A p r il to D ecem ber 1857, a n d a g a in fro m N ovem ber 1858 to M a rc h 1859, w ith M ix a s s u m in g th e p o st in th e in te rim. Because o f h is la c k o f experience in In d ia n a ffa irs, D e n v e r re lie d h e a v ily o n M ix, a n d he d id n o t s ig n ific a n tly a lte r the new tre n d s in p o licy. C h a ra c te ris tic a lly, he favored th e a llo tm e n t o f la n d in se veralty a n d opposed s im p ly re lo c a tin g In d ia n s fu r th e r w e s t. 4 3 M ix m a y have p e rs u a d e d D e n v e r to a d o p t b o th p o s itio n s, th o u g h th e second p o in t p ro b a b ly w as s o m e th in g th a t D enver tr u ly believed since he had traveled w id e ly th ro u g h o u t th e W est. In h is 1857 a n n u a l re p o rt to C ongress, D e n ve r spoke a t le n g th a b o u t th e e vil o f w h ite m e n in v a d in g re serva tio n s a n d d e fra u d in g th e In d ia n s, ju s t five w eeks a fte r p o s s ib ly d o in g ju s t th a t on th e N em aha H a lf-b re ed T ract. He favored a llo ttin g la n d in severalty, p rovided th a t the t it le re m a in e d in th e trib e u n t il in d iv id u a ls b e ca m e " s u ffic ie n tly in te llig e n t, sober, and in d u s trio u s, to g ra n t th e m p a te n ts fo r th e la n d so assigned to them, b u t leasable o r a lienable o n ly to m em bers o f th e trib e, u n t il th e y becam e so fa r advanced as to be fitte d fo r th e e n jo y m e n t o f a ll th e rig h ts a n d p riv ile g e s o f c itiz e n s o f th e U n ite d S ta te s." 4 4 He

67 49 c o n tin u e d : "No w h ite p e rso n s h o u ld be p e rm itte d to o b ta in a n y k in d o f p o ssession o r fo o th o ld w ith in th e lim its o f th e re s e rv a tio n, n o r even to e n te r th e m, e xce p t in th e e m p lo y o f o r b y th e p e rm is s io n o f th e g o vernm ent...."45 D e n ve r's re m a rk s seem h y p o c ritic a l, b u t w as he aw are o f th e c o n tra d ic tio n betw een h is w ords and h is actions? There seem to be three o b vio u s p o s s ib ilitie s : D enver m a y have been d e ce itfu l; he m a y have been s in c e re ly w a rn in g C ongress a b o u t th e dangers faced b y In d ia n s ; o r he m a y have failed to recognize h is ow n g u ilt as a la n d sp e cu la to r. A clue to a less-obvious fo u rth p o s s ib ility is th a t Denver's a n n u a l message s tro n g ly re fle c te d th e view s o f M ix. In N ovem ber 1857, s in ce D e n v e r w as p re p a rin g fo r h is new a ssig n m e n t as governor o f K ansas T e rrito ry, it is p o ssible th a t M ix w ro te th e message, and th a t D enver m e re ly signed it, or added v e ry little to it. I f so, i t e x p la in s th e s tro n g c o n d e m n a tio n fo r s o m e th in g D enver h a d ju s t p e rp e tra te d.4 5 i n D e n ve r s b e h a lf, he d id s triv e to p ro te c t In d ia n rig h ts la te r in h is life. D enver's a c tio n s s h o u ld a lso be ju d g e d a c c o rd in g to th e e th ic a l s ta n d a rd s o f th e tim e, since p ro fitin g th ro u g h deals based on "in sid e " in fo rm a tio n, even w h ile s till in office, w as n o t considered w ro n g u n le ss the a c tiv ity involved fra u d. Even i f D enver d e lib e ra te ly defrauded the m ixed-bloods, th a t crim e w o u ld have to be considered in lig h t o f h is e n tire d is tin g u is h e d career as a law yer, s o ld ie r a n d p o litic ia n. O n th e w h o le, he w as an h o n e s t a n d capable p u b lic servant. 47 D id J a m e s W. D e n v e r b re a k a n y la w s b y h is a c tio n s as C o m m is s io n e r o f In d ia n A ffa irs in re gard to th e N e m a ha H a lf-b re e d T ra c t? A c a re fu l s tu d y o f th e 1874 e d itio n o f th e Revised S ta tu te s o f the U n ite d S ta te s, an in d e x o f th e U. S. S ta tu te s a t Large u p to th a t date, proved in conclu sive. Since C ongress had n o t ye t o u tla w e d th e p a ssin g o f in s id e in fo rm a tio n b y p u b lic o fficia ls, D enver seems to have been w ith in th e lim its o f th e la w in g iv in g advance in fo rm a tio n o f th e a llo tm e n t o f N e m a h a H a lf-b re e d T ra c t la n d s to M a tth e w R o m b a c h ; th e re fo re, R o m b a ch a n d B a lla rd b ro ke no law s b y a ctin g on D enver's in fo rm a tio n. Y e t D e n v e r m ig h t have v io la te d la w s p ro h ib itin g p e rs o n a l b u s in e s s b etw een p u b lic o ffic ia ls a n d In d ia n s, even th o u g h he p e rs o n a lly b o u g h t

68 50 n o m ix e d -b lo o d la n d. S e ctio n o f C h a p te r 162, p assed b y th e T w e n ty-s e co n d C ongress in 1834, sta te d th a t "no p e rso n e m ployed in In d ia n A ffa irs s h a ll have a n y in te re s t or conce rn in a n y tra d e w ith the In d ia n s," except on b e h a lf o f th e U n ite d States. V io la to rs w ere s u b je c t to a $ 5,0 0 0 fin e a n d re m o v a l fro m o ffic e.48 S im ila r la w s p ro h ib ite d exchanges betw een g o ve rn m e n t tra d in g house agents a n d th e In d ia n s w h o m th e y served, except on b e h a lf o f the U n ite d S ta te s.49 T h e cle a r in te n t o f these law s w as to p re ve n t th e c o n flic ts o f in te re s t th a t w o u ld o c c u r w h e n e ve r a p u b lic o ffic ia l derived p ro fit fro m p e rs o n a l b u s in e s s tra n s a c te d w ith persons in h is custody. In o rd e r to co n vict Denver, a ju d g e needed to ru le th a t m ixe d -b lo o d la n d w a s a co m m o d ity, lik e o th e r ite m s o f tra d e p ro h ib ite d b y se ctio n D enver m ig h t have p rote ste d th a t C ongress h a d n o t s p e c ific a lly p ro h ib ite d tra n s a c tio n s in v o lv in g la n d because se ctio n w as w ritte n in 1834, before la n d h a d a c tu a lly been a llo tte d to in d iv id u a ls in fee s im p le, a n d congressm en u n d o u b te d ly had fu rs a n d s im ila r ite m s in m in d w h e n th e y h a d p ro h ib ite d p u b lic officials fro m tra d in g w ith In d ia n s. T he ju d g e m ig h t have co u n te re d th a t th e T re a ty o f P ra irie d u C h ie n p re d a te d se ctio n b y fo u r years. Land had a lre a d y been p ro m is e d to th e In d ia n s in fee s im p le a n d th u s s h o u ld have been c o n s id e re d a c o m m o d ity s u b je c t to re g u la tio n u n d e r section T he m a in p o in t w as th a t D enver's a ctio n s seemed to be shaped b y a c o n ce rn fo r p ro fit r a th e r th a n co n c e rn fo r th e In d ia n s. I t c o u ld also be a rg u e d th a t D enver's c o n flic t o f in te re s t caused grave h a rm to th e In d ia n s.50 A ju d g e needed to a d d itio n a lly fin d th a t D enver h a d a n in te re s t in tra d e w ith th e In d ia n s in o rd e r to c o n v ic t h im o f v io la tin g s e ctio n T h e ju d g e w o u ld have re q u ire d evidence, p e rh a p s a c o n tra c t w h ic h s h o w e d th a t D e n v e r h a d p ro fite d fro m la n d d e a ls tra n s a c te d in R om bach's o r B a lla rd 's nam es. I t w o u ld have been d iffic u lt to s a tis fy th is re q u ire m e n t because D enver m ig h t have been com pensated fo r th e sale o f th e la n d w ith fu n d s s trip p e d fro m o th e r sources. T he c irc u m s ta n tia l evidence w as p ro b a b ly in s u ffic ie n t to c o n v ic t D enver. I f i t c o u ld have been p ro v e n th a t S ta rk h a d a llo tte d th e b e st p a rce ls o f la n d to those m ix e d -b lo o d s w h o agreed b e fo re h a n d to s e ll th e m b a c k to th e

69 51 sp e cu la to rs, th e n Denver, R om bach, B a lla rd, and S ta rk m ig h t have been fo u n d g u ilty o f fe lo n y fra u d charges. A p p a re n tly no charges w ere ever b ro u g h t a g a in st th e fo u r m en fo r a n y o f th e ir a c tivitie s on th e H a lf-b re ed T ra c t. 51 P re s id e n t B u c h a n a n a p p o in te d D enver as S e c re ta ry o f K a n sa s T e rrito ry in the m o n th fo llo w in g h is a n n u a l re p o rt to C ongress. L a te r as g o ve rn o r, fro m M a y to O cto b e r 1858, D enver h e lp e d re s to re o rd e r to K ansas T e rrito ry, w h ic h w as q u ite an a cco m p lis h m e n t a t th e tim e w h e n th e place w as k n o w n as "B leeding Kansas." T h e re a fter, he re sum e d h is p o s itio n as C o m m issio n e r o f In d ia n A ffa irs u n til M a rc h 1859, w h e n he m a d e a n u n s u c c e s s fu l b id fo r a se n a te s e a t fro m C a lifo rn ia. C om m issio n e d a brig adie r-genera l b y P resident A b ra h a m L in c o ln, D enver com m a n d e d Kansas tro o p s in th e C iv il W ar. A fte r th e w a r, a n d u n til h is d e a th in A u g u s t 1892, he p ra c tic e d la w fro m h is offices in W ilm in g to n, O h io, a n d W a s h in g to n, D. C. He re m a in e d active in p o litic s a n d w as c o n s id e re d fo r th e D e m o c ra tic p re s id e n tia l n o m in a tio n in 1876 a n d O n balance, D enver w as a d is tin g u is h e d p u b lic se rvant, despite h is possible w ro n g d o in g in regard to the H alf-b reed T ra ct. One o f the p e c u lia r aspects a b o u t D enver and h is associates is the le n g th o f tim e th a t th e m en h e ld th e ir p ro p e rty. T h o u g h s p e c u la to rs u s u a lly seek to sell th e ir in v e s tm e n ts q u ic k ly, R om bach, B a lla rd and H o lla d a y each h e ld la n d fo r extended te rm s. In fa c t, R o m b a c h and B a lla rd h e ld H alf-b reed la n d u n til th e ir deaths, w h e n i t passed to th e ir h e irs. P a rt o f R om bach's la n d re m a in e d w ith h is fa m ily u n til th e 1950s; H o lla d a y h e ld h is share u n til a t le a s t A lth o u g h B a lla rd die d in D ecem ber 1861, h is share re m a in e d pooled w ith those o f R o m b ach and H o lla d a y fo r te n m ore years. In the N em aha C o u n ty C o u rt a t B ro w n v ille, R o m b a c h a n d H o lla d a y d is s o lv e d th e p a rtn e rs h ip in M a rc h 1870, s e p a ra tin g th e ir share s fro m th e to ta l. B a lla rd 's s h a re re m a in e d u n c la im e d u n til O c to b e r 1872, w h e n h is w id o w and th re e c h ild re n d iv id e d it, w ith th e w id o w re ceivin g o n e -th ird and th e c h ild re n e q u a lly d iv id in g the re m a in in g tw o -th ird s. 53 N em aha C o u n ty p ro p e rty ta x sta te m e n ts k e p t b y R o m b a ch a fte r 1867 a n d h is p e rso n a l correspondence reveal com m on tra n s a c tio n s and

70 52 suggest w h y he h e ld h is la n d so long. In a n o te dated J u ly 23, 1867, w h ic h a ccom p a n ie d R o m b a ch s 1866 ta x s ta te m e n t, N e m a h a C o u n ty C le rk W illia m H. H oover w ro te th e com m ent, "M r. D enver w as in e rro r as to [the] a m o u n t o f ta x." T h is note suggests th a t D e n ve r w as a c tiv e ly in vo lve d in m a nagin g th e fo rm e r reservation l a n d. 54 W illia m J. A u s tin, a B ro w n v ille re al estate agent w ho m anaged R om bach's la n d, p a id a lo ca l m a n nam ed H e n iy H a rt to w a tc h R om bach s tim b e r a n d re n ta l p ro p e rty, a n d he sold la n d a t R om bach's d ire c tio n. A p p a re n tly, R o m b a ch w as p la n n in g to give a local a tto rn e y nam ed D. J. M a rtin p o w e r-o f-a tto rn e y to se ll h is to w n lo ts in A s p in w a ll.5 5 The ta x s ta te m e n t d a te d A p r il 14, 1871, revealed th a t R om bach ow ned ju s t 1,200 acres in N em aha C o u n ty b y th a t date, in c lu d in g 3 /1 6 th s o w n e rsh ip o f th e A s p in w a ll to w n site fo r w h ic h he p a id $ in taxes, p ro m p tin g H oover to w rite, "Taxes c o n tin u e to be v e ry heavy. "5 6 H a rt u rged R o m b a ch n o t to se ll h is p ro p e rty, p a rtic u la rly h is tim b e re d la n d, because a ra ilro a d w o u ld soon be b u ilt th ro u g h the area, th e im p lic a tio n b e in g th a t R o m b ach stood to m a ke a large p ro fit b y se llin g h is la n d a t a la te r date. The tim b e re d la n d w a s p a r tic u la r ly v a lu a b le b e ca u se th e w o o d c o u ld be u s e d fo r c o n s tru c tio n purposes and fo r fuel. H a rt was c o n fid e n t th a t th e ra ilro a d, w h ic h he called th e T ru n k Line, w o u ld d e fin ite ly be b u ilt, a lth o u g h he re p o rte d th a t th e s ta rtin g p o in t w as u n c e rta in, w ith N e b ra s k a C ity, B ro w n v ille, a n d A rago a ll seeking to be th e chosen site. In th e sam e le tte r, H a rt in fo rm e d R om bach th a t B en H o lla d a y w as p la n n in g to v is it A s p in w a ll d u rin g th e fo llo w in g m o n th, and th a t th e new s cam e fro m D r. A n d re w H olladay, B en's b ro th e r, w ho lived in B ro w n v ille.57 R om bach's nephew, w ho co-ow ned a large h a rd w a re store, w ro te a le tte r fro m h is hom e in E u re ka, K ansas, in F e b ru a ry 1872, d e fe n d in g fu rth e r in v e s tm e n t in Kansas la n d and to w n lots, m a in ly because o f th e ir g re a t a p p re c ia tio n in v a lu e due to in c re a s in g p o p u la tio n a n d th e p ro sp e cts o f ra ilro a d s. Jam es T. F itz h u g h o f W ilm in g to n h a d c ritic iz e d K ansas to R om bach a fte r a trip to the te rrito ry. F itz h u g h w as p ro b a b ly re la te d to Law rence F itzh u g h, p e rhaps th e w e a lth ie s t m a n in W ilm in g to n, w h o h a d earned h is fo rtu n e in v e s tin g in real estate a n d as a d ire c to r o f th e C in c in n a ti and M u s k in g h a m V a lle y R a ilroad C om pany. The to n e o f

71 53 th e le tte r m ade it seem as i f R om bach was e ith e r c o n s id e rin g to sell h is la n d in v e s tm e n ts in K ansas o r re fra in in g fro m m a k in g new in v e s tm e n ts. P erhaps R om bach had also invested in h is nephew 's h a rd w a re b u sin e ss. I f R om bach owned la n d in Kansas, he p ro b a b ly b o u g h t it d u rin g th e tim e w h e n Ja m es W. D enver w as G overnor o f Kansas T e rrito ry fro m M a y u n til O cto b e r 1858, as D enver h im s e lf b o u g h t p ro p e rty th e re w h ile he served th e te rrito ry. T h is suggests th a t the p a rtn e rs w o rke d in a sp e cific w a y in w h ic h D e n v e r se a rch e d fo r p ro p e rtie s to b u y w h ile s e rv in g th e g o v e rn m e n t in w e s te rn p o sts, a n d R om bach s u p p lie d th e fu n d s to p u rc h a s e th e p ro p e rtie s.58 W illia m J. A u s tin, the B ro w n v ille real estate agent, w ro te R om bach in M a y 1872, to te ll h im the re s u lts o f an ele ctio n in w h ic h c itiz e n s in N em aha C o u n ty voted b y a large m a jo rity to fu n d the c o n s tru c tio n o f the "T ru n k R ailroad." He also re ported th a t a lth o u g h he h a d n o t y e t received o ffers fo r R om bach's la n d, he expected th a t th e ra ilro a d 's c o n s tru c tio n w o u ld im p ro ve p ro sp e cts.59 In a le tte r dated N ovem ber 8, 1872, A u s tin re q u e s te d th a t R o m b ach p a y H a rt $ 5 0 ow ed to h im fo r m a n a g in g R o m b a c h 's tim b e r p ro p e rty. A c c o rd in g to A u s tin, D e n v e r a n d D r. A n d re w H o lla d a y h a d o rig in a lly h ire d H a rt to w a tc h R o m b ach 's a n d Ben H o lla d a y 's tim b e r la n d fo r $ 2 5 p e r m o n th, w ith R o m b ach to p a y onet h ir d a n d H o lla d a y to p a y tw o -th ird s. H a rt m a in ta in e d th e la n d fo r p o s s ib le sale, harvested m a tu re tim b e r, and k e p t th e liv e s to c k o f lo c a l fa rm e rs o ff th e la n d. A u s tin w e n t on to say th a t a lth o u g h he s till had been u n a b le to sell R om bach's la n d, prices were in fa c t ris in g, p e rh a p s because o f th e prospects fo r a ra ilro a d. He re porte d th a t th e to w n site o f A s p in w a ll h a d been d ivid e d, b u t th a t th e p ro je c t o f in c o rp o ra tin g th e to w n a n d s e llin g the lo ts w as b e ing h e ld u p u n til D. J. M a rtin received p o w e r-o f-a tto rn e y. 60 One d o cu m e n t k e p t b y R om bach also e xp la in s w h y th e old in v e s to r h e ld h is N e braska la n d fo r so long, fa r p a st th e tim e th a t a ty p ic a l la n d s p e c u la to r w o u ld have held it. O n A p ril 13, 1873, W illia m H. H oover sent R o m b a c h a b o o s te r b ro c h u re fro m th e N e b ra s k a S ta te B o a rd o f Im m ig ra tio n. L ike o th e r b o o ste r d o cum e n ts o f th e tim e, th e b ro c h u re d e s c rib e d N e b ra s k a in s u p e rla tiv e s, w h ile i t d e n ig ra te d th e e a ste rn

72 f Settlement T he M a jo r Factors 1854 H.it *t" G R O W T H OF COUNTIES IN NEBRASKA The steady pace of development in Nebraska might have persuaded Matthew Rombach not to sell his properties there. Source: Bradley H. Baltensperger, Nebraska: A Geography (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, Inc., 1985).

73 54 states. N ebraska was "the G arden o f the W est," "the la s t good se ctio n o f a g ric u ltu ra l la n d in th e n a tio n a l domain."61 The b ro c h u re p ro m is e d la n d fo r as little as $ p e r acre, and boosted N e b ra ska 's schools, a g ric u ltu re, clim a te, ra ilw a ys, ca ttle, and even its a b u n d a n t coal beds "u n d e rly in g n e a rly i f n o t th e e n tire surface o f th e S ta te." P erhaps th is b ro c h u re, and o th e r in fo rm a tio n th a t he received, c o n vin ce d R om bach th a t h is in v e s tm e n t in N e b ra ska la n d w o u ld p a y o ff h a n d s o m e ly i f he w ere p a tie n t and h e ld it. Perhaps he fe lt th a t he c o u ld w a it fo r a large p a y o ff because he was receiving re n ta l incom e fro m the p ro p e rtie s in the m e a n tim e. A n in te re s tin g p o in t w as th a t R o b e rt F u rn a s, th e B ro w n v ille p u b lis h e r and a good frie n d to D enver, R om bach, and H o lla d a y, w as the gove rn o r o f the state in Perhaps h a vin g a s tro n g N e b raska booster fo r governor also p ro m p te d R om bach to hold onto h is in v e s tm e n ts there. O n M ay 22, 1875, J o h n H. C rofton, a N e braska C ity law yer, w rote R o m b a c h fo r p e rm is s io n to p ro s p e c t fo r coal on h is p ro p e rtie s n e a r A s p in w a ll. C ro fto n w a n te d a tw e n ty-five year lease on a se ctio n o f la n d, g ra n tin g h im m in e ra l rig h ts fo r one d o lla r's c o n s id e ra tio n. In re tu rn, R o m b ach w as to receive ro y a lty p a ym ents o f o n e -h a lf ce n t p e r b u s h e l o f - coal, and p a ym e n ts fo r o th e r m in e ra ls a t a ra te equal to th e c u s to m a ry ra te p a id in th e e a s te rn states.6 2 E d w a rd W e is e n re d e r w ro te to R o m b ach on A p ril 5, 1876, re q u e stin g fu ll c o n tro l o f la n d he w as re n tin g fro m R o m b ach so th a t he m ig h t e rect a fence a n d m a ke som e o th e r im p ro ve m e n ts. E very tim e he began w o rk th a t changed R om bach's la n d, H e n ry H a rt appeared a n d ordered W eisenreder n o t to m ake the changes. W e ise n reder c o m p la in e d th a t H a rt co u ld n o t read o r w rite, a n d he w as p u t u p to sto p p in g the w o rk b y locals w h o were je a lo u s o f W eisenreder's s u c c e s s in b u s in e s s. T he le tte rs b y C ro fto n a n d W e is e n re d e r d e m o n stra te th a t the p o te n tia l existed fo r R om bach to e arn in co m e fro m h is N ebraska p ro p e rtie s.63 R o m b a c h s u e d W illia m M. S ta r k in M a rc h fo r m is re p re s e n tin g the va lu e o f N ebraska la n d as an in v e s tm e n t in If B a lla rd h a d n o t died in 1861, p e rh a p s R om bach w o u ld have sued h im too. H is la w ye r's s tra te g y w as to sh o w th a t S ta rk and B a lla rd w o rke d to g e th e r to overcharge R om bach and H o lla d a y fo r th e ir N e braska la n d, to

74 55 deceive th e m a b o u t its v a lu e, a n d to p o c k e t th e excess ch a rg e. A p p a re n tly, R o m b a c h a n d H o lla d a y h a d re lie d s o le ly u p o n S ta r k s re c o m m e n d a tio n to h ire B a lla rd to b u y the N ebraska la n d. P rio r to th a t tim e n e ith e r m a n h a d k n o w n B a lla rd w h o w as S ta rk s n e ig h b o r a n d b u s in e s s associate in X enia. B y 1860, R om bach re alize d th a t he h a d o ve rp a id fo r h is la n d, som etim es as m u c h as $ 4 0 p e r acre, based on th e re c o m m e n d a tio n s o f B a lla rd. T w e n ty years la te r, he w as s e e k in g to re c o u p som e o f h is m o ney fro m S ta rk. The legal a c tio n raises several p o in ts. S ince R om bach and H o lla d a y had n o t p a id n e a rly th a t m u c h m o n e y p e r acre fo r th e ir H a lf-b re ed T ra c t la n d, th e tw o m en m u s t have ow ned la n d to g e th e r elsew here in N ebraska. S ince B a lla rd w as dead, R om bach had decided to go a fte r S ta rk to recover the o verpaym ent. W h y he w a ite d u n til 1882 to file s u it is n o t clear, a lth o u g h S ta rk 's b ro th e r had re c e n tly in d ic a te d to R om bach th a t S ta rk was h a rd pressed fo r cash and w a n te d to sell some o f h is p ro p e rty in N ebraska. T h u s R o m b a ch m a y have been galled in to ta k in g legal a ctio n, o r he m a y have decided to get w h a t m o n e y he c o u ld before S ta rk sold th e la n d to som eone else. A n o th e r p o s s ib ility is th a t R om bach m a y have h e sita te d to sue S ta rk fo r fe a r th a t th e im p ro p rie ty o f th e H a lf-b re e d T ra c t la n d -b u y in g schem e, a n d D enver's involvem ent, m ig h t have su rfa ce d.64 In A p ril 1883, R om bach sold 280 o f h is re m a in in g H a lf-b re ed T ra c t acres fo r $ 8,4 0 0, o r $ 3 0 p e r acre, w h ic h was considered a good p rice a t th e tim e. T he la n d w as lo ca te d th re e m ile w e s t o f N e m a h a C ity.65 E d w a rd W e ise n reder b o u g h t B en H o lla d a y's to w n lo ts in A s p in w a ll on N o ve m ber 17, 1883, m a k in g h im th e p rin c ip a l o w n e r o f th e to w n s ite. D ue to th e ta x b u rd e n w ith in th e p a per tow n, he and R om bach agreed to exchange lo ts in o rd e r to consolidate th e ir ow n h o ld in g s a n d to have the in c o rp o ra tio n o f th e s ite re v o k e d o r va ca te d b e fo re th e n e x t ta x assessm ent in A p ril R om bach received h is 3 /1 6 th s p a rt a lo n g the s o u th e rn edge o f th e to w n site, a d jo in in g p a rt o f a se ctio n o f la n d th a t he o w n e d th e re. V a c a tin g th e to w n s ite in d ic a te s R o m b a c h s a c k n o w le d g e m e n t th a t A s p in w a ll w o u ld never be w o rth m o re th a n th e s u rro u n d in g fa rm la n d. As W e ise n re d e r e x p la in e d in a le tte r, "The p ro s p e c t fo r a to w n seems to be gone f o r e v e r."66

75 56 U p o n R om bach's d e a th in O ctober 1903, h is la n d passed to h is d a u g h te r Louise C. D enver, w ife o f Jam es W. D enver, w h o h e ld it u n til h e r d e a th in A u g u s t I t w as th e n d iv id e d b e tw e e n h e r th re e s u rv iv in g c h ild re n, one o f w h o m, M a tth e w R o m b a ch D e n ve r, w a s a congre ssm a n fro m O hio. 67 E ach o ffsp rin g 's la n d w as fin a lly sold u p o n th e ir deaths in th e 1920s, 1930s and 1950s, m a in ly to N em aha C o u n ty re s id e n ts.68 w h y th e R o m b a ch -D e n ve r fa m ily h e ld th e la n d so lo n g a p p a re n tly re s ts u p o n th e fa ilu re o f th e s p e c u la tio n its e lf. The c o n s tru c tio n o f a tra n s c o n tin e n ta l ra ilro a d w as delayed in the 1860s b y th e C iv il W ar. E ven a fte r th e U n io n P a cific lin e w as b u ilt th ro u g h O m aha, and th e tra n s c o n tin e n ta l ra ilro a d w as com pleted in M a y 1869, hope rem ained th a t a n o th e r line, the B ro w n ville, F o rt K earny, and Pacific R a ilro a d, w o u ld be b u ilt th ro u g h B ro w n v ille. U n til 1875, w h e n th e ir hope fo r a n e a rb y ra ilro a d fin a lly ended, the H a lf-b re ed la n d m ig h t s till h ave seemed a w o rth w h ile in v e s tm e n t. I f the la n d w as e a rn in g re n ta l m o n e y b y th a t tim e, R om bach and h is h e irs m ig h t have decided to h o ld it fo r th e incom e and th e fu tu re a p p re cia tio n in va lu e.69 A s la te as 1864, and p ro b a b ly la te r, D enver a tte m p te d to g a in a p o s itio n as a n a g e n t fo r som e New Y o rk b u s in e s s m e n s e e k in g to p a rtic ip a te in the c o n s tru c tio n o f the Pacific ra ilro a d. In th a t ca p a city, he co u ld share in th e w e a lth generated fro m b u ild in g th e ra ilro a d and sp e cu la te in w e ste rn la n d as w as h is h a b it. As he w ro te h is w ife, "Tell y o u r fa th e r...i w ill i f p o ssible get to be agent fo r th e R a il R oad to lo o k a fte r th e ir in te re s ts in c e rta in q u a rte rs and i f so it w ill p a y w e ll. "7 0 F o r D enver, w e s te rn la n d and th e P acific ra ilro a d w ere in v e s tm e n ts, i f n o t m ild obsessions, th a t offered th e o p p o rtu n ity to s trik e it ric h. W h ile he w a s C o m m is s io n e r o f In d ia n A ffa irs in 1857, he trie d to co m b in e b o th in te re s ts in to one in v e s tm e n t b y sp e cu la tin g on N em aha H a lf-b re ed T ra c t la n d s. The m ixed-b lo o d s sold th e ir la n d s a t b a rg a in p rices, a com m on b e h a v io r o f In d ia n s w h o w ere u n a b le to m ake a tra n s itio n to a sedentary, fa n n in g life style. U n fo rtu n a te ly, governm ent o fficia ls d id n o t le a rn a b o u t th a t h a za rd o f a llo ttin g la n d in severalty, a n d c o n tin u e d th e p ra c tic e, even expanded it, as the n in e te e n th c e n tu ry progressed.

76 57 ENDNOTES "NO W H ITE PERSON SH O U LD B E PERM ITTED.. 1 N ebraska A d ve rtise r (B row nville), 1 O ctober, p. 3, c. l; 2 9 O ctober 1857, p. 2, c. 3. ^ B e r lin B. C h a p m a n, "The N e m a ha H a lf-b re e d R e s e rv a tio n," N e b raska H is to ry 38 (M arch 1957): ^ M a tth e w R om bach w as th e fa th e r-in -la w o f In d ia n C o m m is s io n e r J a m e s W. D enver. D enver's agent W illia m M a tth e w S ta rk in tro d u c e d A le x a n d e r S. B a lla rd, an associate o f h is fro m Xenia, O hio, to R om bach. B e n H o lla d a y and Jam es C ra ig were a cq u a in ta n ce s o f D e n ve r fro m h is e a rlie r p rofessional life in M isso u ri. ^ G e o rg e C. B a rn s, D e n v e r, th e M a n (S tra s b u rg, V irg in ia : S h e n a n d o a h P u b lis h in g H ouse, 1950), 3-8; Jam es W. D e n ve r o f O hio: H is Life. H is Services, and H is A v a ila b ility. (W ashington, D. C.: G ra y and C la rk s o n, P rin te rs, 1884), The la s t-m e n tio n e d s o u rc e w a s a c a m p a ig n b o o k le t p ro m o tin g D enver as a D e m o cra tic c a n d id a te fo r th e p re s id e n c y in It is a va ilable fro m the D enver C o lle ctio n, W e ste rn H is to iy C ollections, U n iv e rs ity o f O klahom a, N orm an, O kla h o m a ^Barns, D enver, th e M a n. 8, 11-14, 24; Jam es W. D e n ve r o f O h io. ^ B a rn s, Denver, th e M a n ; Jam es W. D enver o f O h io ^ B a m s, D enver, th e M a n. 65; Jam es W. D enver o f O h io ^B a rn s, Denver, th e M a n ^B a rn s, Denver, th e M a n , B a m s. Denver, th e M a n , ^ B a m s, Denver, th e M a n l ^ B a m s. Denver, th e M a n ^"Speech o f H onorable J, W. D enver o f C a lifo rn ia, A g a in s t The B ill to E x p e d ite th e Is s u in g o f P a te n ts F o r C o n firm e d L a n d C la im s in C a lifo rn ia," H ouse o f R epresentatives, 30 J u ly 1856, te x t a va ila b le fro m D e n ve r C ollection.

77 58 l^ B a m s, Denver, the M a n A d m itte d ly, as th e re is no d o c u m e n t o r o th e r d ire c t evidence d e s c rib in g a la n d -b u y in g schem e, th e evidence p re s e n te d h e re is c ir c u m s ta n tia l. T h e p re p o n d e ra n c e o f e v id e n c e, even th o u g h c irc u m s ta n tia l, is persuasive th a t D enver and h is associates engaged in s p e c u la tio n on the N em aha H alf-b reed T ra ct. 1 6 it is lik e ly th a t th e m a il ro u te crossed th e riv e r a t th is p o in t because o f th e favorable topography. ft B a rn s, D enver, th e M a n. 134, D enver a n d R o m b a ch w ere fro m th e c ity o f W ilm in g to n in C lin to n C o u n ty, O hio, w h ile S ta rk a n d B a lla rd were fro m X e n ia in n e ig h b o rin g Greene C o u n ty. l ^ N em aha C o u n tv (N ebraska) Deed R e co rd. A : T h e deed re cord s are fo u n d in th e c ity o f A u b u rn, N ebraska, in th e office o f th e C o u n ty C le rk a t the N em aha C o u n ty C ourthouse. l^ A lb e r t J* B row n, ed., H is to ry o f C lin to n C o u n ty. O hio: Its People. In d u s trie s and In s titu tio n s (In d ia n a p o lis : B. F. B ow en a n d C o m p any, In c., 1915), B a rn s, D enver, th e M a n ; B ro w n, H is to ry o f C lin to n C o u n ty ; Jam es W. D enver to Louise C. D enver, 24 M a y 1863, D enver C ollection. 21 N em aha C o u n ty Deed R ecord. A : V o lu m e s A a n d 1 c o n ta in dozens o f these co n tra cts. 2 2 f. L. W oodw ard, "F. L. W oodw ard Tells o f A s p in w a ll and N em aha C ity," N e b raska H is to ry and Record o f Pioneer D a vs. v. 1, nos. 3, 4 (Fall 1918): \V o o d w a rd, "F. L. W o odw ard T e lls o f A s p in w a ll and N e m a ha C ity," Q re g o ry J. Johanse n, "T o M ake Some P ro visio n fo r T h e ir H a lf- B re e d,' T he N em aha H a lf-b re e d Reserve, ," N e b ra ska H is to ry (S pring, 1986): N em aha C o u n ty Deed R ecord. A : j 0hansen, "The N em aha H alf-b reed Reserve," 22.

78 N em aha C o u n tv Deed R ecord. 2: j #v. F re d e rick, B en H o lla d a v. th e S tagecoach K in g (G lendale, C a lifo rn ia : A r th u r H. C la rk Co., 1940), ^ ^ N em aha C o u n tv Deed R e co rd. A :2 8 1, ; J. H. D u n d a s, G ra n g e r H is to ry o f N em aha C o u n ty (A u b u rn, N ebraska: B y th e A u th o r, 1902), 12; W oodw ard, "F. L. W oodw ard Tells o f A s p in w a ll a n d N em aha C ity," 4. H e n ry H a rt o f N em aha C ity m anaged B en H o lla d a y's la n d s n e a r A s p in w a ll d u rin g th e 1860s. B a n k e r J o h n L. C a rso n e v e n tu a lly b o u g h t H o lla d a y's A s p in w a ll p ro p e rty, w h ile the D enver-r om bach fa m ily ow ned p ro p e rty n e a rb y in to the 1950s. SOBarns, D enver, th e M a n. 13; F re d e rick, B en H o lla d a v , A D e n v e r-h o lla d a y frie n d s h ip is also e v id e n t in th re e le tte rs : L o u ise C. D enver to M a tth e w R om bach and w ife, 17 A p ril 1860; Jam es W. D e n ve r to Louise C. D enver, 3 O cto b e r 1861; Ja m e s W. D e n ve r to L o u ise C. D enver, 3 J u n e 1864, D enver C o lle ctio n. These th re e le tte rs, th o u g h w ritte n a fte r th e events on th e H a lf-b re ed T ra c t, reveal th a t th e D e n v e rs a n d H o lla d a y s sh a re d a close re la tio n s h ip w h ic h in v o lv e d d in n e rs to g e th e r and extended v is its a t th e H o lla d a y hom e in New Y o rk C ity. 31 B a rn s, D enver, th e M a n. 13; F re d e rick, B en H o lla d a v. 40, 41, S te w a rt S ifakis, W ho W as W ho in the C iv il W a r (New Y o rk: Facts on File P u b lica tio n s, 1988), B a rn s, Denver, th e M a n ; C hapm an, "The N em aha H a lf- B reed R eservation," 16; Nem aha C o u n ty Deed R ecord. 2 :2 3 6 ; 5 :605, B a m s, Denver, the M a n Le Roy R. H afen, "Ben H o lla d a y," in D ic tio n a ry o f A m e ric a n B io g ra p h y, ed. D u m a s M a lo n e (New Y o rk: C h a rle s S c rib n e r's S ons, 1932), 9: ]\jem aha C o u n ty Deed R ecord. 1: FY ancis P a u l P ru ch a, The G re a t F a th e r: T he U n ite d S ta te s G o v e rn m e n t a n d th e A m e ric a n In d ia n. 2 vols. (L in coln : U n iv e rs ity o f N e b ra ska Press, 1984), 1:319.

79 p m cha. The G reat F a th e r. 1: p ru c ha, The G reat F a th e r. 1: p ru c h a, The G reat F a th e r. 1: p ru c h a, The G reat F a th e r. 1: p ru c h a, The G reat F a th e r. 1: p ru c ha, The G re a t F a th e r. 1:327; D o n a ld C h a p u t, "Ja m e s W. D enver: 1857, ," in The C o m m issio n e rs o f In d ia n A ffa irs eds. R obert M. K va sn icka and H erm an J. V io la (L in coln: U n iv e rs ity o f N e braska Press, 1979), B a rn s, D enver, the M a n B a m s, Denver, the M a n c h a p u t, "Jam es W. D enver," in The C o m m is s io n e rs o f In d ia n A ffa irs ^ C h a p u t, "Jam es W. D enver," in The C o m m is s io n e rs o f In d ia n A ffa irs R ev iseci S ta tu te s o f th e U n ite d S tates. 2 n d ed., 2 2 n d C ongress, C h a p te r 162, s ta tu te 2078, 30 J u n e 1834, p U. S., S ta tu te s a t Large. 2:403, 653. SORevised S ta tu te s o f th e U n ite d S tates. 2 n d ed., 2 2 n d C ongress, C h a p te r 162, s ta tu te 2078, 30 J u n e 1834, p Revised S ta tu te s o f th e U n ite d S tates. 2 n d ed., 2 2 n d C ongress, C h a p te r 162, s ta tu te 2078, 30 J u n e 1834, p h. W. H ow ard K n o tt, "Jam es W illia m D enver," in D ic tio n a ry o f A m e ric a n B io g ra p h y, eds. A lle n J o h n s o n and D u m a s M a lo ne (New Y ork: C h a rle s S crib n e r's Sons, 1930), 5 : ; Jam es W. D enver o f O h io. 5-11; Ja m e s W. D enver to P re sid e n t Ja m es B u c h a n a n, 12 M a rc h 1859, D enver C ollection. 5 3 N em aha C o u n ty Deed R ecord. 6; , 15:46-49.

80 \v illia m H. H oover to M a tth e w Rom bach, 23 J u ly 1867, M a tth e w R o m b a c h Papers, R o m b a ch Place, C lin to n C o u n ty H is to ric a l S o cie ty M u seum, W ilm in g to n, O hio. 5 5 W illia m j, A u s tin to M a tth e w R om bach, 28 N ovem ber 1870, M a tth e w R om bach Papers. 5 6 \v illia m H. H oover to M a tth e w R om bach, 14 A p ril 1871, M a tth e w R om bach Papers. S ^H e n ry H a rt to M a tth e w R om bach, 25 J a n u a ry 1872, M a tth e w R om bach Papers. S ^H.H. D a u m to M a tth e w R om bach, 27 F e b ru a ry 1872, M a tth e w R o m b ach Papers; Jam es W. D enver to Louise C. D enver, 24 M a y 1863, D e n ve r C o llection; C h a p u t, "Jam es W. D enver," in The C o m m issio n e rs o f In d ia n A ffa irs S ^ W illia m J. A u s tin to M a tth e w R om bach, 20 M a y 1872, M a tth e w R om bach Papers. 6 0 \v illia m J. A u s tin to M a tth e w R o m b ach, 8 N o ve m ber 1872, M a tth e w R om bach Papers. 6 1 j. H. N otew are, N ebraska (Lincoln: S tate B o a rd o f Im m ig ra tio n, 1873), b ro ch u re, M a tth e w R om bach Papers. 62J o h n H. C ro fto n to M a tth e w R om bach, 22 M a y 1875, M a tth e w R om bach Papers. 6 3 ^ d w a rd W e is e n re d e r to M a tth e w R o m b a ch, 5 A p r il 1876, M a tth e w R om bach Papers. 6 4 w. F. S tra u b to M a tth e w R om bach, 14 M a rc h 1882, M a tth e w R o m b a ch Papers; L o uise C. D e n ve r to M a tth e w R o m b ach, 22 A u g u s t 1860, D enver C ollection. 6 5 w illia m H. H oover to M a tth e w R om bach, 6 A p ril 1883, M a tth e w R om bach Papers. 6 6 E d w a rd W eisenreder to M a tth e w R om bach, 19 D ecem ber 1883; M a tth e w R om bach to W illia m H. H oover, 27 D ecem ber 1883, M a tth e w R om bach Papers.

81 62 S ^ N e m a h a C o u n tv Deed R ecord. "M iscellaneous Deeds", 4:47, N em aha C o u n tv Deed R ecord. 63:449, 473, , F o r a re la te d a rtic le, see Jam es J. B lake, "The B ro w n v ille, F o rt K e a rn e y a n d P a cific R a ilro a d," N e b ra ska H is to ry 29 (D ecem ber 1948): Jam es W. D enver to Louise C. Denver, 24 M a y 1863; Ja m e s W. D enver to Louise C. D enver, 3 J u n e 1864, D enver C o lle ctio n.

82 63 CHAPTER TH R EE "A FIN G ER IN EVERY PIE": T H E A C TIV ITIE S O F STEPHEN F. NUCKOLLS A N D H IS BR O TH ER S S te p h e n F. N u c k o lls and h is b ro th e rs, w h o b o u g h t th o u s a n d s o f acres o f H alf-b reed T ra c t la n d on sp e cu la tio n, e p itom ized th e aggressive fro n tie r e n tre p re n e u rs o f th e la te 1850s. T h e y re cognize d th e r ic h p o te n tia l o f a v a rie ty o f fro n tie r businesses and s o u g h t to p a rtic ip a te in each one, as i f to define the saying, "to have a fin g e r in every p ie." In te rm s o f the a m o u n t o f re serva tio n la n d purchased, th e y w ere the la rg e st s p e c u la to rs on the H alf-b reed T ra ct. T h e ir challenge w as to m anage the la n d to its fu ll p o te n tia l th ro u g h th e deep re cession o f 1857 a n d the chaos o f th e C iv il W ar, even as th e y plunged in to each n e w v e n tu re th a t cam e along. E v e n tu a lly, c o n s tra in ts o f tim e and m oney forced th e m to choose betw een th e ir la n d and o th e r businesses, b u t th e ir im p a c t u p o n s o u th e a s te rn N ebraska rem ained evident fo r decades. S te p h e n N u c k o lls, one o f th e m o s t im p o rta n t e a rly s e ttle rs in N e b raska, w as b o m in G rayson C o u n ty, V irg in ia, on A u g u s t 16, 1825, th e son o f E zra N u cko lls, a m e rc h a n t and p la n te r. In N ovem ber 1847, S te p h e n N u c k o lls opened a general store in L in d e n, M is s o u ri, a n o w - d e fu n c t to w n in A tc h is o n C o u n ty, w h ic h proved so s u c c e s s fu l th a t he e s ta b lis h e d several b ra n ch e s in w e s te rn M is s o u ri and Iow a. In 1854, a fte r le a rn in g th a t C ongress in te n d e d to open N ebraska T e rrito ry to w h ite s e ttle m e n t, N u c k o lls crossed th e M is s o u ri R ive r to lo ca te la n d n e a r p re s e n t-d a y N e b ra s k a C ity fo r p u rc h a s e w h e n i t b e ca m e le g a lly a u th o riz e d. The g o vern m e n t h a d b u ilt th e o rig in a l F o rt K e a rn y th e re in 1846, a lo n g w ith th e B lo c k H ouse, a s m a ll stockade w h ic h h o u se d a d e ta c h m e n t o f dragoons to p ro te c t tra ve le rs fro m In d ia n s. S ince lo ca l In d ia n s w ere frie n d ly, th e so ld ie rs abandoned th e p o s t tw o years la te r a n d m oved fu rth e r w est, A w h ite s q u a tte r nam e d H ira m P. D o w n s o ccu p ie d th e vacated p o st h o s p ita l and stockade, a long w ith a p a rc e l o f la n d in th e v ic in ity. He w o u ld la te r b u ild and operate th e C ity H otel, the

83 64 fir s t o f its k in d in N ebraska C ity. In A p ril 1854, N u c k o lls, D o w n s, and la w y e r A lle n A. B ra d fo rd fo rm e d a p a rtn e rs h ip a n d agreed to becom e jo in t ow ners o f D o w n s 160-acre cla im. A fte r th e K a n sa s-n e b ra ska A c t becam e la w in M ay, N u cko lls surveyed th e p ro p e rty and la id o u t th e c ity. A c tu a l c o n s tru c tio n began in J u ly, and the c ity w as in c o rp o ra te d d u rin g th e fo llo w in g M ay. N u cko lls, som etim es called th e "F a th e r o f N e b ra ska C ity ", served as th e p re s id e n t o f th e to w n com pany. O n D ecem ber 31, 1857, th e c ity com bined w ith th e n e a rb y settlem ents o f K e a rn e y C ity and S o u th N e braska C ity to becom e one o f the m o s t s u b s ta n tia l riv e r to w n s in th e te rrito ry. 1 In an e ffo rt to m ake N ebraska C ity the te rrito ria l c a p ita l, N u c k o lls loaned h is w agon to c a rry th e firs t te rrito ria l governor, F ra n c is B u rt, in to N e b ra ska, th o u g h th e p o litic ia n ended u p in B e llevu e o n O c to b e r 7, 1854, w here he died eleven days la te r. N ext N u c k o lls b u ilt a sp a cio u s b r ic k b u ild in g a t S ix th a n d M a in, h o p in g th a t th e f ir s t T e r r ito r ia l L e g is la tu re w o u ld m eet th e re since it was the fin e s t b r ic k s tru c tu re in N e b ra s k a a t th a t tim e. N u c k o lls w as a g a in fru s tra te d w h e n th e le g is la tu re decided to m eet in O m aha, th o u g h h is b ro th e r L a fa ye tte served in the F irs t N ebraska T e rrito ria l Legislature in 1855, a n d N u c k o lls h im s e lf becam e a m e m b e r o f th e S ix th T e rrito ria l L e g is la tu re in T h is p o s itio n w as th e firs t o f several p o litic a l offices h e ld b y N u c k o lls in N e b ra ska and W y o m in g. 2 N u c k o lls h a d five b ro th e rs w ho were active p io n e e r b u sin e s s m e n. S te p h e n, H o u s to n, a n d H e a th b o u g h t H a lf-b re e d T ra c t la n d, w h ic h fo rm e d ju s t a p a rt o f th e to ta l p ro p e rty owned b y th e b ro th e rs a lo n g the M is s o u ri R iver. H e a th (b. 1830) se ttle d in N e b raska C ity in 1854 and o p e ra te d a store w h ic h sold groceries, general m e rch a n d ise, a n d fa rm im p le m e n ts. H is p a rtn e r C h a rle s H. Cowles had e s ta b lis h e d th e fir s t re g u la r store in the c ity in the s p rin g o f 1854, and he served in th e F irs t T e rrito ria l Legislature th e fo llo w in g year. Cowles w as a close frie n d to the w e a lth y M is s o u ri m e rc h a n t R o b e rt H a w ke w h o b e ca m e S te p h e n N u c k o lls 's b u sin e ss p a rtn e r in F o r a b rie f tim e in 1857, H e a th liv e d in St. D eroin, a H alf-b reed T ra c t riv e r to w n in R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty, w h e re he o p e ra te d one o f S te p h e n s stores, b u t he m oved b a c k to

84 65 N e b ra ska C ity w h e n busin e ss w orsened in th e fa ll o f th a t year. H o u sto n (b. 1838), w h o also operated one o f h is b ro th e r's stores a n d tra d e d la n d fro m St. S tephens, a n o th e r H a lf-b re e d T ra c t riv e r to w n in R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty, h a d a re p u ta tio n as a sp e cula to r. C o lu m b u s (b. 1833) w as a la n d a n d in s u ra n c e agent in G lenw ood and Pacific C ity, Iow a. Lafayette (b. 1835) w as a b a n k e r a n d la n d agent in G lenw ood, w h e re he m ade c o lle c tio n s, extended loans, and tra d e d real estate. He and C o lu m b u s w ere m e m b e rs o f th e P la tts m o u th, N. T. to w n c o m p a n y w h ic h th e y h e lp e d organize in O ctober He m a y have also operated S tephen's g eneral store w h ic h occupied th e la rg est b u ild in g in G lenw ood. In 1858, h is b u sin e sse s failed, ca u s in g a ra p id d e te rio ra tio n in h is h e a lth, a n d d e a th in F e b ru a ry 1860, a t th e age o f t w e n t y - f o u r. 3 in 1859, fifte e n - y e a r-o ld E m m e t N u c k o lls (b. 1844) drove a n o x-te a m fro m M is s o u ri to D e n ve r C ity. Two years la te r, he opened th e firs t liv e ry stable a t C e n tra l C ity, C olorado T e rrito ry, w here S tephen operated a m e rc h a n d is e store. A t C e n tra l C ity, S te p h e n 's in te re s ts s h ifte d fro m re ta ilin g to m in in g, w h ic h occupied h im fo r several years. E m m e t also located a hom estead n e a r th e o rig in a l D enver C ity H a ll. In 1890, he a n d h is sons e sta b lish e d th e N u c k o lls P a ckin g C o m p a n y in Pueblo w h e re he w o rk e d u n t il h is d e a th tw e n ty-o n e years later. 4 S tephen N u cko lls, th e m o s t successful o f th e b ro th e rs, p u rs u e d an a m a z in g a rra y o f businesses w h ic h he b u ilt la rg e ly fro m h is ow n re ta il w e a lth. A s th e a g e n t fo r th e to w n co m pany, he s o ld to w n lo ts in N e b ra s k a C ity, a lo n g w ith th e s u b s ta n tia l p ro p e rty th a t he ow ned se parately. N u cko lls, D ow ns, and B ra d fo rd ow ned The N ew s, th e to w n s f ir s t n e w s p a p e r a n d b o o s te r p u b lic a tio n. In A p r il 1855, T h e News m erged w ith The P a lla d iu m, a B ellevue new spaper, and p u b lis h e d fro m th e u p p e r flo o r o f th e B lo c k H ouse, in th e fo rm e r F o rt K e a rn y. T h is m e rg e r b ro u g h t th e M o rto n fa m ily in to th e p u b lis h in g b u s in e s s in N e b ra ska C ity. T hom as M o rto n h a d fo u n d e d The N e b ra ska P a lla d iu m a n d P latte V a lie v A dvocate in B ellevue d u rin g N ovem ber W hen B e llevue fa ile d to becom e th e te rrito ria l capita l, he m oved h is e q u ip m e n t to N e b ra ska C ity, th o u g h he n e a rly lo s t it a ll w h ile cro ssin g th e P latte R ive r. M o rto n served as p a rt o w n e r a n d p u b lis h e r o f th e re n a m e d

85 66 N e b raska C ity News fo r the n e x t th irty -tw o years. The new sp a p e r w as so o u ts p o k e n ly D e m o cra tic and pro-ja m es B u c h a n a n th a t a b o litio n is t J im Lane th re a te n e d to d e stro y its office and ly n c h E d ito r J. S te rlin g M o rto n fo r h is co m m e n ts on th e Kansas W ar o f A lo n g w ith th e g re a t v a rie ty o f h is businesses, S te p h e n N u c k o lls ra n businesses in m a n y d iffe re n t locations. H is m e rc a n tile stores w ere in L in d e n a n d R o ckp o rt, M is s o u ri; G lenw ood, Pacific C ity, a n d H a m b u rg, Io w a ; N e b ra s k a C ity, B ro w n v ille, M o u n t V e rn o n, St. D e ro in, a n d St. S te p h e n s, N e b ra s k a T e rrito ry. H is p a rtn e r in R o c k p o rt w a s n a m e d W h ite, w ith w h o m he so ld d ry goods a n d g roce rie s. A t th a t tim e, R o c k p o rt com peted w ith L in d e n over w h ic h to w n w o u ld becom e th e c o u n ty seat o f A tc h is o n C ounty. In a special ele ctio n in 1856, R o c k p o rt defeated L in d e n, and the la tte r to w n e v e n tu a lly disappeared. N u c k o lls 's m a in c o m p e tito rs in M is s o u ri were th e m e rc h a n t p a rtn e rs R o b e rt H aw ke a n d a M r. D illo n in R o c k p o rt and H em m e's L a n d in g. D u rin g A u g u s t 1856, N u c k o lls te m p o ra rily lo s t W hite as h is p a rtn e r a n d he entered in to p a rtn e rs h ip w ith a m a n nam ed R ussell. In Novem ber, a steam -pow ered s a w m ill, co-ow ned b y N u cko lls and W hite, b u rn e d dow n, re p re s e n tin g an u n in s u re d lo ss o f b etw een $ 6,0 0 0 a n d $ 7, E ig h t m o n th s la te r, N u c k o lls le ft R u s s e ll a n d re -e n te re d p a rtn e rs h ip w ith W h ite. In B ro w n v ille, N u c k o lls cleared and leveled several lo ts b y the b o a t la n d in g, w h e re he b u ilt a sto re. N u c k o lls 's n e w ly -c o m p le te d sto re in M o u n t V e rn o n b u rn e d in J u ly 1857, w ith a loss o f $ 1,5 0 0 fo r th e s tru c tu re, th o u g h fo rtu n a te ly he h a d n o t y e t sto cke d th e b u ild in g w ith goods. A lo n g w ith h is m e rc a n tile store in N e b ra ska C ity, N u c k o lls also sold b u ild in g su p p lie s o u t o f a s m a ll store a t th e city 's b o a t la n d in g, w ith h is p a rtn e r C h a rle s G rever. N u cko lls k n e w the valu e o f p a rtn e rs h ip s, fo r he h a d m a n y associates in h is business and la n d ve n tu re s. O n th e fro n tie r, a b u s in e s s m a n never k n e w w h ic h to w n s o r b usinesses w o u ld succeed a n d w h ic h w o u ld fa il. Coverage, b e in g in as m a n y s itu a tio n s a n d lo c a tio n s as p o s s ib le, p ro b a b ly seem ed a b e tte r s tra te g y th a n c o n c e n tra tio n. 5 In 1855, N u cko lls founded the Platte V a lle y B a n k a n d served as its fir s t p re s id e n t. He h oused the b a n k in h is fin e b r ic k b u ild in g o n th e

86 67 s o u th e a s t co rn e r o f S ix th and M a in, w h ic h he h a d o rig in a lly c o n s tru c te d fo r th e te rrito r ia l l e g i s l a t u r e. ^ A t th a t tim e, m o n e y d id n o t c irc u la te fre e ly in s e m i-fro n tie r areas, a n d c o n d u c tin g b u s in e s s becam e q u ite d iffic u lt. To place m ore m o ney in c irc u la tio n, th e S econd T e rrito ria l L e g is la tu re passed a la w in 1856 p e rm ittin g th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f five "b a n k s o f issue," in c lu d in g the P latte V a lle y B a n k, each o f w h ic h co u ld b e g in b u s in e s s w ith a $ 5,0 0 0 s to c k s u b s c rip tio n. S ince s u b s c rip tio n s a m o u n te d to pledges w ith o u t a c tu a l p a ym e n t o f fu n d s, th e b a n k s issued m o n e y b a cke d w ith little m o re th a n th e p ro m ise to redeem th e ir ow n n o te s. N u c k o lls o p e ra te d th e b a n k w ith h is a s s o c ia te s J o h n B. B o u lw a re, A lle n A. B ra d fo rd, Jo se p h W. C ollidge, J o h n C. C a m p b e ll, H ira m Joy, W illia m B. H ail, W illia m L a rim e r J r., and Isaac L. G ibbs. It is n o t s u rp ris in g th a t th e la w m a ke rs chartered N u c k o lls 's b a n k, since five b o a rd m e m b e rs and o th e r b a n k frie n d s served in th e le g is la tu re. B ra d fo rd a n d h is b ro th e r served on th e le g is la tiv e c o u n c il, w h ic h approved th e b a n k b y a te n -to -th re e vote. In th e H ouse, R epresentatives B o u lw a re, C a m p bell, H a il a n d L a rim e r s u p p o rte d th e b a n k. W illia m H oover, A b e l D. K irk, and N eil J. S h a rp o f R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty rejected th e b a n k, perhaps in o p p o s itio n to in a d e q u a te ly-b a cke d in s titu tio n s, o r p e rh a p s to h a m p e r the a b ility o f the N uckollses to com pete w ith th e m fo r la n d in th e ir county. The so-called "w ild c a t b a n k s " issu e d so m a n y n o te s th a t m o ney becam e p le n tifu l in th e fa ll o f 1856 and th ro u g h o u t m u c h o f th e fo llo w in g year. The a b u ndance o f c a p ita l had a p ro fo u n d effect on th e p u rch a se o f la n d. S e ttle rs w ho p re v io u s ly had m ade s q u a tte r's cla im s o fte n d id n o t have th e m o n e y to p a y fo r th e ir la n d in cases w h e re th e g o v e rn m e n t e s ta b lis h e d la n d offices and dem anded p a ym e n t. W ild c a t m o n e y w as "easy m oney", because it was n o t backed b y gold o r coin, and fu n c tio n e d m ore lik e m o d e m c re d it cards th a n cash. I t encouraged b u ye rs to in fla te la n d p ric e s th ro u g h s p e c u la tio n, and it p e rm itte d o u ts id e rs to b u y N e b ra s k a la n d b y a c q u irin g th e b a n k s and u s in g th e ir n o te s. N o t s u r p r is in g ly, th e m a jo rity o f th e se b a n k s cam e to be o w n e d b y "fo re ig n e rs," o r o u t-o f-te rrito ry in ve sto rs. O f th e e ig h t e a rlie s t b a n k s, o n ly th e P la tte V a lle y B a n k re ta in e d o w n e rs h ip in N e b r a s k a. 9

87 68 S p e cu la to rs trie d to resell p o rtio n s o f th e ir la n d to g u llib le new com ers fo r fa n ta s tic p rice s. So m a n y m en engaged in these v e n tu re s th a t la n d p rice s skyrocketed, th u s encouraging fu rth e r s p e c u la tio n because people th o u g h t p ric e s w o u ld c o n tin u e h ig h e r. Som e s p e c u la to rs p la tte d to w n s ite s, sold to w n lo ts, and p rin te d lith o g ra p h e d s to c k c e rtific a te s to ra ise fu n d s fo r th e ir to w n site com panies. H o u sto n N u c k o lls a p pears to have been th is type o f la n d sp e cula to r. A b o u t h im i t w as la te r w ritte n, "W ho a m o n g th e o ld s e ttle rs ca n fo rg e t H o u s to n N u c k o lls a n d h is schem es? H ow he ru le d the lim ite d w o rld in w h ic h he m oved: h o w he c a rrie d on h is re al-estate tra n s a c tio n s, m u c h as boys w o u ld sw ap ja c k k n iv e s, a n d how, a fte r a few ye a rs o f active and, in m a n y re spects, su c c e s s fu l s trife w ith th e w o rld, he a t la s t fe ll v ic tim to th e fa ta l cu p." T h is fin a l im age m a y be a poetic d e s c rip tio n o f d eath, o r i t m a y suggest th a t H o u s to n N u cko lls was an alcoholic, w h ic h m ig h t e x p la in som e o f h is a c tio n s, fo r he to o k ris k s in la n d dealings w h ic h m a y b e st be described as gam bles. H o u s to n N u c k o lls w as a co -fo u n d e r and p ro m o te r o f A rc h e r, th e f ir s t c o u n ty seat o f R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty. E a rly in 1855, N eil J. S h a rp secu re d a g ra n t fo r th e to w n s ite th ro u g h the te rrito r ia l le g is la tu re, o f w h ic h he w a s a m e m b e r, h a v in g been elected in th e f ir s t te r r ito r ia l e le c tio n o f D ecem ber N u c k o lls, S harp, A b e l D. K irk, a n d th re e o th e r m e n w ere the p rin c ip a ls o f th e to w n site co m p a n y w h ic h fo rm e d in th e s u m m e r o f W ith lib e ra l b o o s tin g, th e to w n th riv e d u n t il J a n u a ry 1856, w h e n th e re s u lts o f a su rvey in d ic a te d th a t th e to w n w as lo ca te d ju s t in s id e th e w e s te rn b o u n d a ry o f th e H a lf-b re e d T ra c t. K irk w e n t to W a sh in g to n, D. C. on b e h a lf o f the to w n s in h a b ita n ts, b u t fa ile d to g a in a n y concessions fro m th e governm ent. H is successor, E lm e r S. D u n d y, la te r a te r r ito r ia l ju d g e, p e rsu a d e d C ongress to pass a la w p e rm ittin g th e s e ttle rs to re ta in la n d s w h ic h th e y h a d im p ro v e d. O n J u n e 12, 1858, C ongress declared th a t th e erroneous w e s te rn lin e fro m a n e a rlie r survey, w h ic h le ft A rc h e r o ff th e H a lf-b re e d T ra c t, w a s th e c o rre c t re s e rv a tio n b o u n d a ry, T h o u g h A rch e r w as te c h n ic a lly "saved," th e to w n fa ile d anyw ay because settle rs hesitated to locate there, and th e c o u n ty seat h a d been re located in th e m e antim e. H o u s to n N u c k o lls 's

88 69 re p u ta tio n su ffe re d because o f the A rc h e r fiasco, since he sold m u c h o f h is p ro p e rty before th e new s becam e w id e ly k n o w n a b o u t th e to w n s lo c a tio n on th e H a lf-b reed T ra ct. A cco rd in g to M a rg a re t M. M addox, the d a u g h te r o f A rc h e r c o -fo u n d e r J o h n C. M ille r, "H o u s to n N u c k o lls received th e w o rd fir s t and before le ttin g i t be k n o w n to o th e rs, sold h is b ig d ru g -s to re b u ild in g to fa th e r a t a b ig price. T h is w ith o th e r losses in th e to w n s ite a lm o st ru in e d fa th e r fin a n c ia lly. He never recovered fro m th e s h o c k o f th o se tro u b le s. H is h e a lth w as c o m p le te ly b ro k e n." 11 T h o u g h it is n o t clear w h e th e r th is a ccusa tio n a b o u t N u c k o lls is correct, m a n y people considered h im to be a m an o f q uestionable in te g rity, u n lik e S tephen N u cko lls w hose re p u ta tio n was ste rlin g. S tephen N u c k o lls w ro te to H o u sto n tw ice in F e b ru a ry 1857 to te ll h im th a t a la n d office w o u ld soon be opening in B ro w n v ille, th o u g h th e tow nspeople were n o t ye t aw are o f th e news, and he urged h is b ro th e r to open an office there. He fe lt th a t H o u sto n w o u ld do w e ll in R ic h a rd s o n a n d N em aha C o unties in real estate and b a n k in g. He also sta te d th a t he a n d C o lu m b u s p la n n e d to open a b a n k together in G lenw ood and one in e ith e r L e a ve n w o rth o r Lecom pton, K ansas T e rrito ry, because a lo t o f m o n e y could be m ade in sp e c u la tio n even i f th e to w n s d id n o t succeed. These le tte rs d e m o n s tra te w h a t aggressive b u s in e s s m e n th e N u c k o lls b ro th e rs w ere, a n d h o w clo se ly th e y w o rk e d to g e th e r.12 L a te r th a t m o n th, S te p h e n N u c k o lls prepared an in v e n to ry o f h is p e rs o n a l w e a lth w h ic h lis te d h is re a l estate assets a t $ 1 8 3,3 3 2 a n d to ta l assets a t $ 2 7 7, H is b u sin e ss p ro fits h a d increased fro m $ 4,2 0 9 fo r th e ye a r e n d in g in F e b ru a ry 1849, to $ 1 1 6,6 4 1 fo r th e y e a r e n d in g in F e b ru a ry A s fo r lia b ilitie s, he lis te d o n ly $ 5 7,7 5 0 in d e b ts o r o u tg o in g m o ney. In s h o rt, S te p h e n N u c k o lls w as a w e a lth y m a n in F e b ru a ry 1857, because la n d values were h ig h and h is businesses were active. He gave no in d ic a tio n th a t he th o u g h t la n d, w here so m u c h o f h is w e a lth w a s co n c e n tra te d, w as o ve rva lu e d. R a th e r, he h a d a m p le m o n e y to aggressively p u rs u e new s p e c u la tio n s.13 M e a n w h ile, H o u s to n N u c k o lls w as n o t d e te rre d b y th e m e ssy dem ise o f A rc h e r, fo r b y M a rc h 1857 he and several o th e r associates, in c lu d in g N eil J. S harp, had organized a to w n com pany a t a place nam ed

89 70 C e n tre v ille, w h ic h w a s d e fin ite ly o ff o f th e re s e rv a tio n n e a r th e g e o g ra p h ica l ce n te r o f R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty, and th e y a tte m p te d to have th e s ite d e cla re d th e n e w c o u n ty seat. U n fo rtu n a te ly fo r N u c k o lls, C e n tre v ille never g o t o ff th e g ro u n d. W hen H a lf-b re ed T ra c t la n d cam e a v a ila b le in 1857, he a g gressively a c q u ire d p ro p e rty th e re a lo n g th e M is s o u ri R iver. A t one spot, m id w a y betw een th e m o u th s o f th e tw o N em aha R ivers, he and h is p a rtn e rs, S tephen S to ry a n d W illia m P, Loan, b u ilt th e to w n o f St. S tephens. As th e fa th e r o f se ve ra l m ix e d -b lo o d c h ild re n, S to ry received th e o rig in a l title to th e la n d s u rro u n d in g th e new to w n, w h ile Loan w as an a tto rn e y and la n d a g e n t fro m A rc h e r. St. S tephens possessed a b u n d a n t tim b e r and b u ild in g stone, a fin e la n d in g o n th e M is s o u ri, tw o m e rca n tile houses, and a s a w m ill w h ic h w as c u ttin g feet o f lu m b e r p er day. A cco rd in g to the N e b ra ska A d v e rtis e r, the o w n e rs were m en o f c a p ita l and experience w ho possessed cle a r title to th e la n d a n d w h o w ere prepare d to fu rn is h w a rra n te e deeds o n a ll lo ts s o ld. T h e o w n e rs p la n n e d to so o n b u ild a h o te l, c h u rc h, a n d schoolhouse, and to operate a steam fe riy b y the s p rin g o f In F e b ru a ry 1858, H o u s to n N u c k o lls and h is a sso cia te s offered H alf-b reed T ra c t acres and 100 to w n lo ts in St. S te p h e n s fo r sale to th e h ig h e s t b id d e r, w ith th e a u c tio n to be h e ld on M a rc h 10 a t St. S tephens. T h o u g h th e evidence is n o t clear, there does n o t seem to have been a sale, fo r th e R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty Deed Record does n o t in d ic a te th a t th e la n d changed h a n d s in M a rch. The la c k o f a b u y e r m a y suggest th a t N u c k o lls dem anded too h ig h o f a price, or th a t p o te n tia l b u y e rs were h e s ita n t to b u y H a lf-b re e d T ra c t la n d w ith A rc h e r s till fre s h in th e ir m in d s. In e a rly Ju n e, N u c k o lls announce d h is in te n tio n to sell la n d a t Y a n c to n, n e a r R u lo, a n o th e r o f h is H a lf-b re e d T ra c t to w n s ite s in R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty, w h ic h w as described as h a v in g a good la n d in g, and a b u n d a n t coal and tim b e r. T h a t same m o n th, H o u s to n N u c k o lls and h is p a rtn e rs m anaged to sell 4,4 0 0 acres a d jo in in g St. S tephens, fo r p rice s ra n g in g fro m $4 to $ 1 4 p e r acre, to a group o f G erm an im m ig ra n ts fro m B u ffa lo, New Y ork, w h o w ish e d to se ttle on th e p ro p e rty im m e d ia te ly. E a rlie r, in M ay, the N ebraska C ity News had announce d, "a n o th e r o f the in d o m ita b le s h a th departed," w h e n it re porte d th e m a rria g e o f H o u s to n

90 71 N u c k o lls a n d M a ry F. H a w ke o f H e m m e 's L a n d in g, M is s o u ri, th e d a u g h te r o f R o b e rt H aw ke. W h ile n o t d e n y in g th a t N u c k o lls h a d tru e a ffe c tio n fo r h is new b rid e, th e m a rria g e h a d p o sitive fin a n c ia l b e n e fits fo r h im as w e ll, fo r it connected h im w ith a w e a lth y fa th e r-in -la w a n d a re a d y source o f credit. D u rin g A u g u s t 1857, in several new spaper a d ve rtise m e n ts, L o u is N eal, one o f th e fir s t m ix e d -b lo o d s to receive h is a llo tm e n t, w a rn e d s e ttle rs a g a in s t b u y in g la n d a t A s p in w a ll fro m R o b e rt H aw ke o r J. G. M e lv in, c la im in g th a t th e tw o m e n h a d fo rfe ite d th e ir c la im s to p ro p e rty th e re, a n d th a t he w as th e sole ow ner. In c o u n te r-a d v e rtis e m e n ts, H a w k e, M e lv in, S te p h e n a n d H o u s to n N u c k o lls, a n d s e ve ra l o th e r b u s in e s s m e n, cla im e d to have p u rch a se d th e la n d fro m Neal, to have p a id fo r it in fu ll, and to possess a q u it c la im deed to th a t effect. W h ile H a w ke a n d h is associates w o n the co n te st, th e perso n s a n d p ro p e rty in v o lv e d in th e d is p u te are m ore in te re s tin g th a n th e re s u lt, th o u g h e x p la n a tio n s as to w h a t happened are h y p o th e tic a l due to th e la c k o f h a rd evidence. 16 S e p te m b e r o f 1857 m a rk e d th e a rriv a l o f J a m e s W. D e n ve r, M a tth e w R om bach, and W illia m M. S ta rk on th e H a lf-b re ed T ra c t. There a t A s p in w a ll, R om bach a ccu m u la te d th e core o f h is p ro p e rty fro m Neal. O ne possible e x p la n a tio n fo r th e d isp u te w as th a t a fte r N eal h a d sold h is p ro p e rty a t A s p in w a ll to th e g ro u p led b y H aw ke, he changed h is m in d a n d trie d to re -s e ll th e la n d to R om bach, w h o w as less fa m ilia r w ith N e b raska p rice s and w as w illin g to pay m ore fo r the la n d. Perhaps Neal, w h o w as th e fir s t m ix e d -b lo o d to receive title to h is p ro p e rty, sa w an a d va n ta g e in d e a lin g w ith D e n ve r s fa th e r-in -la w. In th e end, b o th g ro u p s ended u p b u y in g la n d in and a ro u n d A s p in w a ll fro m Neal. The event also dem o n stra tes th a t th e N u cko lls b ro th e rs were a ctiv e ly in vo lve d w ith each o th e r in th e la n d b u sin e ss, in c lu d in g H a lf-b re e d T ra c t la n d, a n d w ith w e a lth y R o b e rt H aw ke. E a rly in N ovem ber 1857, R o m b a c h s g ro u p la id o u t the to w n o f A sp in w a ll, a n d fo u r m o n th s la te r, they, offered to d o n a te fifty re s id e n tia l and b u s in e s s lo ts in th e to w n to le g itim a te s e ttle rs w h o w o u ld erect houses and im p ro ve th e p ro p e rtie s. The offer seem ed designed to fa c ilita te th e q u ic k e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e to w n in

91 72 o rd e r to overcom e c o m p e titio n fro m n e a rb y N em aha C ity, St. D e ro in, and St. S tephens, and it w as co n siste n t w ith the idea th a t D enver c o u ld exert in flu e n c e to ro u te a ra ilro a d th ro u g h the area. H ad th e p la n succeeded, A s p in w a ll c o u ld have becom e N e b raska 's m o s t im p o rta n t c ity, a n d R o m b a ch a n d h is p a rtn e rs w o u ld have gained a fo rtu n e. In th e fa ll o f 1858, several im p o rta n t nam es were associated w ith th e o p e ra tio n o f a fe rry across th e M is s o u ri R iver a t A s p in w a ll; B en and A n d re w H o lla d a y, Isaac T. W hyte, and Louis N e a l.^ The N u c k o lls b ro th e rs a ll owned s u b s ta n tia l q u a n titie s o f la n d on b o th sides o f th e M is s o u ri R iver, fro m G lenw ood, Iowa, to a t le a st as fa r s o u th as th e b o rd e r w ith K ansas T e rrito ry. T h is w a s p e rh a p s fo r in v e s tm e n t p u rp o s e s a lo n e, b u t th e p u rc h a s e s s e e m in g ly w e re in a n tic ip a tio n o f th e tra n s c o n tin e n ta l ra ilro a d since these h o ld in g s were co n ce n tra te d near co n ve n ie n t riv e r crossing sites, often w here a fe rry had been located. 18 The th e o ry th a t the N uckollses b o u g h t la n d because o f th e P a cific ra ilro a d is p la u s ib le because lo c a l n e w sp a p e rs re g u la rly re p o rte d on it, a n d b e cause m a n y o th e r p e rs o n s b o u g h t la n d o n s p e c u la tio n fo r th e sam e reason. The N e b raska A d v e rtis e r re p o rte d in e a rly 1857 th a t C ongress h a d co n sid e re d D e n v e r's P a c ific ra ilro a d p ro p o s a l a n d th a t i t h a d debated th re e a lte rn a tiv e ro u te s : a s o u th e rn ro u te along the th ir ty - s ix th p a ra lle l to San F ra n cisco ; a n o rth e rn ro u te fro m Lake S u p e rio r to P uget S o u n d ; a n d a c e n tra l ro u te th ro u g h N e b raska betw een fo rty and fo rty-th re e degrees n o rth la titu d e. *9 R eal estate seems to have been ju s t a n o th e r N u c k o lls b u sin e s s. T h e re is no evidence to suggest th a t th e N u cko llse s in flu e n c e d m e n o r p o lic ie s to a c q u ire re s e rv a tio n p ro p e rty fo r th e m se lve s. R a th e r, it a p p e a rs th a t th e y a cte d o p p o rtu n is tic a lly w h e n th e la n d becam e a va ila b le in A u g u s t T hey a cq u ire d s u b s ta n tia l H a lf-b re e d T ra c t h o ld in g s in N em aha C o u n ty, especially n e a r th e to w n s o f St. D e ro in and A s p in w a ll, in c lu d in g o ver 1,800 acres n e a r S t. D e ro in d ire c tly fro m m ix e d -b lo o d s o r fro m C h a rle s M. G rever, w h o operated a fe rry a t th a t lo c a tio n. T h o u g h m o s t o f th is la n d cost th e m o n ly $ p e r acre, even G rever m ade a p ro fit se llin g h is la n d a t th a t price, fo r he h a d p u rch a se d a acre h a lf-s e c tio n fo r $200, o r a b o u t s ix ty -fo u r ce n ts p e r a c r e. ^ O

92 73 S te p h e n N u cko lls d e a lt in real estate th ro u g h a co m pany called N u c k o lls a n d W y a tt, and he ra n fre q u e n t a d ve rtise m e n ts fo r a va ila b le p ro p e rty in th e N e b raska C ity N ew s. One a d ve rtise m e n t offered tim b e re d acres a n d 3,0 0 0 acres o f b o tto m la n d opposite N ebraska C ity in Iow a. N u c k o lls a n d W y a tt p u t 4,5 0 0 acres o f H a lf-b re e d T ra c t la n d In R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty u p fo r sale in J u ly 1858, a lo n g w ith 2,0 0 0 acres in N e m a ha C o u n ty, a lth o u g h it is n o t cle a r i f th e N em aha C o u n ty la n d w as on th e re servatio n. 21 J. S te rlin g M o rto n w as th e e d ito r o f th e N e b ra ska C ity News in 1857, w h e n the te rrito ria l le g is la tu re a u th o riz e d tw o new w ild c a t b a n k s a t D esoto a n d T e ka m a h. A lw a ys a s tro n g o p p o n e n t o f th e "b a n k s o f is s u e," M o rto n s h a rp e n e d h is c ritic is m o f th e b a n k s a n d th e la n d s p e c u la tio n engendered b y th e issue o f th e ir notes. A le tte r to th e e d ito r in F e b ru a ry 1857 h a rs h ly c ritic iz e d th e te r r ito r ia l le g is la tu re fo r a u th o riz in g th e n e w b a n k s and suggested th a t th e b a n k s w o u ld n o t be a b le to b a c k th e ir notes. T h is le tte r c o rre c tly p re d ic te d th e p ro b le m s faced b y s u c h b a n k s in the 1857 fin a n c ia l panic, w h e n m o s t w ere forced to close th e ir doors. A ccu sin g le g isla to rs o f c o rru p tio n, th e le tte r im p lie d th a t Isaac L. G ibbs, S peaker o f th e H ouse in th e te rrito ria l le g is la tu re, h a d accepted b rib e s in r e tu r n fo r h is s u p p o rt o f th e w ild c a t b a n k s. G ib b s w as a d ire c to r o f b o th th e P la tte V a lle y B a n k a n d th e N e b ra ska C ity a n d P a cific R a ilro a d. A second le tte r accused a n o th e r N u c k o lls a sso cia te, B ird C h a p m a n, th e c o n g re ssio n a l delegate fro m N e b ra s k a T e rrito ry, o f a ccepting to w n lo ts in B ro w n v ille in re tu rn fo r lo c a tin g th e L a n d O ffice in th a t city. 22 M ilto n W. R eynolds becam e th e e d ito r o f th e N ebraska C ity News in A u g u s t, w h e n J. S te rlin g M o rto n stepped aside to devote m o re tim e to p o litic s a n d to th e N ebraska Real E state and E xchange C o m p any, w h ic h he served as v ice -p re sid e n t. In h is fir s t e d ito ria l, R eynolds p ra is e d th e s e le c tio n o f F e n n e r F e rguson w h o h a d replaced B ird C h a p m a n as th e N e b ra s k a te rrito ria l delegate. A severe recession, w h ic h began in th e E a s t in A u g u s t, soon spread to N ebraska T e rrito ry and becam e a m a in e d ito ria l to p ic fo r R eynolds th ro u g h o u t th e fall. Like M o rto n, he c ritic iz e d th e la n d sp e cu la to rs and th e w ild c a t b a n ks, m o s t o f w h ic h a lre a d y had

93 74 s u s p e n d e d p a y m e n ts. In th e O cto b e r 1 st e d itio n o f th e N e b r a s k a A d v e rtis e r, e d ito r R o b e rt F u rn a s in c o rre c tly re p o rte d th e fa ilu re o f the P latte V a lle y B a n k, and questio n ed w h e th e r th e b a n k w o u ld be able to redeem its o u ts ta n d in g notes and lia b ilitie s. The N e b ra s k a C ity News v ig o ro u s ly denied th e b a n k 's fa ilu re and p rin te d an open le tte r fro m p ro m in e n t lo c a l m e n p ra is in g N u c k o lls a n d h is d ire c to rs fo r n o t s u s p e n d in g p a ym e n ts. T h o u g h the ru m o r a b o u t th e b a n k 's fa ilu re w as fa ls e, a n d i t n e v e r d id close its d o o rs, its fin a n c e s h a d becom e d a n g e ro u s ly in a d e q u a te.23 j. s te rlin g M o rto n la te r c la im e d th a t h is n e w sp a p e r m a in ta in e d a b o ld fro n t to fo re s ta ll p a n ic. E ven a fu ll ye a r la te r, w h e n th e b a n k h a d la rg e ly recovered fro m danger, ru m o rs s till c irc u la te d th a t i t w as a b o u t to go u n d e r. The N e b raska C ity News o f J u n e 5, 1858, cla im e d e xasperatedly, "The b a n k has a lw a ys a n d s till c o n tin u e s to redeem a t its c o u n te r a ll b ills presented, a n d we have every co n fid e n ce in its a b ility to redeem its e n tire c irc u la tio n w h ic h is n o w b e in g ra p id ly re tire d."24 The discrepancies betw een a cco u n ts in th e tw o n e w sp a p e rs m a y also have reflected the c o m p e titio n betw een N e b ra ska C ity a n d B ro w n v ille. A t a n y ra te, th e episode le ft th e a n ti-w ild c a t N e b ra s k a C ity News d e fe n d in g th e P latte V a lle y B a n k, a n d th e p ro w ild c a t N e b ra ska A d v e rtis e r a tta c k in g it. In N ovem ber, M o rto n w as e le cte d to th e te r r ito r ia l le g is la tu re, p a r tly b e ca u se o f h is s tro n g o p p o s itio n to the w ild c a t b a n ks. M o rto n had appeared to be a p ro p h e t in p re d ic tin g th e b a n k in g fiasco. A c o m p a riso n betw een th e p u b lis h e d a n n u a l re p o rts o f th e P latte V a lle y B a n k, d a te d S e p te m b er 1, 1856, ro u g h ly one y e a r b e fo re th e fin a n c ia l p a n ic, a n d N ovem ber 17, 1858, ro u g h ly one y e a r a fte r the p a n ic, re veal th e a c tu a l changes w h ic h o c c u rre d a t th e b a n k. T o ta l assets and lia b iltie s in the 1856 re p o rt were $ 1 8 0, , w h ile those in 1858 were $ 1 5 1, , o r a decrease o f a b o u t 16%. The difference was due to th e large change in c irc u la tio n, o r th e a m o u n t o f b a n k n otes in th e h a n d s o f th e p u b lic, betw een 1856 a n d C irc u la tio n h a d d ro p p e d fro m $ 6 3, to $ 2 2, , in d ic a tin g th a t th e p u b lic had redeem ed $ 4 0, w o rth o f P latte V a lle y B a n k notes w h ic h N u c k o lls h a d h o n o re d in f u ll. 25 of th e five o rig in a l w ild c a t b a n k s, th e P latte

94 75 V a lle y B a n k w as the o n ly one w h ic h p a id its o b lig a tio n s in f u ll.2 6 E ven R o b e rt F u rn a s la te r p a id h is respects to the b a n k. W h e n d e s c rib in g a b a n k ro b b e ry there in 1859, he noted th a t, "A b a n k th a t has gone safely th ro u g h th e fin a n c ia l c ris is o f late, never in a single in s ta n c e fa ilin g to m ake s a tis fa c to ry p rovisio ns fo r every dem and, is n o t to be in ju re d b y th e s te a lin g o f a few th o u s a n d d o lla rs, o r th e o p p o s itio n a n d p re ju d ic ia l re p o rts o f a few je a lo u s enem ies."27 in h is h is to ry o f N ebraska, M o rto n la te r w ro te, "The P latte V a lle y B a n k o f N ebraska C ity w as th e o n ly b a n k w hose c h a rte r was ow ned b y N ebraska m en, and, c u rio u s to say, it w as th e o n ly one o f the re g u la rly ch a rte re d concerns w h ic h fro m fir s t to la s t p a id its lia b ilitie s in fu ll... The sam e d e te rm in a tio n o f c h a ra c te r w h ic h in d u c e d h im [N u cko lls] to m a in ta in u n d e r th e m o st adverse c o n d itio n s w h a t he believed to be h is p o litic a l rig h ts also caused h im to resolve to c a rry h is b a n k th ro u g h the crisis and pay h is h o n e st d e b ts."28 B e g in n in g in 1856, S tephen N u cko lls began to in v e s t h is tim e and m o ney in ve n tu re s fa r beyond h is experience in m e rc h a n d is in g, b a n k in g, a n d re a l estate. O n N ovem ber 27, N u c k o lls a n d a b o a rd o f d ire c to rs e n te re d a rtic le s o f in c o rp o ra tio n fo r th e N e b ra s k a C ity a n d P a cific R a ilro a d C o m p a n y. The s ta te d o b je ctive s w ere to b u ild a ra ilro a d, in c lu d in g a n y n e ce ssa iy b ranch e s, a lo n g th e b e st ro u te fro m N e b ra ska C ity to th e P acific Ocean, and to c o n d u c t th e n o rm a l b u s in e s s o f th a t c o m p a n y. The c a p ita l s to c k o f th e c o m p a n y w as se t a t te n m illio n d o lla rs, w ith debt n o t to exceed five m illio n d o llars. The a rtic le s called fo r th e c o m p a n y to operate fo r fifty years, w ith th e rig h t o f re n e w a l. The n in e d ire c to rs o f th e co m pany were N u cko lls, as p re sid e n t, a n d A lle n A. B ra d fo rd, B ird C h a p m a n, J o s h u a G arside, Isaac L. G ib b s, H orace H. H a rd in g, A u g u s tu s K ountze, W. F. Lockw ood, and Jacob S a ffo rd. W h ile se ve ra l o f th e b o a rd m em bers w ere associates o f N u c k o lls 's fro m th e P latte V a lle y B a n k, B ird C h a p m a n w as the N ebraska T e rrito ry delegate to C ongress, and A u g u s tu s K ountze was a p ro m in e n t O m a h a b u s in e ssm a n. T h o u g h K o u n tz e w as a b o o s te r o f O m a h a, h is b ro th e r-in -la w, B ird C h a p m a n, m a y have persuaded h im to in ve st in N ebraska C ity. Besides, i f th e ra ilro a d d id b e g in th e re, K o u n tz e d id n o t w a n t to m is s th e o p p o rtu n ity to involve h im s e lf in the p ro je ct fro m the s t a r t. 29

95 76 Tow nspeople also recognized th e fo rtu n e th a t th e y stood to g a in i f N e b ra s k a C ity becam e th e s p rin g b o a rd fo r th e P a cific ra ilro a d. The N e b ra ska C itv News ca rrie d n u m e ro u s stories a b o u t ra ilro a d g ra n ts and th e progress o f th e v a rio u s Pacific ra ilro a d b ills in C ongress. A le tte r to th e e d ito r in th e J a n u a ry 17, 1857 e d itio n to u te d th e ro u te th ro u g h N e b ra ska C ity fo r its shortn e ss, its easy grades, and its a b u n d a n c e o f re s o u rc e s. In F e b ru a ry, a b ill w as in tro d u c e d b efore th e N e b ra s k a T e r r ito r ia l L e g is la tu re to in c o rp o ra te th e N e b ra s k a C ity a n d P a cific R a ilro a d C om pany. Tw o m o n th s later, the d ire cto rs o f a n o th e r proposed v e n tu re, th e B ro w n v ille a n d N ew F o rt K e a rn y R a ilro a d, a d ire c t c o m p e tito r to N u cko lls's com pany, entered a rtic le s o f in c o rp o ra tio n w ith th e le g is la tu re. The d ire c to rs w ere B en H o lla d a y, A n d re w H o lla d a y, J a m e s M. H u g h e s, R o b e rt F u rn a s a n d W illia m M. H o o v e r. A co n te m p o ra ry p ro m o tio n a l c irc u la r fo r N ebraska T e rrito ry suggested th a t th e H a n n ib a l-s t. Jo se p h R a ilro a d w o u ld be th e fir s t lin e to re a ch th e M is s o u ri R iver, and th a t it w o u ld fo rm th e tr u n k o f th e P a cific ra ilro a d, w h ic h w o u ld c o n tin u e w e st u p th e G reat N em aha V a lle y and th e n on to F o rt K e a rn y. The d ire c to rs o f b o th th e B ro w n v ille a n d N e b ra s k a C ity ra ilro a d s u n d o u b te d ly hoped th a t th e ir lin e s w o u ld be th e c o n tin u a tio n o f th e P acific ra ilro a d 's tru n k on the w est side o f the M is s o u ri R iver. 30 A n o th e r n e w b u s in e s s p ro je c t o f S tephen N u c k o lls in e a rly 1857 w a s th e N e b ra ska C ity In s u ra n c e C o m p a n y w h ic h in d e m n ifie d cargo ris k s w ith in N ebraska T e rrito ry, th u s in s u rin g s h ip p e rs a g a in s t th e loss o f p ro p e rty d u rin g tra n s p o rt. T h o u g h C o lu m b u s N u c k o lls organized th e com p a n y, S tephen N u c k o lls w as a d ire c to r and he assu m e d th e active m a n a g e m e n t o f th e co m pany w ith in the year. B e g in n in g in th e s u m m e r o f 1857, th is b u s in e s s becam e v e ry lu c ra tiv e w h e n th e g o v e rn m e n t p re p a re d to send tro o p s to U ta h to p u n is h re b e llio u s M o rm o n s, and N e b ra ska C ity becam e a n im p o rta n t s h ip p in g p o in t. N u c k o lls m a y also have been a n tic ip a tin g h is p ro fits fro m th e in s u ra n c e b u s in e s s i f th e g o v e rn m e n t c o n s tru c te d th e P acific ra ilro a d. W h e th e r th e lin e passed th ro u g h N e b raska C ity o r n o t. he c o u ld p a rtic ip a te in th e w in d fa ll th a t w o u ld re s u lt fro m in s u rin g cargo aboard th e tra in s. I f h is N e b raska C ity a n d P acific R ailroad becam e a lin k in the tra n s c o n tin e n ta l lin e, he co u ld

96 77 s h ip cargo a n d in s u re it too. The M a rc h 28, 1857 e d itio n o f th e N e b raska C itv News p rin te d the fu ll te x t o f P resident Ja m es B u c h a n a n 's in a u g u ra l a d d re ss, w h ic h in c lu d e d h is e n d o rs e m e n t o f th e P a c ific ra ilro a d. N u c k o lls seemed eager to p o s itio n h im s e lf in th e p a th o f p ro fit w ith h is new v e n tu re s.31 In th e m id s t o f h is b u sin e ss dealings, N u c k o lls in vo lve d h im s e lf in p o litic a l a n d p e rs o n a l a c tiv itie s as w e ll, In e a rly 1858, he v is ite d W a s h in g to n, D. C. to p rom o te th e Pacific ra ilro a d a n d th e a n n e x a tio n o f N e b ra ska T e rrito ry s o u th o f th e P latte R iver to K ansas T e rrito ry. W ith K a n sa s poised to jo in th e U n io n, m a n y s o u th e rn N e b ra ska n s th o u g h t th a t a n n e x a tio n offered th e ir region th e advantages o f statehood. W h ile N u c k o lls w as in W a sh in g to n, N ebraska R e publicans elected h im to be the p a rty 's te rrito ria l vice president, w h ic h was a s u rp ris e fo r a m a n w h o w as a s ta u n c h D e m o c ra t a n d w h o h a d in tro d u c e d th e fir s t sla ve s in to N e b ra ska. U p o n h is re tu rn, N u c k o lls p o lite ly d e c lin e d th e p o s itio n, th o u g h th e N e b ra s k a C itv News used th e iro n ic episode to rid ic u le R e p u b lic a n s. 32 In th e fa ll o f 1854, N u c k o lls had b ro u g h t slaves in to N e b ra s k a T e rrito ry, tw o m en nam ed Shade and Shack, a n d tw o y o u n g w om en, one o f w hose n am e w as E liza. W hen b o th g irls ra n aw ay fo u r ye a rs la te r, N u c k o lls offered a $ re w a rd fo r th e ir re tu rn and, accom panied b y a U. S. m a rs h a ll, searched several hom es belonging to a b o litio n is ts in T abor, Iow a, a sto p on the U n d e rg ro u n d R ailroad. In one hom e, N u c k o lls 's m en s e rio u s ly w o u n d e d th e ow ner, fo rcin g N u cko lls to e ve n tu a lly p a y $ 1 0,0 0 0 fo r th e in ju ry. E liz a escaped to C hicago, b u t w as a rrested a n d h e ld u n til a m ob freed h e r and helped tra n s p o rt h e r to C anada. The N e b raska C itv News re p o rte d th a t "E liza A fric a n u s " had been discovered "in a free-love a n d fre e d o m -lo v in g b ro th e l in th e v e ry B la c k R e p u b lic a n c ity o f C h i c a g o, "33 a lth o u g h th a t d e s c rip tio n m a y have re flecte d p o litic s m ore th a n th e a c tu a l fa cts o f th e m a tte r. N u c k o lls sued sixte e n Io w a n s fo r a lle g e d ly a id in g in th e g ir l s escape, b u t the C iv il W a r in te rve n e d and he fa ile d to w in com pensation. Shade also escaped a n d served in th e S o u th C a ro lin a le g is la tu re d u rin g R e co n stru ctio n, iro n ic a lly u s in g th e su rn a m e N u c k o lls. T h o u g h re la tiv e ly few slaves ever re sid ed in N e b raska, m o s t

97 78 liv e d in N e b ra s k a C ity. In J a n u a ry 1861, th e le g is la tu re a b o lis h e d sla ve ry in th e te rrito ry. 34 O ne o f th e biggest new s ite m s in th e fa ll o f 1857 w a s B rig h a m Y o u n g 's ch allenge to fe d e ra l a u th o rity in U ta h. In d ia n C o m m is s io n e r D e n v e r c ritic iz e d Y o u n g fo r in c itin g w e s te rn In d ia n s a g a in s t th e g o v e rn m e n t even w h ile th e M o rm o n le a d e r served as th e In d ia n S u p e rin te n d e n t o f U ta h. A s te n s io n s grew, P re s id e n t B u c h a n a n th re a te n e d to c o m m it tro o p s to U ta h to re sto re g o v e rn m e n t a u th o rity, even th o u g h p ro je c tin g th e U. S. A rm y th a t fa r w e s t w o u ld be a tre m e n d o u s lo g is tic a l fe a t. In m id -F e b ru a ry 1858, th e fre ig h tin g co m p a n y R ussell, M ajors, and W addell received th e p rim a ry g o ve rn m e n t c o n tra c t, w o rth $ 1,7 0 0,0 0 0, to c a rry supplie s fo r th e a rm y to U ta h, and it selected N ebraska C ity as its m a in s h ip p in g center. Soon a fte rw a rd s, A le x a n d e r M a jo rs a n n o u n ce d th a t he w as m o v in g to N e b ra s k a C ity to oversee o p e ra tio n s fo r a p ro je c t in v o lv in g a t le a st 1,000 w agons. J u s t one m o n th la te r, th e a c tu a l re q u ire m e n ts w ere h e a vy w agons, 2 0,0 0 0 oxen, and o x -d riv e rs to m ove to n s o f goods w est. M a jo rs, a d e v o u t C h ris tia n, dem anded th a t d riv e rs be m e n o f m o ra l c h a ra c te r and good h a b its. He q u ic k ly persuaded th e c ity to b u ild a new w h a r f to h a n d le in c re a s e d fre ig h t, a n d he p la n n e d a m a s s iv e c o n s tru c tio n e ffo rt to house th e goods, e q u ip m e n t, m e n a n d a n im a ls needed fo r th e p ro je c t.35 N u c k o lls w as w e ll-p o s itio n e d to re a p th e w in d fa ll o f 1858, e s p e c ia lly in h is fo u r core busin e sse s o f m e rc h a n d is in g, b a n k in g, re a l esta te, a n d cargo in s u ra n c e, and h is tru s te d re p u ta tio n b ro u g h t h im b o th g o ve rn m e n t and p riva te b usiness. C h a ra c te ris tic a lly, he d id n o t le t h is fu ll s ch e d u le p re v e n t h im fro m e n te rin g th e fre ig h tin g b u s in e s s, w h ic h he d id in e a rly M arch. T h o u g h R ussell, M a jo rs, a n d W a d d e ll w ere th e p re -e m in e n t fre ig h te rs, N u c k o lls realized th a t th e huge v o lu m e o f s h ip m e n ts m e a n t th a t o th e r c a rrie rs w o u ld e arn b ig m oney too, a n d th a t he c o u ld com pete due to h is ow n w e a lth, re p u ta tio n, a n d p ro v e n a b ility to a ttra c t in ve sto rs. A n o th e r p o sitive fa c to r w as th a t C ongress p la n n e d to b u ild a m ilita ry road to th e new F o rt K earny, m ile s fu rth e r w e st o n th e P la tte R iver, and N e b raska C ity w as th e lik e ly s ta rtin g p o in t.

98 79 E ve ryw h e re there were signs o f im m in e n t w ar, esp e cia lly a fte r P re sid e n t B u c h a n a n issued an A p ril 6, 1858 p ro c la m a tio n w a rn in g th e M o rm o n s to fa ll in to lin e o r face severe consequences. T h a t m o n th, N u c k o lls began to c o n s tru c t a large sto re h o u se n e a r th e w h a rf on M a in S tre e t to h o ld m e rc h a n d is e fo r h is store and fo r ite m s to be sh ip p e d b y h is fre ig h tin g b u s in e s s.36 In m id M ay, N u cko lls sold M a jo rs 138 to w n lo ts in th e w e st end o f to w n, n e a r F o u rte e n th S treet and F o u rth Avenue, w here th e h a rd -d riv in g b u s in e s s m a n in te n d e d to b u ild h is c o m p a n y 's s h ip p in g c o m p le x. C o n s tru c tio n began im m e d ia te ly on the w agon and b la c k s m ith shops, w a re h o u s e s, b o a rd in g h o u s e s, t h ir t y hom es, a n d re la te d b u ild in g s. D espite n in e area saw m ills o p e ra tin g c o n tin u o u s ly, b u ild in g s u p p lie s ra n lo w, th u s re vealin g th e m a g n itu d e o f th e p ro je c t. Soon th e fir s t s ix w agon tra in s departed fro m N ebraska C ity fo r U ta h. O th e r in d ic a tio n s o f th e p ro je c t s im p o rta n ce were th a t M a jo rs em ployed m en, s till ju s t a fr a c tio n o f th e e v e n tu a l n u m b e r, a n d th a t tw o m illio n d o lla rs a p p ro p ria te d b y C ongress to pay fo r the m ovem ent o f fre ig h t to U ta h had a rriv e d a t F o rt L e a v e n w o rth. N u c k o lls b e n e fite d a g a in w h e n h is N e b ra ska C ity In su ra n ce C om pany reached its c a p ita l s to c k re q u ire m e n t o f $ 5 0,0 0 0 a n d it began w r itin g cargo r is k p o licie s. M a n y in v e s to rs recognized th e co m p a n y s b rig h t prosp e cts since th e a rriv a l o f R u sse ll, M a jo rs, a n d W a d d e ll. To p ro te c t in v e s to rs a g a in s t too la rg e a sin g le c la im, N u c k o lls lim ite d th e lia b ility on the co n te n ts o f a n y sin g le w agon to $ 1 2, A lso in M ay, N u c k o lls a n n o u n c e d p la n s to h e lp b u ild a ra ilro a d fro m S t. Jose p h, M is s o u ri, to C o u n c il B lu ffs, Iow a, w h ic h in d ic a te d a s h ift in h is ra ilro a d strategy. W ith o u t a b a n d o n in g h is N e b raska C ity and P a c ific R a ilro a d p la n, w h ic h he hoped w o u ld be th e m a in lin e to th e W est, N u c k o lls hedged h is b e t w ith th e new ra ilro a d w h ic h c o u ld co n n e ct t r u n k lin e s and feed th e P acific ra ilro a d i f it o rig in a te d elsew here. The n e w lin e also p rovided h is proposed N ebraska C ity a n d P a cific R a ilro a d w ith a lin k to the E ast, since th e ro a d w o u ld co n n e ct w ith th e H a n n ib a l a n d S t. J o s e p h R a ilro a d w h ic h w as a lre a d y u n d e r c o n s tru c tio n a n d expected to be com pleted b y J a n u a ry 1859, th e refore m a k in g it th e fir s t

99 80 lin e to th e area. A t a m e e tin g a t B a n k H a ll on M a y 7, p a rtic ip a n ts selected delegates to a tte n d a M a y 1 9 th p ro m o tio n a l g a th e rin g fo r th e n ew ra ilro a d in C o u n c il B lu ffs. N u ckolls, J. S te rlin g M o rto n, and tw elve o th e r delegates fro m Otoe C o u n ty p ro m ise d fin a n c ia l s u p p o rt fro m th e c o u n ty. A t th e second m eeting, delegates elected N u c k o lls p re s id e n t o f th e proposed C o u n c il B lu ffs and St. Joseph R a ilro a d.38 The p la n w as to u n ite the tw o citie s b y b u ild in g the road a lo n g th e 140 m ile s o f re la tiv e ly fla t M is s o u ri R ive r b o tto m. Tw o crew s b u ild in g fro m o p p o site d ire c tio n s w o u ld co n n e ct th e ir lin e s som ew here n e a r th e Io w a -M is s o u ri bord e r, w ith one crew s ta rtin g a t C o u n c il B lu ffs, a n d th e o th e r e x te n d in g the P latte C o u n ty (M issouri) R a ilro a d n o rth w a rd fro m its base n e a r W eston. The road w o u ld pass close to th e riv e r on th e Iow a side, d ire c tly across fro m N ebraska C ity. Delegates were o p tim is tic a b o u t th e ro a d 's success since c o n s tru c tio n costs w o u ld be re la tiv e ly s m a ll, a b o u t $ 8 3 0,0 0 0 to ta l, o r $ 1 6,6 0 0 p er m ile, due to the fla tn e ss o f th e riv e r b o tto m. T h e y also a n tic ip a te d a large in flu x o f people to th e M is s o u ri V a lle y a n d a c o n n e c tio n w ith th e H a n n ib a l a n d S t. J o s e p h R a ilro a d w h ic h w o u ld p ro v id e goods and passengers fro m th e E a s t. T h o u g h several o th e r ra ilro a d s w ere c ro ssin g Iow a fro m th e E a st, n o n e w ere m a k in g m u c h progress. P roponents urged re s id e n ts a lo n g th e p a th o f th e ra ilro a d to s u p p o rt th e v e n tu re ra th e r th a n to lose o u t to a n o th e r area. C o u n tie s on b o th sides o f th e riv e r p ro m ise d to p ro vid e fu n d s to b u ild th e road. A t a m e e tin g a t B a n k H a ll o n J u n e 2 2 n d, a t w h ic h the com pany's c iv il engineer boasted th e s u ita b ility o f th e ro u te, a s o lic ita tio n co m m itte e form ed, in c lu d in g A le xa n d e r M ajors, w h ic h p ro m ise d to raise n o t less th a n $ 1 0 0,0 0 0 fo r the p ro je c t fro m th e re sid e n ts o f O toe C o u n ty. B y la te A u g u s t, c o u n tie s along th e p a th had voted to s u p p o rt th e road w ith a fir m $ 7 5 0,0 0 0, a n d th e p o s s ib ility o f $ 3 0 0,0 0 0 m o re. Y et N e b raska C ity re sid e n ts feared th a t th e Iow a co u n tie s m ig h t b a c k o u t in o rd e r to s u p p o rt one o f th e e a st-w e st ra ilro a d p ro je c ts th ro u g h Iow a, s u c h as th e M is s is s ip p i and M is s o u ri R a ilro a d, o r th e B u rlin g to n and M is s o u ri R a ilro a d.39 E v e n ts elsew here in th e c o u n try c o n tra s te d w ith th e sense o f o p tim is m in N e b ra ska C ity. E d ito r M ilto n R eynolds v is ite d K ansas and

100 81 re p o rte d a b o u t v io le n t c o n fro n ta tio n s betw een fre e a n d slave sta te ra d ic a ls, th o u g h he p ra is e d G o ve rn o r D enver's e ffo rts to re -e s ta b lis h peace in th e te rrito ry. S e ctio n a l and in te r-p a rty c o m p e titio n p a ralyzed th e p o litic ia n s in W a sh in g to n, D. C. w h o fo u n d it d iffic u lt to pass even s im p le le g is la tio n. The D e m o cra tic N ebraska C itv News d id its p a rt to s tir e m o tio n s b y p ra is in g B u c h a n a n and d a m n in g a b o litio n is ts s u c h as J o h n B ro w n and J im Lane.40 T h e n, w ith its S e p te m b e r 4 th e d itio n, th e N e b ra s k a C itv News te m p o ra rily sh ifte d its a tte n tio n fro m slavery and p o litic s to th e discovery o f gold a t P ike s Peak. M a n y m en gave u p se ttle d live s a n d le ft fo r th e gold fie ld s lik e gam blers to a card game. N ebraska C ity offered one o f th e s h o rte s t and best ro u te s to C olorado, and new o u tfittin g sto re s q u ic k ly s p ra n g u p in to w n to accom m odate th e n u m e ro u s tra ve le rs h e a d in g west. O n th e negative side, m a n y w o u ld -b e prospectors and e n tre p re n e u rs le ft th e c ity fo r th e m ines, e v e n tu a lly even Stephen N u c k o lls, th o u g h fo r the im m e d ia te tim e he stayed to la u n c h a d d itio n a l b u sin e sse s. To s u p p ly th e tra v e le rs w ith m eat, he expanded a sm a ll h o g -p a c k in g o p e ra tio n at N e b ra s k a C ity, fo r w h ic h he so u g h t 3,0 0 0 co rn -fe d hogs in n e w sp a p e r a d v e rtis e m e n ts. O ne m o n th la te r, he a d vertised fo r several th o u s a n d b u s h e ls o f corn. N u c k o lls had the m e at preserved fo r tra v e l p ro visio n s, a n d th e corn g ro u n d in to m eal. In e a rly Decem ber, he a n n o u n ce d th a t, com e sp rin g, he w o u ld p e rs o n a lly lead a w agon tra in to th e m in e s n e a r C h e rry C reek, tra n s p o rtin g a s a w m ill, b la c k s m ith shop, a n d a large q u a n tity o f goods fo r sale. A ye a r la te r, he b u ilt g e n e ra l m e rc h a n d is e sto re s in th e fle d g lin g to w n s o f M o u n ta in C ity (C e n tra l C ity) and G olden C ity (G olden).41 O n D ecem ber 11, 1858, th e C om m ittee on K ansas A n n e x a tio n, o f w h ic h S te p h e n N u c k o lls w as a le a d in g m e m b e r, v o te d to p e titio n C ongress to p e rm it K ansas to a n n e x the S o u th P latte region, m a k in g the P la tte R iv e r its n o rth e r n b o rd e r. Ja m e s C ra ig, th e D e m o c ra tic c o n g re ssm a n fro m St. Jose p h, M is s o u ri, agreed to in tro d u c e a b ill fo r th is p u rp o se. S ince sta te h o o d fo r K ansas appeared im m in e n t, S o u th P la tte w o u ld b elong to a state sooner, be m ore lik e ly to receive ra ilro a d g ra n ts, a n d have a b e tte r chance to lie a long th e ro u te o f th e P a cific

101 82 ra ilro a d. Tw o m o n th s earlie r, th e N ebraska T e rrito ria l L e g is la tu re h a d u rg e d C ongress to s u p p o rt the c o n s tru c tio n o f five ra ilro a d s w h ic h w o u ld converge a t F o rt K e a rn y, a re q u e s t re m in is c e n t o f D e n v e r s p la n as c h a irm a n o f th e P a cific R a ilro a d C o m m itte e to b u ild e ig h t lin e s to th e fo rt. P re sid e n t B u c h a n a n p ro m o te d th e P acific ra ilro a d in h is a n n u a l m essage to Congress, w h ic h w as re porte d in th e N e braska C itv News on D ecem ber 18th. B u c h a n a n believed th a t p riva te com panies s h o u ld b u ild th e ra ilro a d, su p e rvise d b y th e states, fo r he feared th e expense and c o rru p tio n o f a p u b lic p roject. He th o u g h t the ra ilro a d w o u ld u n ify the n a tio n fro m east to w est, increase com m ercial trade, and b rin g C a lifo rn ia in to g re a te r c o m m u n ic a tio n w ith th e re s t o f th e n a tio n. A t th a t sam e tim e, th e Senate voted on a b ill in fa vo r o f the c e n tra l ro u te a n d seemed to b re a k th e d e a d lo c k in lo c a tin g th e lin e caused b y in te rs e c tio n a l riv a lrie s. S h a re h o ld e rs o f th e N e braska C ity a n d P acific R a ilro a d m u s t have discussed th e Senate vote a n d p resident's message a t th e ir a n n u a l m e e tin g, h e ld o n J a n u a ry 3, , a t th e P la tte V a lle y B a n k. U n fo rtu n a te ly there is no s u rv iv in g new spaper re p o rt o f th a t m e e t i n g. The headlin e s in the N ebraska C itv News on J a n 1, 1859, set th e to n e fo r th e re m a in d e r o f th a t year: "The D a zzlin g W e a lth o f th e New E ld o ra d o A V e rita b le F act," "C a lifo rn ia and A u s tra lia S u rp a sse d," and "In te n s e E xcite m e n t!" A u s u a l, N u c k o lls w as ahead o f th e c o m p e titio n. In m id -F e b ru a ry, he a n d R obert H aw ke, the w e a lth y M is s o u ri m e rc h a n t, jo in e d forces to create an o u tfittin g e s ta b lis h m e n t fo r th e m in e s, w h ic h opened on M a rc h 20. Haw ke h a d operated R obert H aw ke a n d C om pany, a g eneral m e rchandise store. In th e new p a rtn e rs h ip, called H aw ke and N u c k o lls, th e m e n s o ld o u tfittin g goods, p ro v is io n s a n d g e n e ra l m e rc h a n d is e to w e stw a rd tra v e le rs a n d to th e fre ig h t h a u le rs. H aw ke m o ved to th e to w n in 1859, a n d d u rin g h is care e r, w o rk e d as a m e rc h a n d is e r, fre ig h te r, and U n io n P acific R a ilro a d o u tfitte r. W h e n he d ie d in 1887 he w as th e ric h e s t m a n in Otoe C o u n ty. T h e n e w store, w ith its w arehouse a t th e foot o f M a in Street, stocked th e la rg e st q u a n tity o f goods ever assem bled in N ebraska C ity, and m a y have been th e la rg est e s ta b lis h m e n t w est o f the M is s o u ri River, even riv a lin g th e b ig g e st stores in S a lt Lake C ity a n d C a lifo rn ia. In m id -M a rc h, th e riv e rb o a t "E. M.

102 83 R y la n d disch a rg e d a lm o s t to n s o f fre ig h t fo r th e firm o f H aw ke and N u c k o lls, w h ic h operated fro m th e a u d ito riu m o f th e B a n k B u ild in g u n til a n e w s tru c tu re w as b u ilt. A n in d ic a tio n o f th e new firm 's success w as th a t on tw o days, M a rc h 3 0 and A p ril 1, it sold $ 2, w o rth o f goods.4 3 K ansas tro u b le s show ed u p b rie fly in N e b raska C ity on F e b ru a ry 1 1, , w h e n J o h n B ro w n and seventy-five h o rse m e n escorted eleven freed slaves th ro u g h to w n on th e ir w a y fro m K ansas to Iowa. "O ld J o h n B ro w n passed th ro u g h N e b ra ska C ity w ith a tro u p e o f N iggers a n d a G ang o f H orse T h i e v e s, " 4 4 reported th e N ebraska C ity N ew s. In J u n e, a g ro u p o f y o u n g m en fro m N ebraska C ity rode to Tabor, Iowa, w h e re th e y ta rre d a n d fe a th ere d a n u n fo rtu n a te m an, lik e ly an a b o litio n is t. The event caused co nsiderable anger am ong Iow ans w h o saw th is a c t as the second a tta c k a g a in st T a b o r in less th a n a year, th e firs t o c c u rrin g w h e n S te p h e n N u c k o lls a n d h is m en searched fo r h is ru n a w a y slave th e re in N ovem ber The people o f T a b o r b la m ed "p ro m in e n t c itiz e n s " o f N e b ra ska C ity, p ro b a b ly m e a n in g N u ckolls, fo r in c itin g y o u th s to c o m m it v io le n c e. 4 5 Tw o events o c c u rre d in th e la te s p rin g o f w h ic h g a in e d c o n s id e ra b le p u b lic ity, b u t w h ic h p ro b a b ly d id n o t s ig n ific a n tly a ffe ct N u c k o lls. F irs t, W illia m M. S ta rk began to issu e th e c e rtific a te s o f a llo tm e n t on th e H alf-b reed T ra c t in e a rly M ay, th o u g h th is was la rg e ly a fo rm a lity since m a n y m ixe d -b lo o d s h a d a lre a d y sold th e ir la n d. B y M a y 1 4, h a lf o f th e c e rtific a te s h a d been issued. Second, a b u rg la r stole a b o u t $ 3, 0 0 0, m o s tly in gold a n d silve r, fro m th e -P la tte V a lle y B a n k d u rin g th e fir s t w eek o f Ju n e. S om etim e a fte r m id n ig h t, a th ie f rem oved th e b a n k s keys fro m th e residence o f ca sh ie r N. S. H a rd in g a n d th e n proceeded to the b a n k w here he em ptied a ll cash fro m th e safe. He th e n re tu rn e d th e keys to H a rd in g 's doorstep a fte r th e th e ft. P o ssib ly due to th a t u n u s u a l circ u m s ta n c e, H a rd in g h im s e lf w as accused o f th e crim e, th o u g h a ju r y la te r dropped th e charge. The th e ft d id n o t s e rio u s ly h a rm N u c k o lls, fo r b y th a t tim e th e b a n k had am ple m eans to cover th e lo s s. 4 6 In J u n e , d e le g a te s fro m N e b ra s k a C ity a tte n d e d co m m e n ce m e n t cerem onies fo r th e P latte C o u n ty R a ilro a d in W eston, M is s o u ri. I f its lin e e v e n tu a lly passed n e a r N ebraska C ity, O toe C o u n ty

103 84 re s id e n ts pledged to p ay $ 1 5 0,0 0 0 to th a t ra ilro a d, w h ic h w o u ld extend n o rth w a rd to fo rm a p a rt o f th e C o u n c il B lu ffs a n d St. Jo se p h R a ilro a d. O p tim is ts began to re fe r to th e lin e as th e S t. J o s e p h -N e b ra s k a C ity - C o u n c il B lu ffs R a ilro a d. Y et b y N ovem ber 10, th e date o f a p rogre ss m e e tin g in N ebraska C ity, the P latte C o u n ty R a ilro a d w as ju s t fo rty m iles lo n g, less th a n w h a t h a d been a n tic ip a te d b y p ro p o n e n ts. T he m a in issu e a t th e m e etin g th e n becam e w h e th e r Otoe C o u n ty re s id e n ts s h o u ld s till p u t u p th e m oney to w h ic h th e y had subscribed. S te p h e n N u c k o lls a rgued fo rc e fu lly fo r p a ym e n t because he saw th e C o u n c il B lu ffs a n d St. J o s e p h as th e city 's b e st chance a t th e e a rly a c q u is itio n o f a ra ilro a d, w h ic h w o u ld be a g re a t boon to h is businesses a n d to th e c ity a t large. Som e o f th is im p a tience m a y have related to the success o f th e H a n n ib a l a n d St. Jo se p h R a ilro a d, w h ic h h a d opened in la te F e b ru a ry over its e n tire m ile dista n ce. R iver b oats th e n c a rrie d tra v e le rs u p riv e r to C o u n c il B lu ffs o r o th e r d e stin a tio n s. C o n s tru c tio n h a d progressed q u ite s m o o th ly on th a t lin e, w h ic h m a n y people co n sid e re d to be th e m o s t im p o rta n t ra ilro a d to th e W est. B y e a rly M a rc h 1860, c o n s tru c tio n on th e re -n a m e d St. Jo se p h and P latte C o u n ty R a ilro a d h a d reached w ith in th re e m ile s o f A tc h is o n, Kansas. B y A p ril, on th e o th e r end, new spapers w ere re p o rtin g th a t th e eighteen m iles betw een C o u n c il B lu ffs a n d Pacific C ity w o u ld be graded and re a d y fo r ties b y O ctober, a n d i f w o rk w e n t w e ll, th e re m a in in g d ista n ce to the M is s o u ri state lin e w o u ld be re a d y fo r tie s b y D ecem ber. R a ilro a d boosters claim ed th a t the H a n n ib a l and St. -Joseph R a ilro a d had saved fa rm e rs and live sto ck m en u p to $ 8 0 0,0 0 0 in tra n s p o rta tio n costs in ju s t tw elve m o n th s, and th e y p ro je c te d s im ila r b e n e fits fo r those people w ho w o u ld be served b y th e C o u n c il B lu ffs and S t. Jo se p h R a ilro a d.47 B a c k on M a y 2, 1859, N u c k o lls h a d p re sid e d a t a n a n n e x a tio n c o n v e n tio n w h ic h voted to jo in K ansas, a n d to re q u e s t p e rm is s io n to send delegates to th e K ansas C o n s titu tio n a l C o n ve n tio n in W y a n d o tt in J u ly o f th a t year. A t th e W y a n d o tt co n ve n tio n, delegates re je cte d th e p ro p o s a l to a n n e x S o u th N e b raska to th e P latte R iver. E d ito r M ilto n R eyn o ld s considered th e re je ctio n to be the w o rk o f "B la c k R e p u b lica n s" se eking to g a in c o n tro l o f Kansas p o litic s, and w h o feared th e in c lu s io n o f

104 85 n u m e ro u s D e m o cra ts liv in g in S o u th N ebraska. F ro m th a t p o in t on, S o u th N e b ra s k a n s u rg e d th e fo rm a tio n o f a s ta te g o v e rn m e n t fo r N e b ra ska a n d its e a rly a d m issio n in to the U n io n. The event m a y have p e rs u a d e d S te p h e n N u c k o lls to becom e d ire c tly in v o lv e d in p o litic s h im s e lf, fo r he a n d H o u s to n served as delegates a t th e te r r ito r ia l D e m o cra tic co n ve n tio n a t P la tts m o u th on A u g u s t 18, and th e y agreed to r u n fo r the offices o f Otoe and R ich a rd son C o u n ty re pre se n ta tives to the te rrito r ia l le g is la tu re. W hen th e b a llo ts were co u n te d a fte r th e O cto b e r 1859 election, b o th S tephen and H o u sto n w o n seats in th e le g is la tu re.4 ^ No d o u b t S tephen's p u rs u it o f office represented a n o th e r p e rso n a l challenge a n d an e ffo rt to create new b u siness o p p o rtu n itie s fo r h im s e lf. B u t it m a y also have re fle cte d h is d e e p ly -fe lt c o n v ic tio n s a n d h is re sponse to tro u b le d events on th e eve o f th e C iv il W a r. S te p h e n N u c k o lls w as a S o u th e rn e r, a D em ocrat, and a slaveow ner, w h o m u s t h a ve been a la rm e d b y th e g ro w in g in flu e n c e o f R e p u b lic a n s a n d a b o litio n is ts, and b y th e loss o f K ansas to th e a n ti-s la v e ry g ro u p. He m ig h t have fe lt th a t, as an elected o fficia l, he c o u ld slo w th e advance o f h is adversaries. As a m em ber o f th e le g isla tu re, he voted to p ro h ib it free n e groes a n d m u la tto e s fro m s e ttlin g in th e te rrito r y ; a g a in s t th e re s o lu tio n to p ro h ib it slavery in the te rrito ry ; fo r a co n ve n tio n to m eet in o rd e r to d ra ft a c o n s titu tio n and to a p p ly fo r sta te h o o d ; fo r a b ill to e s ta b lis h a ra te o f in te re s t and to p ro h ib it u s u ry ; and a g a in s t a b ill to e xe m p t hom esteads fro m exe cu tio n fo r debt. W h ile th e N u cko llse s held office, th e le g is la tu re e sta b lish e d th e b o u n d a rie s fo r N u c k o lls C o u n ty, n a m e d in th e ir h o n o r. The N ebraska C ity News show ed th e s tra in o f the tim e s as w e ll, fo r i t crow ed a t th e e xe cu tio n o f J o h n B ro w n a fte r th e H a rp e r's F e rry in s u rre c tio n, and it becam e in c re a s in g ly s trid e n t a g a in st a b o litio n is ts, R e p u b lica n s and A b ra h a m L i n c o l n. B y M a rc h 1860, H a w ke 's a n d N u c k o lls 's o u tfittin g s to re h a d becom e "m a m m o th," to use th e d e s c rip tio n in th e N e b ra ska C ity N ew s. In s te a d o f a d v e rtis in g fo r 3,0 0 0 b u s h e ls o f co rn, th e m e rc h a n ts n o w re q u ire d 2 0,0 0 0 b u sh e ls, and offered 2 0 0,0 0 0 p o u n d s o f b a co n fo r sale. A riv e rb o a t u n lo a d e d 125 to n s o f goods in A p ril 1860, p rim a rily fo r the y e a r-o ld e s ta b lis h m e n t. B o th m en m ade fre q u e n t trip s to St. L o u is to

105 86 b u y goods to sell, a n d th e y bragged in adve rtise m e n ts th a t th e y h a d the la rg e s t s u p p ly o f goods a t th e cheapest prices w e st o f S t. L o u is. L a te r th a t m o n th, on a trip east, N u c k o lls p u rch a se d a q u a rtz m ill w h ic h he in te n d e d to ta ke to th e m in e s in m id -M a y, a long w ith a large s u p p ly o f sale goods. A q u a rtz m ill c ru s h e d stone to expose a n y gold o r o th e r p re c io u s m e ta ls th a t m ig h t be c o n ta in e d w ith in. U n fo rtu n a te ly, a d is a s tro u s fire s tru c k N e b ra s k a C ity on M a y 1 2, , d e s tro y in g N u c k o lls 's b ric k b a n k b u ild in g, th e b ric k b lo c k, a n d n u m e ro u s o th e r b u ild in g s and hom es w ith in th e city. H aw ke a n d N u c k o lls w ere p a rtia lly covered b y in su ra n ce, p e rh a p s a lesson learned fro m experience, and in one m o n th th e y were s e llin g goods in q u a n tity fro m a b u ild in g th e y had p u rc h a s e d fro m a s m a lle r riv a l. H aw ke p u rch a se d a n e w in v e n to ry o f goods in St. Louis, a n d th e firm w as q u ic k ly b a c k on its feet. N u c k o lls le ft fo r C olorado w ith the q u a rtz m ill and o th e r s u p p lie s d u rin g th e firs t w eek o f Ju n e, ju s t a couple weeks la te r th a n o rig in a lly p la n n e d.50 N u c k o lls a rriv e d safely a t th e m in e s in e a rly J u ly , a n d w as q u ite encouraged b y th e b u sin e ss prospects there. F ro m D enver C ity, he led h is w agon tra in w e st in to the m o u n ta in s n e a r M o u n ta in C ity w here he o p erated th e q u a rtz m ill a n d a saw m ill n e a r th e m in e s. He also e sta b lish e d b ra n c h stores o f H aw ke and N u cko lls in M o u n ta in C ity and G o lden C ity, w h ic h he su p p lie d w ith goods b ro u g h t fro m N e b ra ska C ity in tra in s o f tw e n ty to s ix ty w agons. F or the n e x t several years, N u c k o lls s p lit h is tim e betw een h is stores in C olorado a n d N e b raska C ity, as w e ll as in b u y in g goods in St. L o u is. D u rin g N ovem ber o f , he cofo u n d e d H aw ke, N u c k o lls, and C om pany, th e second la rg e s t fre ig h tin g fir m to operate fro m N e b ra ska C ity. T h is m ove w as a n a lo g o u s to th e e a rlie r d e c is io n to jo in H a w ke in th e re ta ilin g b u s in e s s. W h ile in C olorado, N u cko lls becam e q u ite in te re ste d in th e m in in g b u sin e ss, and began to b u y p ropertie s on w h ic h to search fo r m in e ra ls.51 B y D ecem ber , c o n s tru c tio n on th e C o u n c il B lu ffs a n d St. J o s e p h R a ilro a d w as s till lagging. The lin e betw een C o u n c il B lu ffs and P a cific C ity had been graded, b u t no ties had been la id. The St. Joseph a n d P la tte C o u n ty R a ilro a d w as re a d y fo r tra ffic b etw een W e sto n and S a v a n n a h, M is s o u ri, a s m a ll to w n fifte e n m ile s n o rth o f S t. Jo se p h,

106 87 th o u g h th e tra c k a lre a d y la id represented ju s t o n e -th ird o f th e com plete d is ta n c e to th e M is s o u ri b o rd e r. The N e b ra s k a C ity N e w s, w h ic h N u c k o lls co-ow ned and w h ic h h a d been an a d a m a n tly p ro -B u c h a n a n new sp a p e r, s u p p o rte d S tephen A. D ouglas in th e e le c tio n o f N ovem ber , a n d i t e xp re sse d h o r r o r w h e n A b ra h a m L in c o ln w o n th e p re sid e n cy. The C iv il W ar, w h ic h began in A p ril 1861, d id n o t seem to g re a tly a lte r N u cko lls's busin e ss ro u tin e, fo r he c o n tin u e d to operate h is m e rc a n tile stores d u rin g th e fo llo w in g several years, th o u g h H aw ke le ft th e p a rtn e rs h ip in J u ly 1862 to go in to business w ith h is b ro th e rs. F ro m 1864 to 1867, N u cko lls lived in New Y o rk C ity w here he a c c u m u la te d a la rg e fo rtu n e s p e c u la tin g in m in in g. He re tu rn e d to m e rc h a n d is in g in 1867 w h e n he opened a store in C heyenne to se ll goods to th e crew s c o n s tru c tin g th e U n io n P acific R a ilro a d across W yo m in g. In 1869, he served as th e W yo m in g te rrito ria l delegate to th e F o rty -firs t C ongress. T w o years la te r, he w as elected to W yom ing's second le g is la tiv e c o u n c il, a n d served as its p re sid e n t. In J u ly 1872, he m oved fro m C heyenne to S a lt Lake C ity, w here he e sta blished a m e rca n tile store. He a tte n d e d th e n a tio n a l D e m o cra tic co n ve n tio ns in 1872 and 1876 as a delegate. W h ile re s id in g in S a lt Lake C ity, th e fifty -th re e -y e a r-o ld N u c k o lls d ie d on F e b ru a ry 14, A lth o u g h S tephen N u cko lls b o u g h t considerable la n d o n th e H a lf- B reed T ra c t, th a t v e n tu re w as b u t one s m a ll p a rt o f h is o v e ra ll b u sin e ss u n iv e rs e a n d i t d id n o t h o ld h is a tte n tio n fo r ve ry long. N u c k o lls w as a m a n w ith too m a n y iro n s in th e fire, w h o trie d to have h is h a n d in each n e w fro n tie r b u sin e ss o p p o rtu n ity th a t came along. B e tw een th e years 1854 and 1860, he w as active in m e rch a n d isin g, n e w sp a p e r p u b lis h in g, b a n k in g, re a l estate, in su ra n ce, fre ig h tin g, ra ilro a d tra n s p o rta tio n, m e a t p a c k in g, m illin g, m in in g, and com m odities tra d in g. In h is "free tim e," he p ro m o te d p o litic a l causes, s u c h as th e a n n e x a tio n o f S o u th N e b ra ska to K ansas, a n d he held several p o litic a l offices. W h a t h a ppened to H o u sto n N u c k o lls a fte r 1860 is n o t e n tire ly cle a r because he w as n o t so m u c h th e h ig h -p ro file b u sin e ssm a n th a t S tephen was. He died a t S idney, Iowa, in D ecem ber 1866, a t ju s t 27 years o f age. B o th m en sold th e ir la n d on th e

107 88 H a lf-b re e d T ra c t in th e 1860s w h e n th e ir hopes fo r b o o m to w n s a n d ra ilro a d s d id n o t materialize. 53

108 89 ENDNOTES "A FING ER IN EVERY PIE" 1 C h a m b e r o f C om m erce, N e b ra ska C itv C e n te n n ia l (N ebraska C ity: C ham ber o f Com m erce, 1954), 1-8. ^C h a m b e r o f Com m erce, N ebraska C itv C e n te n n ia l. 46. ^ C h a m b e r o f C om m erce, N e b ra s k a C itv C e n te n n ia l. 7-8, 46; N e b ra ska C itv News. 13 M a rch, p. 2, c. 2; 20 M a rc h 1858, p. 1, c. 2; 2 4 M a rc h 1860, p. 3, c. 3; R aym ond E. Dale, O toe C o u n ty P ioneers: A B io g ra p h ic a l D ic tio n a ry (L in c o ln, N e b ra ska : B y th e A u th o r, 1964), 7 : j. S te rlin g M o rto n and A lb e rt W a tk in s, Illu s tra te d H is to ry o f N e b ra s k a. 3 vols. (Lincoln, N ebraska: Jacob N o rth and C om pany, 1907), 2: 753; Dale, Otoe C o u n ty Pioneers. 7 : ^C h a m b e r o f Com m erce, N ebraska C itv C e n te n n ia l. 10. ^ N e b raska A d v e rtis e r (B row nville), 7 Ju n e, p. 3, c. 2, p. 3, c. 5; 28 J u n e, p. 3, c. 1; 5 J u ly, p. 3, c. 2; 2 A u g u s t, p. 1, c. 2; 15 N ovem ber 1856, p. 3, c. 1; 2 A p ril, p. 3, c. 3; 9 J u ly 1857, p. 3, c. 2; N e b ra ska C itv N ew s. 13 M a rc h 1858, p. 3, c. 2; D ale, Otoe C o u n tv P ioneers. 7 : ^ U n fo rtu n a te ly, th e b u ild in g b u rn e d dow n in th e c ity -w id e fire o f M a y 12, M o rto n and W a tk in s, Illu s tra te d H is to ry o f N e b ra s k a. 2 : ^ C h a m b e r o f Com m erce, N ebraska C itv C e n te n n ia l. 8; M o rto n a n d W a tk in s, Illu s tra te d H is to ry o f N e b ra ska. 1:2. ^ M o rto n and W a tkin s, Illu s tra te d H is to ry o f N e braska. 1:29. 19Lewis C. E dw ards, H is to ry o f R ichard son C o u n ty. N ebraska: Its People. In d u s trie s, and In s titu tio n s. 2 vols. (In d ia n a p o lis : B. F. B ow en a n d C om pany, Inc., 1917), 1: ^ E d w a rd s, R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1: , 737. l^ S te p h e n F. N u c k o lls to H o u s to n N u c k o lls, 8 F e b ru a ry, 15 F e b ru a ry 1857, N u c k o lls F a m ily C o lle c tio n, M S 567, N e b ra s k a S ta te H is to ric a l Society, L in co ln, N ebraska.

109 90 1 ^ N u c k o lls F a m ily C ollection, M S ^ N ebraska A d v e rtis e r. 12 J u ly 1856, p. 2, c. 4; 19 M a rc h, p. 2, c. 1; 8 O ctober 1857, p. 2, c. 3; 7 Ju n e ; 24 Ju n e ; 29 J u ly 1858, p. 3, c N ebraska C itv N ew s. 20 F e b ru a ry, p. 3, c. 7; 22 M ay, p. 3, c. 4; 5 J u n e 1858, p. 2, c l ^ N ebraska A d v e rtis e r. 20 A u g u st, p. 1, c. 5; 3 Septem ber, p. 2, c. 6; 5 N ovem ber, p. 3, c. 1; 12 N ovem ber 1857, p. 3, c N ebraska A d v e rtis e r. 20 A u g u st, p. 1, c. 5; 3 Septem ber, p. 2, c. 6; 5 N o vem ber, p. 3, c. 1; 12 N o vem ber 1857, p. 3, c. 1; 11 M a rc h 1858, p. 2, c. 5; N ebraska C ity N ew s. 20 N ovem ber 1858, p. 1, c. 3. l ^ N em aha C o u n ty (N ebraska ) Deed R e co rd. In d e x fo r ra nge 15, to w n s h ip s 4, 5, and 6; and range 16, to w n s h ip 4. Located a t th e R egister o f Deeds O ffice, N em aha C o u n ty C ourthouse, A u b u rn, N ebraska. ^ N ebraska A d v e rtis e r. 15 J a n u a ry 1857, p. 2, c. 1. 2QN em aha C o u n tv Deed R ecord. B o o k A ;3 5 9, N ebraska C itv News. 22 M ay 1858, p. 3, c ]\Jebraska C itv N ew s. 21 F e b ru a ry, p. 2, c. 4; 28 F e b ru a ry 1857, p. 2, c N ebraska C itv News. 15 A u g u st, p. 2, c. 1; 21 N ovem ber, p. 2, c. 2; N e braska A d v e rtis e r. 1 O ctober 1857, p. 2, c M o rto n and W a tk in s, Illu s tra te d H is to ry o f N e b ra s k a. 1:18, 25; N e b raska C itv News. 5 J u n e 1858, p. 2, c. 3. ^ N ebraska A d v e rtis e r. 25 O ctober 1856, p. 3, c. 4; N e b ra ska C ity N ew s. 4 D ecem ber 1858, p. 2, c & rh e Panic o f 1857 c u lm in a te d in the collapse o f la n d p rice s and th e fa ilu re o f m a n y w e ste rn b a n ks. St. Louis m e rc h a n ts w ere c a u g h t in th e m id d le since th e y b o u g h t goods w ith legal te n d e r in th e E ast, b u t accepted "w ild c a t" b a n k notes fro m th e ir cu s to m e rs in th e W est. The fo llo w in g s to ry w as w ritte n a b o u t S tephen N u c k o lls and a St. L o u is b ill

110 91 c o lle c to r. T h o u g h its a u th e n tic ity is u n c e rta in, i t does illu s tr a te th e d iffic u ltie s w h ic h N u cko lls faced d u rin g the fin a n c ia l p a n ic: In th e la te s u m m e r o f 1857, an a g e n t re p re s e n tin g S t. L o u is m e rc h a n ts a rriv e d in N e b ra ska C ity to redeem n o te s fro m th e P latte V a lle y B a n k. W hen N u cko lls heard o f h is a rriv a l, he closed th e b a n k and le ft a n o te a t th e d o o r in d ic a tin g th a t he w as a w a y on b u s in e s s, b u t w o u ld re tu rn th e n e x t day. The fo llo w in g m o rn in g, th e agent fo u n d an old m a n s ittin g on the steps o f the b a n k, w h ic h w as s till closed, w h ittlin g a n d ch e w in g tobacco. The old m a n in fo rm e d th e agent th a t N u c k o lls w as s till aw ay on business, b u t th a t he w o u ld re tu rn the n e x t day. W hen the a g e n t re tu rn e d on th e th ird day, he discovered th e b a n k open a n d its v a u lt fille d w ith gold reserves. He w as so im pressed th a t he decided n o t to redeem h is notes, and he re tu rn e d to St. L o u is fu ll o f p ra ise fo r the P latte V a lle y B ank. D u rin g th e tw o days w h e n th e b a n k w as closed, N u c k o lls h a d co n vin ce d J o h n B oulw are, a w e a lth y to w n sm a n, to lo a n h im $ 1 0,0 0 0 in gold coins. N u c k o lls persuaded B o u lw a re th a t i f th e b a n k w e n t u n d e r, N e b ra ska C ity w o u ld go dow n w ith it. R ather th a n lose a b ig g e r fo rtu n e in b u s in e s s losses, B o u lw a re loaned N u cko lls th e co in s and hoped th a t th e b a n k e r co u ld p u ll o ff th e deception. The s to ry seems too fa n c ifu l to be believed. F o r exam ple, w h y w o u ld the agent fa il to redeem h is notes a fte r co m in g a ll th e w a y fro m St. Louis? A n o th e r s to ry related h o w S tephen N u c k o lls stopped a r u n on the b a n k b y a m ob o f depositors b y p ro d u c in g tw o heavy sacks fu ll o f gold to re sto re th e ir confidence in th e b a n k 's reserves. C onvin ce d, th e people le ft th e ir deposits, n o t re a lizin g th a t th e sacks w ere a c tu a lly fu ll o f iro n w a s h e rs. The sto ries, even i f u n tru e, in d ic a te th e desperate s itu a tio n faced b y N u c k o lls d u rin g th e Panic o f T h e y also reveal th e h ig h re g a rd in w h ic h people h e ld N u c k o lls, because th e P latte V a lle y B a n k w as th e o n ly N ebraska w ild c a t b a n k th a t redeemed a ll o f its notes in fu ll. R a y S cott, U ndated, L u lu N u cko lls W esner C ollection, M S 570, N ebraska S tate H is to ric a l Society, L in co ln, N ebraska. ^ N e b r a s k a A d v e rtis e r. 21 J u ly 1859, p. 2, c M o rto n and W a tk in s, Illu s tra te d H is to ry o f N e b ra s k a. 1:29, 309, 2 9 N eb ra s k a C itv N ew s. 17 J a n u a ry 1857, p. 2, c. 2, p. 3, c. 4; N e b raska A d v e rtis e r. 13 A u g u s t 1857, p. 1, c ^ N e braska C itv N ew s. 17 J a n u a ry, 1857, p. 2, c. 2, p. 3, c. 4; N e b ra s k a A d v e rtis e r. 5 F e b ru a ry, p. 2, c. 1; 2 A p ril, p. 3, c. 3, 4; 13 A u g u s t 1857, p. 1, c. 2-6.

111 92 31 N ebraska C ity News. 21 F e b ru a ry, p. 3, c. 2; 7 M a rc h, p. 2, c. 3; 2 8 M a rc h 1857, p. 1, c ^ N ebraska C itv News. 9 J a n u a ry, p. 1, c. ; 30 J a n u a ry, p. 1, c. 7, p. 3, c. 1; 2 0 M a rc h 1858, p. 2, c ivjeb ra s k a C itv News. 24 Novem ber 1860, p. 2, c c h a m b e r o f Com m erce, N ebraska C itv C e n te n n ia l jsjebraska C itv News. 28 N ovem ber 1857, p. 3, c. 2; 13 F e b ru a ry, p. 1, c. 5; 2 0 F e bruary, p. 1, c. 4, p. 2, c. 1; 27 M a rch, p. 1, c. 7. ^ N ebraska C ity News. 13 M a rch, p. 2, c. 1; 10 A p ril, p. 2, c. 1; 17 A p ril 1858, p. 3, c. 2; 3 J u ly 1858, p. l, c ^ N ebraska C itv News. 3 A p ril, p. 2, c. 2; 22 M ay, p. 2, c. 2-3, p. 3, c. 3; 29 M ay, p. 2, c. 4; 5 J u n e 1858, p. 2, c. 7. ^ N e b ra s k a A d v e rtis e r. 20 M a y 1858, p. 3, c. 1; N e b ra ska C itv N ew s. 15 M ay, p. 2, c. 7; 22 M ay 1858, p. 2, c N e b r a s k a A d v e rtis e r. 20 M a y 1858, p. 3, c. 1; N e b ra ska C itv N ew s. 15 M ay, p. 2, c. 7; 22 M ay, p. 2, c. 3; 29 M ay, p. 2, c. 2-3 ; 26 J u n e, p. 2, c. 1-3; 21 A u g u st, p. 1, c. 8; 28 A u g u s t 1858, p. 1, c. 8. ^ N e b r a s k a C itv News. 12 J u n e 1858, p. 1, c. 4-8, p. 2, c. 1, 2, N ebraska C itv News. 4 Septem ber, p. 2, c. 4; 23 O ctober, p. 2, c. 7; 27 Novem ber, p. 3, c. 1, p. 4, c. 4; 4 Decem ber, p. 3, c. 1; 18 D ecem ber 1858, p. 2, c. 2. ^ N e b raska C itv N ew s. 3 0 O ctober, p. 2, c. 2; 18 D ecem ber, p. 2, c. 4-8; 25 D ecem ber 1858, p. 1, c. 4, p. 3, c ]\jebraska C itv N ew s. 1 J a n u a ry, p. 2, c. 2; 19 F e b ru a ry, p. 2, c. 3; 26 M a rc h, p. 3, c. 1; 2 A p ril 1859, p. 3, c. 1; C h a m b e r o f C om m erce, N ebraska C itv C e n te n n ia l. 13, 45, 46. ^ N ebraska C itv News. 12 F e b ru a ry 1859, p. 2, c ]vjebraska C itv News. 18 J u n e 1859, p. 2, c. 4.

112 93 4 > N e b r a s k a p ity News. 4 Ju n e, p. 2, c. 2; 7 M ay, p. 2, c. 4; 16 J u ly 1859, p. 2, c. 1. ^ N e b raska c it y N ew s. 12 F e b ru a ry, p. 1, c. 6; 28 M ay, p. 3,c. 2; 11 J u n e, p. 2, c. 2; 5 Novem ber, p. 2, c. 2; 12 N ovem ber, p. 3, c. 2; 19 N ovem ber 1859, p. 2, c. 3; 3 M a rch, p. 1, c. 5, p. 3, c. 1; 7 A p ril 1860, p. 1, c. 4. ^ N ebraska C itv N ew s. 7 M ay, p. 2, c. 5; 6 A u g u s t, p. 2, e. 2; 13 A u g u s t, p. 2,c. 2, 5; 1 O ctober, p. 2, c. 1; 29 O ctober 1859, p. 2, c. 1; 14 J a n u a ry 1860, p. 2, c N ebraska C itv N ew s. 29 O ctober, p. 2, c. 1; 17 D ecem ber 1859, p. l, c. 4-7; 14 J a n u a ry 1860, p. 2, c. 2. 5C>Nebraska C ity News. 10 M a rch, p. 4, c. 1; 2 4 M a rch, p. 3, c. 2; 7 A p ril, p. 2, c. 2, p. 3, c. 7, 8; 12 M ay, p. 3, c. 1; 19 M ay, single-page special e d itio n ; 16 J u n e 1860, p. 3, c. 1, 3. 5 ^ N ebraska C itv N ew s. 7 J u ly, p. 3, c. 1; 21 J u ly, p. 2, c. 3; 28 J u ly, p. 3, c. 1; 25 A u g u st, p. 3, c. 1; 1 Septem ber, p. 3, c. 1; 20 O ctober 1860, p. 2, c. 1; p. 3, c. 2. ^ N e b r a s k a c it y News. 15 Septem ber, p. 2, c. 3; 3 N ovem ber, p. 2, c. 1; 10 Novem ber, p. 2, c. 1; 8 Decem ber, p. 2, c. 2; 15 D ecem ber 1860, p. 2, c. 1. S ^D ale, Otoe C o u n ty Pioneers. 7 :

113 94 CHAPTER FO U R 'T H E M O ST B E A U T IFU L V IE W M Y EYES EVER LO O KED ON": T H E SETTLEM ENT OF ARAGO BY G ERM AN -AM ERICAN LIB E R A LS In A u g u s t 1857, th e m o n th th a t W illia m M. S ta rk w as a p p o in te d s p e c ia l a g e n t to d is trib u te la n d to th e m ixe d -b lo o d s, a s h a rp n a tio n a l recession com m enced, k n o w n as th e Panic o f 1857, w h ic h led a g ro u p o f G e rm a n im m ig ra n ts liv in g in B u ffa lo, New Y o rk to seek a h om e on the H a lf-b re e d T ra c t. The p a n ic caused w id e s p re a d fa c to ry a n d b a n k clo sin g s, ra ilro a d b a n k ru p tc ie s, h ig h u n e m p lo y m e n t ra te s, fa llin g la n d p ric e s, a n d a steep d ro p in s h a re p ric e s on th e N ew Y o rk S to c k E x ch a n g e. The d ire c t cause o f th e collapse w as th e s u s p e n s io n o f p a y m e n ts b y th e O h io Life In s u ra n c e a n d T ru s t C o m p any, a h ig h ly - re specte d fin a n c ia l in s titu tio n w h ic h, despite its nam e, w as a c tu a lly a b a n k th a t used deposits to m ake loans to co rp o ra tio n s and governm ents. C a p ita liz e d a t $ 2,0 0 0,0 0 0, th e O h io Life a n d T ru s t e n jo ye d a s o lid re p u ta tio n because i t refused to issu e ris k y b a n k notes a n d exercised co n se rva tive lo a n practices. I t got in to tro u b le w h e n its New Y o rk office in ve ste d too h e a vily in w estern ra ilro a d s w h ic h w ere o v e rb u ilt a n d u n a b le to re p a y d e b t d u e to in c o n s is te n t e a rn in g s. C h a rle s S te ts o n, th e com p a n y's p resident, a n n o u nce d th e susp e n sio n o f p a ym e n ts on A u g u s t 2 4 th, c a u s in g O hio Life a n d T r u s t sh a re s to p lu m m e t b y m o re th a n e ig h ty -fiv e p e rc e n t w ith in fo u r days. T he m a rk e t-w id e c ra s h th a t fo llo w e d caused a liq u id ity c ris is w h ic h s tra in e d th e e n tire econom y. A n tic ip a tin g o th e r fa ilu re s, s to c k h o ld e rs sold a d d itio n a l shares to raise c a s h a n d to cover losses. S e llin g p re ssu re created a d o w n w a rd s p ira l w h ic h la s te d u n til sellers e x h a u s te d th e ir s u p p ly o f s e c u ritie s. The collapse w h ip sa w e d busin e ssm e n in th e N o rtheast and W est w h o h a d b id u p la n d p rice s and ra ilro a d s beyond reason, a p p a re n tly b e lie vin g th a t the p h e n o m e n a l p a s t p e rfo rm a n c e o f th e ir in v e s tm e n ts w o u ld c o n tin u e in d e fin ite ly. O n ly S o u th e rn e rs escaped the w o rs t o f the d o w n tu rn due to th e a g ra ria n n a tu re o f th e ir econom y. 1

114 95 The p a n ic b u rs t the speculative b u b b le in v o lv in g w e ste rn la n d and ra ilro a d s. D u rin g the 1850s, ra ilro a d com panies la id m ore th a n 2 0,0 0 0 m ile s o f tra c k, and s m a lle r ra ilro a d s m erged to fo rm im p o rta n t tr u n k lin e s s u c h as th e New Y o rk C e n tra l, th e B a ltim o re a n d O hio, a n d th e P e n n sylva n ia R ailroad. As ra ilro a d s extended w e stw a rd, th e o n c e -d is ta n t fro n tie r becam e accessible, and b u sin e ssm e n raced to b u y p rim e w e ste rn p ro p e rtie s. T h e y also speculated on dozens o f ra ilro a d p ro je cts proposed b y e n tre p re n e u rs, state governm ents, and e x is tin g ra ilro a d co m panie s. R a ilro a d m e n fin a n c e d n e w co m panie s th ro u g h s to c k s u b s c rip tio n s, e q u ity sales on th e N ew Y o rk S to c k E xchange, a n d d e b t o ffe rin g s. B e g in n in g in 1850, the federal g o vern m e n t offered la n d g ra n ts fro m the p u b lic d o m a in to encourage ra ilro a d c o n s tru c tio n, and, in th a t year, Illin o is received 2,5 0 0,0 0 0 acres to s u b s id iz e th e c o n s tru c tio n o f th e Illin o is C e n tra l R a ilro a d. O ver the n e x t seven years, C ongress g ra n te d 2 2,0 0 0,0 0 0 acres to a s s is t ra ilro a d p ro je c ts in eleven w e s te rn a n d s o u th e rn sta te s, a n d it s e rio u s ly d iscu sse d c o n s tru c tin g th e P a cific ra ilro a d. Y et d u rin g th e fin a n c ia l p a n ic o f 1857, th e r is k o f fa ilu re o u tw e ig h e d e n th u s ia s m fo r new ra ilro a d p ro je c ts, a n d m a n y in fa n t ra ilro a d com panies w e n t b a n k ru p t w h e n th e ir fu n d s d rie d u p.2 The p a n ic also exposed the excesses o f th e b a n k in g system, i f th e w o rd "system " m a y be used. A t th a t tim e, th e re w as no c e n tra l b a n k in g a u th o r ity lik e th e m o d e rn Federal Reserve. To m eet th e d e m a n d fo r m oney, state g o vernm ents p e rm itte d b a n k s to issue th e ir ow n n otes as p ro m is e s o f p a y m e n t, b a cke d o n ly b y th e reserves o f th e in d iv id u a l in s titu tio n s. T h o u g h n o t o b lig a te d to ta k e th e n o te s, m e rc h a n ts ro u tin e ly accepted th e m to s a tis fy th e ir cu sto m e rs. D e p e n d in g o n th e fin a n c ia l s tre n g th o f th e is s u in g b a n k, receiving b a n k s accepted notes a t a d is c o u n t to face va lu e. Rates o f exchange flu c tu a te d d a ily, fo rc in g b a n k e rs to ju d g e the value o f the notes th e y received each day. T ro u b le d b a n k s o fte n fa ile d days before d is ta n t b a n ke rs received th e new s. W ith b a n k s poised lik e a s ta c k o f cards, each h o ld in g tro u b le d n otes o f o th e r b a n k s, th e m o m e n tu m o f th e fin a n c ia l p a n ic c a rrie d m a n y h e a lth y in s titu tio n s dow n w ith the w e a k. 3

115 96 B u ffa lo, New Y o rk, suffered m ore th a n m o st citie s d u rin g th e p a n ic b e c a u s e i t d e p e n ded h e a v ily on co m m e rce a n d la c k e d a s tro n g m a n u fa c tu rin g base. W hen tra d e slow ed on th e E rie C anal, lo ca l b a n ks a n d b u sin e sse s closed, a n d m a n y m en w ho lo s t th e ir jo b s o r h a d th e ir w ages sla sh e d began lo o k in g fo r o p p o rtu n itie s elsew here. W o rk e rs a t C u tle r & D ef orest s, B u ffa lo 's la rg est fu rn itu re m a ker, fo rm e d a m u tu a l a id o rg a n iza tio n called th e G erm an E m ig ra tio n Society. A c a b in e t-m a k e r n a m e d L o u is A llg ew aehr re c ru ite d one h u n d re d la b o re rs to b u y w e ste rn la n d on w h ic h to b u ild th e ir ow n settlem ent. In Septem ber, the m em bers m e t a t Lorenc G illig 's H a ll on Genesee S treet to elect officers a n d devise a p la n fo r th e ir colony. P resident A llgew aehr, Vice P re sid e n t G. T. Nessler, S e cre ta ry H e n ry S om m erlad, T re a su re r A u g u s t D u e rfe ld t S r., and a sm a ll co m m itte e o f m em bers, d rafte d a c o n s titu tio n and a set o f b y-la w s. Once organized, th e society s o u g h t new m em bers and m oney, sold shares fo r fifte e n d o lla rs each, and p ro m ise d th re e b u ild in g lo ts o r a g a rden lo t o f one acre n e a r the fu tu re settlem ent. Three trustees, Ja co b Beyer, George H o lle rith, and Jacob Schue, m anaged th e m oney and issued c o n tra c ts to s h a re h o ld e rs.^ B eyer w as one o f th e m o s t w id e ly -re s p e c te d G e rm a n citiz e n s o f B uffa lo. A su ccessful d ry goods m e rc h a n t and d ire c to r o f th e G e rm a n In su ra n ce C om pany, Beyer co-founded th e G erm an Y o u n g M e n s A s s o c ia tio n in , an im p o rta n t socia l o rg a n iz a tio n in B u ffa lo. He la te r suggested fo rm in g th e B u ffa lo ch a p te r o f th e T u rn v e re in e in , a n o rg a n iz a tio n in tim a te ly lin k e d to th e fo u n d in g o f th e w e s te rn s e ttle m e n t. B eyer w e n t on to serve tw o te rm s on th e B u ffa lo C om m o n C o u n c il a n d seven years on the B oard o f Police C o m m issio n e rs.5 A t th e ir Septem ber m eeting, society m em bers selected a th re e -m a n la n d c o m m is s io n, c o n s is tin g o f A llg e w a e h r a n d D r. F r ie d r ic h D e lle n b a u g h ^ fro m B u ffa lo, a n d a n u n id e n tifie d fa rm e r fro m C h e e kto w a g a, to b u y la n d fo r th e s e ttle m e n t. A fte r e x p lo rin g one h u n d re d m ile s o f la n d a lo n g th e lo w e r M is s is s ip p i R ive r, th e m e n re tu rn e d hom e to re p o rt th a t th e y had fo u n d no s u ita b le lo c a tio n. The fo llo w in g M a rc h, m e m b e rs se le cte d a se co n d c o m m is s io n, w ith A llg e w a e h r, D e lle n b a u g h, and W illia m Krebes o f C hicago, a n d levied a five d o lla r p e r share charge to fu n d a new search effort. The th re e m en

116 97 tra v e le d n o rth a lo n g the M is s o u ri R ive r u n til th e y a rriv e d in N e b ra ska T e rrito ry. There th e y p u rc h a s e d 4,4 0 0 acres n e a r St. S te p h e n s fro m S te p h e n S to ry and H o u s to n N u c k o lls, p a yin g an average o f $ p e r acre fo r th e la n d, as w e ll as a saw m ill, several log houses, a n d several w agons w ith s ix yoke o f oxen. The te rm s were $ 1 0,0 0 0 dow n, w ith a oney e a r m ortgage o f $ 1 4,0 0 0 a t te n p e r ce n t in te re s t. W ith n e a rb y p re e m p tio n la n d s e llin g fo r $ p e r acre, th e G e rm a n s p a id S to ry and N u c k o lls a h ig h p ric e fo r th e p ro p e rty.7 O n J u n e 15, 1859, so cie ty m e m b e rs se n t D u e rfe ld t to N ebraska to pay the b alance o f th e m ortgage, a n d approved a five d o lla r per share levy for h is tra v e l expenses. A rriv in g o n J u n e 23 a t th e site o f th e fu tu re s e ttle m e n t, w h ic h th e G e rm a n s nam e d Arago, D u e rfe ld t traveled to Salem, the te m p o ra ry c o u n ty seat o f R ic h a rd s o n C ounty, w here he discovered th a t th e $ 1 4,0 0 0 m ortgage h a d neve r been recorded. T h o u g h D u e rfe ld t m u s t have suspected fo u l play, he le a rn e d th a t S te p h e n S to ry h a d re fu se d to re c o rd th e o rig in a l m o rtg a g e, b e lie v in g th a t th e one d o lla r fee w as excessive. W h e n D u e rfe ld t m ade th e p u rc h a s e o ffic ia l, the G erm ans becam e one o f th e la rg e s t b u ye rs o f H a lf-b re ed T ra c t la n d in the p o s t-a llo tm e n t period, and th e ir s to ry is one o f th e m o st fa scin a tin g. 8 T he fo rm a tio n o f th e G e rm a n E m ig ra tio n S o c ie ty re fle c te d th e s o c ia l e n v iro n m e n t in w h ic h i t o c cu rre d. L ik e m a n y E a s te rn citie s, B u ffa lo house d n u m e ro u s G e rm a n im m ig ra n ts w h o h a d fle d p o litic a l o p p re s s io n, re lig io u s p e rs e c u tio n, a n d e conom ic re c e s s io n a t hom e. O rg a n ize d e m ig ra tio n fro m G e rm a n y to A m e ric a began in 1683 w h e n th irte e n M e n n o n ite fa m ilie s se ttle d s ix m iles n o rth o f P h ila d e lp h ia, in a c o m m u n ity s till ca lle d G e rm a n to w n. D u rin g th e re m a in in g c o lo n ia l ye a rs, E n g la n d favored th e im m ig ra tio n o f G e rm a n P ro te s ta n ts to th e colonies to defend a g a in st the th re a t o f C a th o lic France and S p a in. The p la n b a c k fire d since m a n y im m ig ra n ts were p a c ifis ts, and m o s t G e rm a n c o lo n is ts fa v o re d in d e p e n d e n c e d u rin g th e A m e ric a n R e v o lu tio n. P e n n s y lv a n ia becam e th e ce n te r o f G erm an s e ttle m e n t as im m ig ra n ts fro m G e rm a n y com prised o n e -th ird o f its p o p u la tio n, even th o u g h large G e rm a n groups also settled in New Y ork, New Jersey, M a ry la n d, V irg in ia, a n d N o rth C a ro lin a.9 G erm ans were th e la rg e st im m ig ra n t g ro u p o f th e

117 98 n in e te e n th c e n tu ry 'w ith over five m illio n m em bers. A t tim e s, G e rm a n g ro u p s trie d to organize G e rm a n states, as w as th e case in M is s o u ri in th e 1830s, Texas in th e 1840s, a n d W is c o n s in in th e 1850s. These a tte m p ts failed, b u t in each case large G erm an m in o ritie s lo ca te d in th e te rrito rie s, p ro d u c in g the s tro n g G erm an c u ltu ra l tra d itio n s fo u n d to d a y in those states. D ue to econom ic and p o litic a l d is tu rb a n c e s in G erm any, th e fo rtie s and fiftie s were the decades o f heaviest m ovem ent. G e rm a n im m ig ra tio n to th e U n ite d States trip le d in the fo rtie s to 4 3 5,0 0 0 people, a n d th e n d o u bled again in th e fiftie s to 950,000. B y 1854, o n e -h a lf o f a ll im m ig ra n ts to th e U n ite d S tates were fro m G erm any. M o s t new com ers s e ttle d in th e large c itie s o f th e N o rtheast, th o u g h th o u s a n d s tra ve le d w e s t to c itie s lik e C hicago a n d M ilw a u k e e, a n d to th e te rrito rie s o f W is c o n s in and M innesota. *0 E co n o m ic h a rd tim e s in G e rm a n y clim axed in 1846, w h e n a severe fa m in e caused th e th ir d d is m a l h a rv e s t in as m a n y years. Tw o years la te r, p o litic a l d is tu rb a n c e s cam e to a head in a series o f events k n o w n as th e R e v o lu tio n o f T he c o n flic t a c tu a lly began in F ra n c e in F e b ru a ry 1848, w h e n re p u b lic a n s and w o rke rs, a n g ry a b o u t th e la c k o f re p re s e n ta tio n fo r com m on citizens in governm ent, o ve rth re w K in g Louis P h ilip p e and e stablished th e Second F re n ch R epublic. U n re s t c o n tin u e d th e re, in c lu d in g J u n e s tre e t b a ttle s in P aris, u n t il L o u is N a p o le o n b e cam e p re s id e n t o f th e R e p u b lic in D ecem ber a n d re s to re d o rd e r. S im ila r u p ris in g s led to th e re s ig n a tio n o f Prince K lem ens vo n M e tte rn ic h a n d th e a b d ic a tio n o f E m p e ro r F e rd in a n d in A u s tr ia, a lib e ra l c o n s titu tio n in H u n g a ry, a n d th e re m o va l o f A u s tr ia n tro o p s fro m n o rth e rn Ita lia n citie s. In G e rm a n y, th e rebels c o n s is te d o f lib e ra ls, s o c ia lis ts, w o rke rs, and disaffected s tu d e n ts w ho s o u g h t to e s ta b lis h a c o n s titu tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t a n d to u n ite th e s ta te s o f th e G e rm a n C o n fe d e ra tio n in to a s in g le c o u n try, w h ic h in c lu d e d th e G e rm a n s p e a k in g re g io n s o f A u s tria. T he m o v e m e n t e v e n tu a lly fa ile d in G e rm a n y, fo rc in g n u m e ro u s in s u rre c tio n is ts, w h o becam e k n o w n as "F o rty -E ig h te rs," to flee to co u n trie s such as the U n ite d States. ^ T he F o rty -E ig h te rs were d iffe re n t fro m o th e r G e rm a n im m ig ra n ts fo r th e y w ere yo u n g e r and b e tte r educated. F o rty -E ig h te rs w ere ty p ic a lly

118 99 m a le, in th e ir tw e n tie s, u n m a rrie d, a n d p h y s ic a lly f it d u e to th e ir d e vo tio n to g ym n a stic exercise. W h ile m o st im m ig ra n ts a rriv e d in fa m ily g ro u p s, F o rty -E ig h te rs u s u a lly tra ve le d alone, m o s t lik e ly as s tu d e n ts c a rry in g s u itc a s e s ja m m e d w ith b o o ks ra th e r th a n c lo th in g. T h e y d resse d lik e th e re v o lu tio n a ry h e ro F rie d ric h H e cke r w ith a b ro a d - b rim m e d h a t, open s h irt a t th e neck, and a loose scarf. F o rty -E ig h te rs w o re m o u s ta c h e s o r fu ll b e a rd s, b u t ra tb e r th a n p ro je c tin g a ro u g h appearance, th e ir so ft h a n d s and m a n n e ris m s revealed th a t th e y were u n a c c u s to m e d to h a rd p h y s ic a l la b o r. These n e w com ers w ere o fte n teachers, jo u rn a lis ts, o r law yers w ho sought p rofessional p o s itio n s in th e c itie s. The b e st estim ate o f th e ir n u m b e rs w as betw een th re e a n d fo u r th o u s a n d, th o u g h e stim ates are d iffic u lt because th e y a rriv e d d u rin g a decade o f huge G erm an im m ig ra tio n to A m e rica. E v e n tu a lly, th e nam e "F o rty -E ig h te r" w as a p p lie d to G e rm a n p o litic a l refugees o f th e 1830s th ro u g h the 1850s, and n o t ju s t the refugees o f The F o rty -E ig h te rs p ro v id e d p o litic a l le a d e rs h ip to th e g e n e ra lly a p o litic a l G e rm a n -A m e rica n s, o r "v o tin g c a ttle," as th e y w ere te rm e d. T h e a rriv a l o f th e F o rty -E ig h te rs c o in c id e d w ith th e ris e o f th e K n o w N o th in g s, A m e ric a n n a tiv is ts w h o s o u g h t to lim it th e in flu e n c e o f im m ig ra n ts. K n o w N o th in g s w ere a ctive in th e D e m o c ra tic a n d W h ig p a rtie s, b u t th e leaders o f th e tw o m a in lin e p a rtie s h e ld th e m som ew hat in c h e c k fo r fe a r o f a lie n a tin g fo re ig n -b o rn vote rs. A s a re s u lt, th e n a tiv is ts form ed th e A m e ric a n P a rty in 1845, th o u g h th e y s till w ie ld e d c o n s id e ra b le in flu e n c e in th e o th e r p a rtie s. K n o w N o th in g s despised im m ig ra n ts in general, b u t Iris h C a th o lics in p a rtic u la r, fo r th e n a tiv is ts w ere P ro te sta n ts w ho feared th a t C a th o lic im m ig ra n ts w o u ld o ve rw helm a n d d e s tro y A m e ric a n s o c ie ty. T he a rriv a l o f so m a n y G e rm a n im m ig ra n ts, e s p e cia lly th e o u ts p o k e n re v o lu tio n a rie s, a ttra c te d th e ir a tte n tio n a fte r K n o w N o th in g s ig n o re d th e im m ig ra n t's fig h t a g a in s t a b s o lu tis m a t hom e and h is s u p p o rt o f d e m o cra tic in s titu tio n s in A m e ric a. In fact, b y re s o rtin g to violence, in tim id a tio n, and tric k e ry to fo re s ta ll im m ig ra n t p a rtic ip a tio n, th e n a tiv is ts were th e la rg e r th re a t to d e m o c ra c y in th e U n ite d S ta te s. K n o w N o th in g s s o u g h t to d e n y im m ig ra n ts A m e ric a n c itiz e n s h ip b y e xte n d in g th e p ro b a tio n p e rio d fo r

119 100 n a tu ra liz a tio n a n d c re a tin g o th e r obstacles. The F o rty -E ig h te rs fo u g h t n a tiv is ts a t m a n y levels, in c lu d in g th a t o f s y m b o lis m. T h e te rm "G e rm a n -A m e rica n " w as firs t used a t th is tim e b y the new im m ig ra n ts to illu s tra te th e ir lo y a lty to th e ir adopted c o u n try.13 T he F o rty -E ig h te rs re -in v ig o ra te d e s ta b lis h e d G e rm a n s o c ia l o rg a n iz a tio n s. One exam ple in B u ffa lo w as th e G e rm a n Y o u n g M en's A s s o c ia tio n, fo u n d e d in 1841, w h ic h w as a c e n te r o f s o c ia l a n d e d u c a tio n a l a c tiv ity am ong G erm ans in th a t c ity. The A s s o c ia tio n w as a s p in o ff o f th e B u ffa lo A p p re n tic e s ' Society, w h ic h w a s in c o rp o ra te d in 1833 to h e lp m em bers g a in know ledge to prepare th e m fo r w o rk. Since th e A p p re n tic e s ' S ociety d id n o t a llo w m em bers p a s t the age o f tw e n ty - n in e, several soon-to-leave m em bers, p lu s Jacob Beyer, w ho w as too old to begin w ith, form ed th e G erm an Y oung M en's A sso cia tio n to m eet th e ir o w n needs. G erm an m en u n d e r th ir ty years o f age c o u ld jo in as active, o r v o tin g m em bers, w h ile m en over th ir ty c o u ld belo n g as n o n -v o tin g m e m b e rs. M em bers h a d fo u n d e d th e A sso cia tio n, o rig in a lly ca lled th e "G e rm a n -E n g lis h L ite ra tu re Society", on M ay 10, 1841, fo r the p u rpose o f m u tu a l e d u ca tio n in lite ra tu re, science, and a rt, and th e a c q u is itio n and m a in te n a n c e o f a lib ra ry. M em bers m et every M o nday evening in a p la in ro o m b e h in d D r. D e lle n b a u g h 's office. The g ro u p e m p h a size d socia l fu n c tio n s m ore th a n h a d the A p p re n tic e s Society, and it la b o re d to fin d jo b s a n d h o u s in g fo r new refugees. In tu rn, m a n y F o rty -E ig h te rs jo in e d th e society and m ade it m ore socia lly and p o litic a lly active. *4 A n o th e r o rganiza tio n, the G e rm a n -A m e rica n W o rk in g m e n 's U n io n, w a s a s o c ia lis tic o rg a n iza tio n m odeled a fte r the u n io n s o f re v o lu tio n a ry G e rm a n y. Its m a in goal w as to im p ro v e w o rk in g c o n d ito n s fo r its m em bers, b u t i t served social fu n c tio n s as w e ll.* 3 O n M a rc h 3, 1853, a s m a ll g ro u p o f U n io n m e m b e rs in B u ffa lo fo rm e d a c h a p te r o f th e T u m v e re in e, a lib e ra l society dedicated to p h ysica l tra in in g. Jacob B eyer o r ig in a lly su g g e ste d fo rm in g th e T u rn v e re in e c h a p te r, a n d L o u is A llg e w a e h r, A u g u s t and F rie d ric h D u e rfe ld t, a n d seventeen o th e r U n io n m e m b e rs d id th e a c tu a l w o rk o f o rg a n iza tio n. A llg e w a e h r w as th e fir s t sp e a ke r o f th e g ro u p w h ic h e sta b lish e d its h e a d q u a rte rs a t R o th 's H a ll, o n th e co rn e r o f M ic h ig a n and Cypress Streets. In Ju n e, th e T u rn e rs, as

120 101 th e y w ere c o m m o n ly k n o w n, opened a g y m n a s iu m in th e b a c k o f th e ir b u ild in g w h e re th e y exercised a n d h e ld g y m n a s tic c o m p e titio n s w ith o th e r T u rn e r so cie tie s. The m e m b e rs s ta rte d a n a m a te u r th e a te r c o m p a n y in 1854, a t G illig 's H a ll, on th e c o rn e r o f Genesee a n d A s h S treets, a n d b u ilt a second g y m n a siu m in the rear. D ue to th e ir success, o th e r organized th e a te r g ro u p s jo in e d th e T u rn v e re in e a n d m erged th e ir p ro p e rtie s w ith it, A t stage perform ances, reserved seats cost 25 cents, w h ile general a d m issio n cost h a lf as m u ch. The lo w p rice s a ttra c te d th e la rg e cro w d s w h ic h a lw ays a tte n d e d th e ir events. To a d v e rtis e th e ir p e rfo rm a n ce s, the T u rn e rs m arched th e ir band th ro u g h th e streets p rio r to th e show s, and th e y h e ld dances in the h a ll a fte rw a rd s, fo r a n o th e r 25 c e n t a d m issio n. In th e w in te r o f 1855, tw o p ro fe s s io n a l a cto rs tra in e d th e a m a te u rs. P erform ances c o n tin u e d in G illig 's H a ll u n t il T u rn H a ll opened on J a n u a ry 18, 1858, a s tru c tu re w h ic h m em bers fin a n ce d as a s to c k co m p a n y and b u ilt them selves. F rom th e n on G illig 's H a ll becam e k n o w n as th e S ta d t T heater. A fte r J a n u a ry 1859, m em bers gave M o n d a y p e rfo rm a n ce s a t the S ta d t-g illig 's, T h u rs d a y p e rfo rm a n ce s a t T u rn H all, a n d S u n d a y perform ances o f sacred m u s ic a t b o th places. T h is schedule c o n tin u e d u n til the C iv il W ar te m p o ra rily h a lte d the shows. *6 F rie d ric h J a h n had fo u n d ed the T u rn e r m o vem e n t in 1811 a t th e H asenheide, a wooded area n e a r B e rlin. J a h n w as a G e rm a n n a tio n a lis t, a g ia n t m a n w ith a flo w in g beard, w h o opposed N apoleon a n d h is F re n ch s o ld ie rs w h o h a d co n q u e re d P ru s s ia in Im m e d ia te a rm e d re sista n ce seemed fu tile because th e F re n ch h a d h u m b le d th e P ru s s ia n a rm y w ith easy v ic to rie s, so J a h n s o u g h t to re in v ig o ra te G e rm a n m en a n d y o u th th ro u g h a p ro g ra m o f p h y s ic a l tra in in g. In s p ire d b y th e R o m a n w rite r T a c itu s w h o described th e a n c ie n t G e rm a n s as p o w e rfu l g ia n ts, J a h n fo u n d e d a s o c ia l-a th le tic o rg a n iz a tio n w h o se m e m b e rs p ra c tic e d rig o ro u s g y m n a s tic exercises (tu rn e re i) a n d s tu d ie d J a h n 's n a tio n a lis tic ideas. ^ T h e o rg a n iz a tio n q u ic k ly g re w th ro u g h o u t G e rm a n y, a ttra c tin g in d e p e n d e n t-m in d e d y o u n g G e rm a n s, e s p e c ia lly u n iv e rs ity stu d e n ts. D espite J a h n 's cla im s th a t he m e re ly s o u g h t the c o m p le te e d u c a tio n o f th e people, g o v e rn m e n t o ffic ia ls vie w e d h is m o v e m e n t w ith s u s p ic io n. W h e n N apoleon's e m p ire co lla p se d, th e

121 102 P ru s s ia n k in g im p ris o n e d J a h n and suppressed th e T u rn e r societies and o th e r lib e ra l g roups w ith the issuance o f th e K a rls b a d Decrees in E ven w ith J a h n 's release in 1824, th e police k e p t h im u n d e r su rv e illa n c e a n d he w as n o t free to tra v e l o r speak p u b lic ly u n til Actually, th e a u th o ritie s were co rre ct a b o u t the p o litic a l a ttitu d e s o f th e T u rn e rs, fo r th e y w ere a rd e n t lib e ra ls w ho supporte d th e R e volu tio n in The ly ric s o f a p o p u la r T u rn e r song revealed th e ir a ttitu d e : W hose h a n d s h a ll 's ta b lis h G erm any? W hose b ro w deserves the d ig n ity? Perchance the People's sovereignty? A h, there again we a ll agree, The People sh a ll o u r K aiser b e!*9 S everal exiled T u rn e rs, in c lu d in g C a rl B eck, w h o ta u g h t L a tin a t R o u n d H ill School, and C harles F ollen, w ho ta u g h t G erm an lite ra tu re a t H a rv a rd, in tro d u c e d J a h n 's system o f p h y s ic a l tra in in g to th e U n ite d S tates in B eck supervised th e c o n s tru c tio n o f th e fir s t g y m n a s iu m in th e U n ite d S tates in 1824, and tra n s la te d J a h n 's b o o k D e u ts c h e T u r n k u n s t in to E n g lis h. A t th e re q u e st o f H a rva rd m e d ic a l p rofessors, F o lle n organized a g ym n a siu m a t the college in 1826 and began te a c h in g p h y s ic a l e d u ca tio n. The n e x t year, refugee F ra n c is L ieber jo in e d F o lle n as a g y m n a s tic s in s tru c to r a t th e college and e sta b lish e d a s w im m in g sch o o l in B o s to n w h ic h received n a tio n a l a tte n tio n. F o lle n a n d L ie b e r w e n t on to illu s trio u s careers in e d u ca tio n and lite ra tu re. 20 T h e F o rty -E ig h te rs used th e T u rn v e re in e to p ro m o te th e ir ow n p o litic a l a n d social ideas, and th e m o vem e n t flo u ris h e d th ro u g h th e ir e ffo rts. F rie d ric h H ecker, the re v o lu tio n a ry leader fro m B aden, organized th e f ir s t T u rn g e m e in d e, o r T u r n e r so c ie ty, in O c to b e r , in C in c in n a ti, and dedicated the fir s t T u rn e r h a ll in A m e ric a on J a n u a ry 1, O th e r im p o rta n t re v o lu tio n a ry leaders w h o o rg a n ize d T u rn e r societies in A m e ric a w ere G u sta v S tru ve in New Y o rk, A u g u s t W illic h in M ilw a u k e e, and K a rl H einzen in B oston. The T u rn e r m o tto w as "F ris c h, fro m m, fro h, fre i," m e a n in g "a le rt, devout, h a p p y, free." O n O c to b e r 5, 1850, T u rn e r delegates fro m New Y o rk, P h ila d e lp h ia, B a ltim o re, and

122 103 B o sto n created an association o f g ym nastic societies, th e N o rth A m e ric a n G y m n a s tic U n io n, to fo s te r c o m p e titio n s b etw een T u rn e r a th le te s in d iffe re n t cities, and to increase c o m m u n ic a tio n betw een T u rn e r societies. C in c in n a ti a n d o th e r c itie s jo in e d th e u n io n soon th e re a fte r. The fo llo w in g y e a r th e T u rn e rs cre ate d a fo rm a l u n io n o f so cie tie s, th e S o z ia lis tis c h e r T u rn e rb u n d, and agreed to h o ld a n a tio n a l c o n v e n tio n a n d g y m n a s tic c o m p e titio n in a d iffe re n t h o s t c ity each y e a r, The T u rn e rb u n d w as a s o c ia lis tic o rg a n iz a tio n w h ic h opposed s la v e ry a n d n a tiv is m, and vowed to re fo rm p o litic s, re lig io n, and society in general. It fo u n d e d a new spaper, th e T u rn e rz e itu n g. to p rom o te its e lf and its ideals. B y th e end o f 1851, tw e n ty o f the tw e n ty-tw o T u rn e r societies h a d jo in e d th e T u rn e rb u n d, w h ic h h a d a to ta l m e m b e rs h ip o f 1,672 p e rso n s. B y 1853, th e re w ere s ix ty societies, d ivid e d in to five re g io n a l d is tric ts fo r b e tte r a d m in is tra tio n, and T u rn e r h a lls were centers o f social a c tiv itie s in th e G e rm a n se ctions o f m o st large citie s. W ith in s ix years, th e re w ere 152 societies, a b o u t h a lf o f w h ic h w ere in th e W est, w ith a c o m b in e d m e m b e rs h ip o f over n in e th o u s a n d m em bers. The C iv il W a r devastated th e T u m v e re in e th ro u g h th e loss o f its so u th e rn ch a p te rs and because so m a n y T u rn e rs died fo r th e U n io n cause. B y th e end o f th e w a r, it h a d been reduced to e ig h ty-tw o societies and s ix th o u s a n d m em bers, th o u g h i t d id revive som ew hat d u rin g th e decades a fte r th e w a r. 21 T u rn e rs w ere e xtre m e ly active p o litic a lly, a n d th e y opposed th e K n o w N o th in g s, p ro h ib itio n is ts, and th e advocates o f slavery. A d e fin in g e v e n t fo r T u rn e rs o c c u rre d a t a c o n v e n tio n o f th e N o rth A m e ric a n G y m n a s tic U n io n, w h ic h w as h e ld in B u ffa lo b e g in n in g S e p te m b er 24, T h ir ty delegates re p re s e n tin g fo rty -s e v e n T u rn e r s o c ie tie s p a rtic ip a te d in th e convention, w ith Louis A llgew aehr a tte n d in g on b e h a lf o f the B u ffa lo T u rn e rs. C o n vention C h a irm a n C. F. B a u e r, a new sp a p e r e d ito r a n d a delegate fro m th e P itts b u rg h T u m v e re in e, co n vin ce d th e g ro u p to condem n slavery, K now N othings, and P ro h ib itio n is ts, w h o were re fe rre d to as "S u n d a y h y p o c rite s."22 The co n v e n tio n p la tfo rm re ad as follow s:

123 104 The T u rn e rb u n d sta te s th a t slavery, n a tiv is m, a n d p ro h ib itio n are the w o rs t abuses o f the tim e and in fu ll re a liza tio n o f th is fa c t sets u p the fo llo w in g p rin c ip le s : 1) The T u rn e r w ill vote fo r no m a n w h o is a m e m b e r o f th e K n o w -N o th in g p a rty, o r w h o is id e n tifie d w ith a n y n a tiv is tic organiza tio n o r p a rty, o r w h o does n o t d e c la re h im s e lf o p e n ly as o p p o s e d to a n y o rg a n iza tio n o f th e n a tu re. 2) The T u rn e r are opposed to slavery; p a rtic u la rly th e y are a g a in s t e x te n s io n o f s la v e ry to th e fre e te rrito rie s, and regard th is in s titu tio n as d e fin ite ly u n w o rth y o f a re p u b lic and c o n tra ry to a ll concepts o f freedom. 3) The T u rn e r are opposed to a ll p ro h ib itio n la w s as u n d e m o c ra tic and u n ju s t in th e o ry and n o t feasible in p ra c tic e.23 The B u ffa lo co n v e n tio n m a rk e d th e e n tra n ce o f th e T u rn e rs in to p a rtis a n p o litic s, and th e em ergence o f F o rty -E ig h te rs as to p leaders o f th e T u rn e rb u n d. A lth o u g h a n g ry delegates fro m C h a rle s to n, S o u th C a ro lin a, s to rm e d o u t o f th e m e e tin g in p ro te s t over th e p la tfo rm 's p ro v is io n s on slavery, a n d T u rn e r societies in C h a rle s to n, S a va n n a h, M o b ile a n d A u g u s ta la te r seceded fro m th e G y m n a s tic s U n io n, th e m a jo rity o f T u rn e rs ste a d fa s tly s u p p o rte d th e ir d o cu m e n t. T he r if t over s la ve ry grew w id e r w ith tim e. In 1860, E astern and W e ste rn T u m v e re in e societies expelled th e S o u th e rn societies fro m th e T u rn e rb u n d. T u rn e rs h a d p re v io u s ly been able to m a in ta in p o litic a l u n ity due to th e ir co m m on o p p o s itio n to th e K n o w N o th in g s and to p ro h ib itio n, b u t th e advocacy o f sla ve ry b y some s o u th e rn groups forced the i s s u e. 24 The events a t the B u ffa lo convention reflected a la rg e r tre n d am ong G e rm a n -A m e ric a n s w h o w ere a b a n d o n in g th e D e m o c ra tic P a rty, w h ic h p e rh a p s th re e -fo u rth s h a d p re v io u s ly s u p p o rte d. In M a rc h 1854, th e S e n a te passed th e K a n s a s -N e b ra s k a B ill, a lo n g w ith th e C la y to n A m e n d m e n t w h ic h reserved v o tin g rig h ts in the new te rrito rie s to citize n s o f th e U n ite d S tates. G e rm a n im m ig ra n ts re sente d th e b ill a n d th e a m e n d m e n t w h ic h ca te re d to s la v e h o ld e rs a n d n a tiv is ts, b u t th e y

124 105 e s p e c ia lly resented S e n a to r S te p h e n A. D ouglas fo r a u th o rin g th e b ill, b e ca u se th e y h a d s tro n g ly s u p p o rte d h im. A t a p ro te s t m e e tin g in C h ica g o fo llo w in g the b ill's passage, G e rm a n leaders p ro c la im e d th e ir re a d in e s s to leave th e D e m o c ra tic P a rty, a n d th e y d e m a n d e d th a t D o u g la s re sig n h is Senate seat. T h e n th e attendees ca rrie d a n effigy o f D o u g la s, la b e le d "The B e n e d ic t A rn o ld o f 1854," to C h ica g o 's C o u rt H ouse Square w here th e y b u rn e d it. Led b y th e F o rty -F ig h te rs, G erm an n e w spaperm en, p o litic ia n s, and m a n y voters jo in e d th e R e p u b lic a n side. S la v e ry a n d n a tiv is m w ere th e d e cid in g issues th a t caused th e s h ift. 25 In response, S e n a to r S tephen A d a m s o f M is s is s ip p i in tro d u c e d a b ill in c re a s in g the p ro b a tio n period fo r the n a tu ra liz a tio n o f im m ig ra n ts fro m five to tw e n ty-o n e years. A d d itio n a lly, the hom estead b ill w as changed to r e s tr ic t la n d to th e heads o f fa m ilie s a n d U n ite d S ta te s c itiz e n s. In ju d ic io u s s ta te m e n ts b y D e m o c ra ts fu r th e r a lie n a te d G e rm a n s, in c lu d in g one b y S e n a to r A n d re w B u tle r o f S o u th C a ro lin a s ta tin g th a t s la v e h o ld e rs w o u ld be as a cce p ta ble to h im as a n y n e w im m ig ra n t. W h ile th e a c tu a l s ta te m e n t w a s offensive enough, W h ig n e w s p a p e rs m is q u o te d B u tle r in s u c h a w a y as to add fu e l to th e fire. P h ila d e lp h ia P u b lic Ledger enlarged th e co m m e n t to sta te th a t B u tle r p re fe rre d "Negroes in N ebraska to 'e m igra n ts fro m th e la n d o f th e K ra u t.'»26 The T u rn e rs th ro u g h o u t the N o rth jo in e d th e R e p u b lica n P a rty afte r an a n ti-s la v e ry co n v e n tio n in P itts b u rg h in F e b ru a ry A n ti-s la v e ry W h ig s w ere th e b a ckb o n e o f th e R e p u b lic a n P a rty a n d m a n y o f th e m w e re as x e n o p h o b ic as th e D e m o cra ts. Y et in o rd e r to a ttr a c t th e G e rm a n -A m e ric a n vote, R e p u b lic a n le a d e rs so fte n e d n a tiv is t a n d p ro h ib itio n is t p o s i t i o n s. 2 7 F o rty -E ig h te rs were p a rtic u la rly sa tisfie d w ith th e n o m in a tio n o f J o h n C. F re m o n t as th e R e p u b lic a n p re s id e n tia l c a n d id a te in th e e le ctio n o f 1856, y e t th e y m ade p o litic a l enem ies in B u ffa lo a n d elsew here due to th e ir fe rv o r a n d in to le ra n c e d u rin g th e ca m p a ig n. In th e G e rm a n press, zealots m ade fierce p e rs o n a l a tta c k s a g a in s t th e D e m o c ra ts a n d K n o w N o th in g s. T u rn e rs in B u ffa lo p u rc h a s e d torch e s and m a rch e d in th e n ig h tly R e p u b lic a n parades d u rin g th e la s t weeks before th e election. A fte rw a rd s, th e R e p u b lic a n s

125 106 h e ld fire w o rk s d is p la y s, co n ce rts, a n d p o litic a l m e e tin g s, a t w h ic h speake rs in c ite d th e crow ds a g a in st sla ve ry and D e m o c ra tic c a n d id a te J a m e s B u c h a n a n. W h e n B u c h a n a n w o n th e co n te st, m a n y T u rn e rs becam e active a b o litio n is ts.2 8 The s h ift o f G e rm a n -A m e ric a n s to th e R e p u b lic a n P a rty w as a n im p o rta n t co m p o n e n t o f A b ra h a m L in c o ln 's e le ctio n in A fte r h is v ic to ry, P re s id e n t L in c o ln a p p o in te d se ve ra l F o rty - E ig h te rs to d ip lo m a tic posts. Two T u rn e r com panies fro m W a s h in g to n a n d B a ltim o re served as h is bodyguards a fte r h is in a u g u ra tio n on M a rc h 4, A t th e C iv il W ar began, T u rn e rs played c ru c ia l roles in b e h a lf o f th e U n io n on a t le a st tw o occasions. W hen B a ltim o re m obs preve n te d P e n n sylva n ia and M assach u se tts troops fro m re in fo rc in g W a sh in g to n, D. C., tw o T u rn e r com panies secured a v ita l ra ilro a d ju n c tio n a n d prote cte d th e re a r o f U n io n tro o p s a d v a n c in g fro m A n n a p o lis to re s to re tra in se rvice. In M is s o u ri, T u rn e r tro o p s c a p tu re d a ca m p o f S o u th e rn s y m p a th iz e rs a n d d e fe n ded th e S t. L o u is a rs e n a l w h ic h h o u s e d e q u ip m e n t fo r 3 0,0 0 0 soldiers, th e re b y saving the m o s t im p o rta n t c ity in th e W est fo r th e U n io n. T u rn e rs responded in large n u m b e rs a n d fo u g h t b ra v e ly in th e C iv il W ar, e a rn in g th e m th e b e g ru d g in g re spect o f th e ir c ritic s. 30 T u rn e rs o fte n a n n o ye d th e ir fe llo w -c itiz e n s, b o th G e rm a n s and n o n -G e rm a n s a lik e, th r o u g h t h e ir g y m n a s tic e x h ib itio n s a n d o s te n ta tio u s m ilita ry parades. C in c in n a ti o fficia ls forced th e m to b u ild a h ig h fence a ro u n d th e o rig in a l lo t w h e re th e y exercised. D e vout G erm ans d is lik e d th e ir p ra c tic e o f p ic n ic k in g on S u n d a ys ra th e r th a n a tte n d in g c h u rc h. A t th e ir p ic n ic s, T u rn e rs enjoyed s in g in g, g y m n a s tic s, lib e ra l s p e e ch m a kin g, and m a rc h in g in m ilita ry parades, and th e y d ra n k beer d e sp ite S u n d a y liq u o r la w s.81 The T u rn e rs p ra c tic e d m ilita ry d rills fo r p h y s ic a l tra in in g, b u t also to p repare to defend them selves in case o f n a tiv is tic a tta c k. C o m m o n c itiz e n s re g a rd e d th e d r ills w ith deep s u s p ic io n, how ever, w o n d e rin g w h y th e new com ers prepared them selves fo r b a ttle. W ere th e y p la n n in g to a tta c k th e A m e ric a n g o ve rn m e n t? K n o w N o th in g s som etim es a tta c k e d T u rn e r m a rch e s, th e re b y in c itin g v io le n t c o n fro n ta tio n s. F ig h ts betw een T u rn e rs a n d K n o w N o th in g s

126 107 o c c u rre d in a t le a s t th re e citie s: C in c in n a ti, B a ltim o re, a n d C o vin g to n, K e n tu c k y. In each case, th e T u rn e rs defeated la rg e r m obs th ro u g h th e ir s u p e rio r o rg a n iz a tio n, c o n d itio n in g, and m a rtia l s k ills. A c o u rt b a ttle fo llo w e d th e c o n fro n ta tio n in C ovington in The C in c in n a ti T u rn e rs w ere on th e ir w a y hom e fro m a T u rn e rfe s t in C o vin g to n w h e n th e y were th re a te n e d b y a m ob o f n a tiv is ts. The T u rn e rs refused to tu r n over th e ir w eapons as th e y had been ordered to do b y th e m a3^or, and th e y refused to s u b m it to a rre st. In the c o u rt case th a t follow ed, th e ju d g e ru le d th a t sin ce th e m a yor could n o t defend the T u rn e rs a g a in st th e m ob, th e y had done n o th in g w ro n g in keepin g th e ir w eapons fo r self-defense. In the K n o w N o th in g s tro n g h o ld o f B a ltim o re, or "M o b to w n " as i t w a s k n o w n b e cause o f its a n ti-fo re ig n e r rio ts, th e T u rn e rs o rg a n ize d a m ilita r y co m p a n y fo r p ro te ctio n, and th e ir ow n fire brigade to safeguard p ro p e rty in th e G e rm a n section o f th e city. A t th a t tim e, m a n y row dies belonged to fire com panies, and th e ir u n its w o u ld a c tu a lly s ta rt fire s to provoke violence. In th e m a yora l ele ctio n o f O ctober 8, 1856, th e K n o w N o th in g c a n d id a te w o n a s lim v ic to ry w h e n ru ffia n s prevented m a n y im m ig ra n t c itiz e n s fro m v o tin g. A fte rw a rd, v io le n t clashes betw een T u rn e rs and n a tiv is ts b roke o u t in several p a rts o f the city. 32 Since th e lo ca l econom y w as s tro n g e a rly in 1857, th e T u rn e rs in B u ffa lo b o u g h t a lo t on E llic o tt s tre e t and b u ilt a tw o s to ry s tru c tu re to serve as th e ir h a ll. The leaders o f th e society issu e d s to c k to cover th e co st o f th e la n d and b u ild in g. S to ckh o ld e rs p a id an in itia l fee o f e ig h t d o lla rs, w ith m o n th ly p a ym e n ts o f tw e n ty -fiv e ce n ts to a s o c ie ty s ic k fu n d, a n d tw elve cents to a b u ild in g fu n d. In re tu rn, s to c k h o ld e rs were p a r t o w n e rs o f th e b u ild in g a n d received free a d m is s io n to th e a te r p e rfo rm a n c e s and o th e r e n te rta in m e n t. S ic k m e m b e rs received th re e d o lla rs each w eek, and th e re la tiv e s o f deceased m e m b e rs received a fifte e n -d o lla r d o n a tio n fo r b u ria l expenses. U n fo rtu n a te ly, th e m o ney g a in e d th ro u g h th e s to c k o ffe rin g w as in s u ffic ie n t, a n d m e m b e rs used th e $ in th e s ic k fu n d to cover c o n s tru c tio n costs w h ic h p re c ip ita te d th e b re a k u p o f B u ffa lo 's T u m v e re in e in to tw o separate societies. E ven before th e p ro je c t w as la u n c h e d, th e re were s m a ll d iv is io n s w ith in th e socie ty based u p o n differences in p o litic s, re lig io n, and p e rso n a litie s, b u t

127 108 m e m b e rs w ere able to o v e rlo o k th e ir d iffe re n c e s fo r th e sake o f fe llo w s h ip. A group led b y Louis A llgew aehr opposed th e b u ild in g p ro je c t fo r fin a n c ia l reasons, and w h e n society leaders a p p ro p ria te d th e m o ney in th e s ic k fu n d, these c ritic s b roke aw ay and form ed th e "S ocial M a n n e r T u rn v e re in e," w h ic h re m a in e d in G illig 's H a ll. The s u p p o rte rs o f th e b u ild in g p ro je c t ca lle d them selves th e T u rn v e re in e V o rw a rts, a n d th e y m e t in th e u p s ta irs ro om o f the b o o k b in d e ry ow ned b y th e ir p re s id e n t, P a u l W e rtsch. The T u rn v e re in e V o rw a rts m oved in to th e ir th e ir n e w lyc o m p le te d b u ild in g in J a n u a ry 1858, and dedica te d i t w ith a th e a te r p e rfo rm a n ce. The b u ild in g housed a 1000-seat th e a te r, a galle ry, a n d a g y m n a s iu m, and w as lo ca te d n e x t to a v e ry p o p u la r sa lo o n k e p t b y L u d w ig S ch n e id e r. U n fo rtu n a te ly, th e ro o f o f th e new b u ild in g leaked, a n d w a te r rose to a d e p th o f three in ch e s in the th e a te r d u rin g th a w s and ra in s to rm s. To m ake m a tte rs w orse, th e Panic o f 1857 began ju s t as th e s o c ie ty trie d to ra is e m o n e y fo r ro o f re p a irs. N o t o n ly w ere fu n d s im p o s s ib le to gain, b u t since m o st m em bers lo s t th e ir jo b s, th e so cie ty la cke d its re g u la r incom e fro m dues a n d soon fe ll b e h in d on its m ortgage p a ym e n ts. W e a lth y b rew er A lb e rt Ziegele b o u g h t th e p ro p e rty and h e ld it on favorable te rm s fo r the society, th o u g h th e o rig in a l b o n d h o ld e rs o f the b u ild in g fu n d lo s t th e ir in ve stm e n ts. The S ocial M a n n e r T u rn v e re in e m a in ta in e d its o rg a n iza tio n th ro u g h o u t the fin a n c ia l c ris is a n d th e C iv il W a r, u n lik e th e T u rn ve re in e V o rw a rts w h ic h dissolved d u rin g th e w a r.33 P e rh a p s th e m e m b e rs o f th e S o cia l M a n n e r T u rn v e re in e fe lt v in d ic a te d b y the d isa ste rs c o n fro n tin g th e ir riv a ls, b u t m a n y o f th e m w ere lo s in g th e ir jo b s too. A t th a t tim e, in th e clo sin g m o n th s o f 1857, L o u is A llg e w a e h r fo rm u la te d h is p la n fo r a w e ste rn s e ttle m e n t, in s p ire d b y W ilh e lm Pfaender, the T u rn e r w ho had organized the c ity o f New U lm, M in n e s o ta. To a ssist exploited im m ig ra n t w o rke rs, Pfaender conceived a p la n in 1855 to fo u n d a s o c ia lis tic se ttle m e n t w here each fa m ily w o u ld re ceive a g a rd e n p lo t, a n d a ll in s titu tio n s a n d e n te rp ris e s w o u ld be p u b lic ly -o w n e d. P faender and J a co b N ix o f C le ve la n d p ro p o se d th e p ro je c t to th e T u rn e rs assem bled a t th e e ve n tfu l B u ffa lo c o n v e n tio n o f , w h ic h A llg e w a e h r a tte n d e d as a delegate. E a s te rn so cie tie s re je cte d th e n o tio n, b u t some w e ste rn societies, especially th e C in c in n a ti

128 109 T u rn e rs, offered th e ir s u p p o rt. P faender d ra fte d th e c h a rte r o f th e S e ttle m e n t S ociety o f the S o cia listic T u rn e r League a n d jo in e d a th re e - m a n search co m m itte e to locate a s u ita b le s e ttle m e n t site. E v e n tu a lly th e T u rn e rs m erged w ith a g ro u p o f G erm an w o rk e rs fro m C hicago a t N ew U lm, located on th e C ottonw ood R iver in s o u th -c e n tra l M in n e so ta. T h e y ra ise d m oney th ro u g h th e sale o f shares o f s to c k a t fifte e n d o lla rs a share, w h ic h th e y c o m b in e d w ith a $ 3,0 0 0 g ift fro m th e C in c in n a ti T u rn ve re in e. The specific ite m s o f A llgew aehr's p la n fo r Arago v e ry c lo s e ly m a tc h e d P fa e n d e r's p la n. New U lm flo u n d e re d u n t il P faender's g roup abandoned the exp e rim e n t w ith s o cia lism a n d sw itch e d to a free m a rk e t system. The fre e th in k in g T u rn e rs, w h o fo rm e d the m a jo rity o f citizens, were q u ite to le ra n t to w a rd the to w n 's C a th o lic and P ro te s ta n t in h a b ita n ts, a n d th e y ty p ic a lly d iv id e d g o v e rn m e n t offices betw een the th re e g ro u p s.34 A ra g o s fo u n d e rs m u s t have fe lt th a t fate h a d o rd a in e d th e ir tow n, because ju s t w h e n th e y needed an o p p o rtu n ity d u rin g th e recession o f 1857, S to ry and N u c k o lls were seeking b u ye rs fo r th e ir n e w ly -a c q u ire d m ixe d -b lo o d la n d. Arago had been surveyed in J u n e o f 1856 b y M ich a e l M c M a n u s, th e m a n w h o had discovered th e s u rv e y e rro r o f th e H a lf- B reed T ra c t's w estern lin e s ix m o n th s earlier. A llg ew aehr h ire d C o rn e liu s S h u b e rt to la y o u t th e to w n, w h ic h w as n a m e d a fte r th e e x p lo re r D o m in iq u e F ra n co is A rago. S h u b e rt a rra n g e d th e to w n w ith a n open c e n tra l m a rke tp la ce, p a rk s nam ed a fte r George W a s h in g to n a n d T hom as Je ffe rso n, a n d n u m e ro u s lo ts. F irs t-c la s s lo ts w ere 3Q X 130 feet and lo ca te d on th e fla t b o tto m la n d n e a r th e riv e r, a lo n g sid e m a n y large w a ln u t, oak, elm, and bassw ood trees. Second-class lo ts w ere located on th e slopes above th e riv e r b o tto m, and th e ir d im e n s io n s w ere 50 X 100 feet. The garden lo ts were on th e p ra irie above and w est o f to w n. N earby tim b e r la n d sold fo r s ix d o lla rs p e r acre, w h ile p ra irie la n d co st five d o lla rs. S u rp ris in g ly, S h u b e rt, a lo ca l m an, placed th e firs t-c la s s lo ts w h e re th e y w o u ld be s u b je c t to flo o d in g, b u t p e rh a p s he h a d n o t experienced floods lik e th e ones th a t w o u ld la te r in u n d a te A ra g o.35 T h o u g h th e e vidence is s k e tc h y, th e p a tte rn o f th e A ra g o 's s e ttle m e n t suggests a c o m m u n a l b e g in n in g s im ila r to th e s ta rt o f New

129 110 U lm. A t firs t, G erm an E m ig ra tio n S ociety m em bers, a n d o th e rs w h o had p u rc h a s e d shares in th e colony, ow ned p ro p e rty in co m m o n. S o cie ty le a d e rs w h o s e ttle d a t A rago, in c lu d in g P re s id e n t L o u is A llg e w a e h r, S e c re ta ry H e n ry S o m m e rla d, a n d T re a s u re r A u g u s t D u e rfe ld t, a d m in is te re d c o m m u n ity a ffa irs a t th e head o f a c o rp o ra tio n ca lled the A ra g o T o w n C om pany. T h e y assigned la n d, d is trib u te d p o rtio n s o f lu m b e r, and purchased food and su p p lie s on b e h a lf o f share h o ld e rs. In a ty p ic a l u p s ta rt fro n tie r to w n w h e re free e n te rp ris e re ig n e d, s e ttle rs b o u g h t lo ts fro m an agent, e ith e r th e in d iv id u a l e n tre p re n e u r o r co m p a n y, th a t fo u n d e d th e to w n. In A rago, p a rtic ip a tio n in th e to w n com p a n y, th ro u g h the p u rch a se o f v a rio u s a m o u n ts o f shares, e n title d s h a re h o ld e rs to a p ro p o rtio n a te n u m b e r o f to w n lo ts.36 The firs t twelve settlers fro m B u ffa lo arrived a t th e to w n s ite on J u ly 4, 1858, Independence Day, th e sym b o lism o f w h ic h s u re ly o c c u rre d to th e s m a ll b a n d o f econom ic refugees seeking independence fro m la b o r e x p lo ita tio n. U sin g th e c o m m u n ity -o w n e d s a w m ill to p ro d u c e lu m b e r, th e tw elve b u ilt a com m o n w a re house w h ic h th e y o ccu p ie d fo r several m o n th s. F ro m th a t base th e y b u ilt th e firs t hom es a n d a b o a t d o ck a t th e riv e r la n d in g, a n d cleared an a rea w e st o f to w n fo r a ro a d w h ic h re q u ire d an expensive th irty -fo o t c u t th ro u g h a h ill. The ro ad, w h ic h cost $ 7,0 0 0, opened A rago to th e in te rio r and m ade th e to w n a p o te n tia l g a te w a y to th e W est. T h e p r io r ity given to c o n s tru c tin g th e ro a d in d ic a te s th e d e te rm in a tio n o f to w n sp e o p le to m a ke A ra g o succeed. B u ild in g s w ere c o n s tru c te d o f n a tiv e lu m b e r, stone, a n d b ric k s m ade lo c a lly b y F. S m iley, th o u g h some m a te ria ls h a d to be b ro u g h t in fro m B ro w n v ille, tw e n ty m ile s to th e n o rth. The to w n c o m p a n y b o u g h t p ro v is io n s in M isso u ri, and b y 1859 owed over $ to m e rc h a n ts there, in d ic a tin g th a t th e to w n s p e o p le in it ia lly p u rc h a s e d t h e ir fo o d co o p e ra tive ly.37 A t firs t, s e ttle rs tra v e le d on th e H a n n ib a l a n d St. Jo se p h R a ilro a d as fa r as St. Joseph, M is s o u ri, and th e n b y ste a m b o a t to A ra g o. A c c o rd in g to J o h n M 'K esson, w ho lived in th e a rea as a y o u n g b o y, A ra g o h a d n o fe rry in th e b e g in n in g. He re m e m b e re d th a t s te a m b o a ts, b o th s te rn -w h e e le rs a n d sid e -w h eele rs, w ith n a m e s lik e "D e n v e r", "S t. M a ry 's ", "S t. J o s e p h ", "W est W in d ", a n d "S t. L o u is,"

130 I l l p a d d le d u p and dow n th e river, lo a d in g and u n lo a d in g th e ir passengers a n d cargoes a t th e riverfront. L ik e th e s e ttle rs o f New U lm w h o gave u p p u b lic o w n e rs h ip in 1858, th e G erm ans o f Arago abandoned socialism, th o u g h the date o f its a b a n d o n m e n t is n o t clear due to the la c k o f h is to ric a l sources. It is lik e ly th a t th e people o f A rago converted to free e n te rp rise e a rly in th e to w n 's h is to ry because o f th e d iffic u lty o f m a in ta in in g s o cia lism on th e fro n tie r. L ik e N ew U lm, A rago w as an open c o m m u n ity w h ic h soon a ttra c te d s e ttle rs o th e r th a n th e o rig in a l G erm an so ciety m em bers. M a in ta in in g s o c ia lis m in a h e te ro g e n e o u s c o m m u n ity w o u ld have re q u ire d th e co n ve rsio n o f new com ers to the ideology, or th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f p a ra lle l e conom ic system s - s o cia lism and c a p ita lis m - w ith in th e lim its o f th e tin y fro n tie r tow n. In sh o rt, m a in ta in in g socia lism fo r a n y le n g th o f tim e w as im possible. T y p ic a l settle rs w o u ld have considered p u b lic o w n e rsh ip o f la n d a n d in s titu tio n s stra n g e indeed, and th e y w o u ld have re sente d th e perceived cliq u ish n e ss o f the G erm ans w o rk in g cooperatively. 9 B y th e m id s, free e n te rp rise was in fu ll b lo o m. In te rm s o f lo c a l in d u s try, the to w n soon boasted a flo u r m ill, c h a ir fa cto ry, w agon a n d cooperage shop, lu m b e ry a rd, b ric k y a rd, b re w e ry a n d w h is k e y d is tille r y. The flo u r m ill cam e a b o u t w h e n th e to w n c o m m itte e p e rs u a d e d a B ro w n v ille b u s in e s s m a n to b u ild i t in e xch a n g e fo r o w n e rs h ip o f th e to w n 's s a w m ill. T h e a rra n g e m e n t w o rk e d w e ll, and A rago b e nefited fro m b o th businesses. Local com m erce co n siste d o f five g e n e ra l m e rc h a n d is e stores, one im p le m e n t house, th re e b la c k s m ith shops, tw o hotels, one doctor, and a w a tc h m a k e r. F o u r saloons a n d a dance h a ll, w h ic h w as equipped w ith a m odest th e a tric a l stage, p rovided th e to w n 's a m u s e m e n ts. L o u is A llg e w a e h r ra n one o f th e g e n e ra l m e rc h a n d is e stores, ship p e d g rains, and packed hogs w h ic h a m o u n te d to n e a rly te n th o u s a n d in one season, m a k in g h is p a c k in g h o u se th e second la rg e s t in the state in W h ile he sh ip p e d th e p o rk o u t b y riv e r, In d ia n s carrie d aw ay the w aste b y-p ro d u c ts. 40 George W a lth e r, b ro th e r o f p ro m in e n t local ju d g e C harles W a lth e r, a n d th e M etz fa m ily, also operated general m e rch a n d ise stores. Since th e re w ere no b a n k s in A rago, m o s t re sid e n ts d e a lt w ith th e ir fo rm e r

131 112 b a n k s in B u ffa lo w h ic h p a id fo u r p e r c e n t in te re s t on d e p o sits, and charged the people o f Arago te n per cent in te re s t on fu n d s th e y borrow ed. B y agreem ent, th e people sent d ra fts payable to the F irs t N a tio n a l B a n k o f New Y o rk as fa st as th e y received th e ir incom es. T h e ir m oney traveled b y express fro m B u ffa lo to St. Joseph, M is s o u ri, w here th e A rago to w n tre a s u re r p ic k e d i t u p. L o u is A llg e w a e h r and w e a lth y re s id e n t Peter F re d e ric k, Sr. served as u n o ffic ia l b a n k e rs, s u p p ly in g s m a ll lo a n s to fa rm e rs and citize n s.41 I t a p p e a rs th a t A rago re s id e n ts w ere q u ite to le ra n t re g a rd in g re lig io n and p o litics. Even w ith s ta lw a rt T u rn e rs lik e A llgew aehr, C harles W a lth e r, a n d H e n ry S om m erlad in charge, there does n o t a ppear to have been a n y organized e ffo rt to im pose beliefs. The to w n had a 20 X 60 foot E va n g e lica l L u th e ra n C h u rc h, a C a th o lic C h u rc h, and a tw o -s to ry school h o u s e w h e re th e c h ild re n s tu d ie d in b o th E n g lis h a n d G e rm a n.42 P o litic a lly, th e G e rm a n s a t A rago voted la rg e ly as a b lo c k, b u t were s u rp ris in g ly in d e p e n d e n t re gard in g p a rtie s and ca n d id a tes. In th e 1860 e le c tio n fo r te rrito ria l delegate, th e y voted as a g ro u p fo r D e m o c ra t J. S te rlin g M o rto n, w h ic h elicited stro n g c ritic is m fro m th e F a lls C ity B road A xe, a R e p u b lic a n n e w sp a p e r. T he e d ito r ch a rg e d th a t G e rm a n D e m o cra ts fro m St. Joseph, M is s o u ri had m isle d and m a n ip u la te d th e n e w co m e rs to th e te rrito ry. A lth o u g h it is n o t c le a r w h y th e A rago G e rm a n s vo te d as th e y d id, th e y m a y have been v o tin g a g a in s t R e p u b lic a n c a n d id a te S a m u e l G. D a ily ra th e r th a n fo r M o rto n. C ongressm an Jam es C raig o f St. Joseph had accused in c u m b e n t D a ily o f s e c re tly d e fe a ting ra ilro a d g ra n ts proposed fo r N e b raska to p re v e n t the in flu x o f D e m o cra tic Iris h im m ig ra n ts w ho w o u ld e n te r th e te rrito r y to w o rk on th e lin e. T h o u g h th e charge w as n o t p rove n, i t g ained w id e coverage in G e rm a n -la n g u a g e n e w sp a p e rs, in c lu d in g th e W e s tlic h e V o lk s b la tt o f S t. J o s e p h, w h ic h c o n sid e re d th e alle g e d in c id e n t an exam ple o f n a tiv is m.4 3 i n th e 1872 p re s id e n tia l election, th e G e rm a n s a t A ra g o vo te d fo r H orace G reeley over U lysses S. G ra n t, in p ro te s t a g a in s t th e ra m p a n t c o rru p tio n w ith in th e G ra n t a d m in is tra tio n. T h e ir p o s itio n was in c o n tra s t to m ost R epublicans, and G ra n t w o n th e election b y a large m a jo rity. P rio r to the election, th e e d ito r o f A rago's new spaper,

132 113 th e S o u th e rn N e b ra s k ia n. p rin te d speeches b y C a rl S c h u rz th a t b la m e d G ra n t fo r n o t e xercising m ore care fu l o ve rsight o f h is o fficia ls. F ro m th is e vid e n ce, i t is a p p a re n t th a t th e G e rm a n s vo te d th e ir c o lle c tiv e - conscience, u s u a lly fo r the m ore-progressive candidate. 44 T h o u g h it is n o t d o cu m e n te d, A rago p ro b a b ly h a d a T u r n h a ll, p e rh a p s in one o f th e saloons, w h e re m e m b e rs m e t s o c ia lly. Som e evidence suggests T u rn e r in flu e n ce s. A d ve rtise m e n ts fo r F o u rth o f J u ly fe s tiv itie s d e m o n stra te th a t Arago had a Saengerbund, o r s in g in g society, a n d a s m a ll m ilita ry d rill com pany, b o th staples o f T u rn e r society. The co m p a n y's d r ill m u s k e ts were p ro b a b ly fro m a g ro u p o f th irty -fiv e new w eapons given the to w n b y G overnor A lv in S aunders and w h ic h h a d been p u rc h a s e d b y C o lo n e l J o h n C. F re m o n t in G e rm a n y fo r p ro te c tio n a g a in s t In d ia n s. As no real th re a t existed fro m local In d ia n s a t th a t late date, th e governor's g ift m a y have been p o litic a lly m o tivate d in a n e ffo rt to w in th e s u p p o rt o f th e energetic T u rn e rs fo r h is policies. P erhaps th e T u rn e rs saw th e m u s k e ts as th e p a y o ff fo r th e ir e n th u s ia s tic s u p p o rt fo r F re m o n t in th e 1856 election.46 A vestige o f so cia lism in th e m id s w as th e to w n 's S o u th e rn N e b ra skia n new sp a p e r w h ic h w as ow ned b y th e A rago T o w n C o m p a n y a n d p rin te d a t tim e s in b o th E n g lis h and G erm an. It operated fro m J u n e 1867 u n t il so m etim e in 1871, w h e n i t fa lte re d b rie fly, th e n re sum e d p u b lic a tio n in D ecem ber 1872, o n ly to cease p u b lic a tio n a t a la te r u n s p e c ifie d d a te.4 7 G e rm an-language new spapers ty p ic a lly tra n s la te d n e w s ite m s fro m th e E n g lis h -la n g u a g e p ress, th o u g h e d ito rs o fte n in te rp re te d events fro m a G erm an perspective. Since new spapers w ere s u c h e xce lle n t vehicles to prom ote o pinions, m a n y F o rty -E ig h te rs becam e e d ito rs a n d jo u rn a lis ts. The S o u th e rn N e b ra skia n w as A rago's b o o ste r p u b lic a tio n. N e w co m e rs, i t c la im e d, m a rv e le d a t th e b e a u tifu l appearance o f th e c o u n tiy s u rro u n d in g th e to w n : "Here o u r fa rm s are as e a sily w o rke d th e second year as a t th e end o f tw e n ty, a n d as p ro d u c tiv e a t th e end o f tw e n ty as a t th e firs t. Come o u t w o rk e rs o f p la ye d o u t f a r m s. "48 Its a rtic le s a tte m p te d to d is p e l m is c o n c e p tio n s h e ld b y E a s te rn e rs a b o u t N ebraska, such as th a t it w as com p le te ly fla t, b a rre n, a n d o v e rru n w ith d a n g e ro u s In d ia n s. W h e n C ongress lo c a te d th e

133 114 e a ste rn te rm in u s o f th e U n io n Pacific R a ilro a d in O m aha, th e S o u th e rn N e b ra skia n claim ed th a t O m aha resem bled C hicago o n ly in its greed fo r pow er. S u ch a tta c k s on riv a l tow ns reflected th e w e ll-fo u n d e d b e lie f th a t A rago w as lo sin g o u t in its b id to be a place o f im p o rta n ce. 49 R em iniscence a ccounts provide details a b o u t A rago's re sid ents and th e ir n o rm a l a c tiv itie s, a d d in g a h u m a n to u c h to th e s to ry o f th e to w n. W illia m R ie s c h ic k w as ty p ic a l o f th e e a rly s e ttle rs a t A rago. B o rn in G e rm a n y in 1831, y o u n g R ie s c h ic k becam e a h ig h ly -s k ille d c a b in e t m a k e r before im m ig ra tin g to th e U n ite d States in 1856, w h e re he settled in B u ffa lo to w o rk h is trade. B eing a s k ille d w o rke r, he earned $ per d a y in s te a d o f th e u s u a l d o lla r th a t u n s k ille d la b o re rs received. Yet d u rin g th e P anic o f 1857, R ieschick's wages w ere slashed, so he jo in e d th e G e rm a n E m ig ra tio n S o cie ty a n d m oved to N e b ra ska in He la te r re m in is c e d th a t in s p rin g tim e A rago was "the m o s t b e a u tifu l view m y eyes ever looked on." A longside h is eldest b ro th e r, R ie sch ick w o rke d as a c a rp e n te r a n d c a b in e t-m a k e r th ro u g h o u t th e a re a a n d e a rned e n o u g h in m oney and liv e s to c k to p u rch a se a th irty -a c re fa rm in F ro m th a t s m a ll fa rm base, R ie sch ick b u ilt a fin e estate in su b se q u e n t years. 50 B o rn in P ru s s ia in 1826, A u g u s t D u e rfe ld t im m ig ra te d to th e U n ite d S tates a t th e age o f tw e n ty, w ith h is fa th e r a n d five s ib lin g s. T ra in e d as a c a b in e t-m a k e r in P russia, D u e rfe ld t w o rk e d a t a c a b in e t shop in B u ffa lo fo r fifte e n years, w h e n in O ctober o f 1861, he m oved to R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty to b u y a fa rm in Section 3 o f B a ra d a P recinct. Three years e a rlie r he had traveled to N ebraska as th e tre a s u re r o f th e G erm an E m ig ra tio n Society, w h e n he p a id the m ortgage on la n d p u rch a se d b y the s o c ie ty n e a r Arago. He and h is w ife, L o u is a P a rch e n D u e rfe ld t, h a d tw e lv e c h ild re n, som e o f w h o m beca m e p ro s p e ro u s fa rm e rs in R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty. U n til th e la s t few years before h is d e a th in 1913, D u e rfe ld t fo u n d steady w o rk in R ich a rd son C o u n ty m a k in g coffins. One w a y in w h ic h R ie sch ick and D u e rfe ld t were n o t ty p ic a l im m ig ra n ts is th a t th e y re m a in e d in th e a re a as p e rm a n e n t re s id e n ts. E ve n L o u is A llg e w a e h r re tu rn e d to B u ffa lo, a fte r s e llin g h is p o rk p a c k in g p la n t to Peter F re d e rick, Sr. 51

134 115 A ra g o s u ffe re d se ve ra l d is a s te rs d u rin g its b r ie f e x is te n c e, in c lu d in g a serio us epidem ic. In the e a rly s u m m e r o f 1860, an illn e s s called th e "bloody flu x ", p ro b a b ly dysentery, k ille d dozens o f re sid e n ts in R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty. It firs t appeared in R ulo, p ro b a b ly b ro u g h t in b y a riv e r b o a t passenger, b u t i t q u ic k ly sp read th ro u g h o u t th e c o u n ty. F o rtu n a te ly, th e sparseness o f s e ttle m e n t in th e c o u n ty p e rm itte d th e disease to ru n its course w ith re la tively few deaths. 52 D u rin g th e s p rin g o f 1866, a n e a rth q u a ke s ta rtle d tow nspeople, th o u g h th e o n ly re p o rte d dam age co n siste d o f b ro k e n dishes. T h a t s u m m e r a c h o le ra e p id e m ic s tru c k th e to w n and s u rro u n d in g area. W hen tw o c h ild re n o f th e to w n s h in g le m a k e r died su ddenly, ju s t days a p a rt, tow nspeople suspected fo u l p la y and arrested the m a n and h is w ife fo r p o iso n in g th e tw o yo u n g ste rs. T h e c o ro n e r se n t th e sto m a ch s o f th e tw o c h ild re n to St. J o s e p h fo r analysis. O ver th e fo llo w in g week, however, several o th e r persons died o f s im ila r sym p to m s, and th e tow nspeople realized th a t a disease w as to b la m e. M a n y re sid e n ts fled to w n to s ta y w ith re la tiv e s in th e c o u n try w h ile th e e p id e m ic s u b s id e d. A g a in, th e e p id e m ic w as b la m e d on riv e rb o a t passengers.53 The c itize n s o f A rago placed several to w n sm e n on th e T e rrito ria l L e g is la tu re, in c lu d in g Louis A llg ew aehr in th e H ouse d u rin g th e e ig h th a n d n in th sessions ( ), C harles F. W a lth e r in th e te n th (1865), W illia m P a rch e n in th e e le ve n th (1866), th e sessio n in w h ic h th e N e b ra s k a S tate C o n s titu tio n w as w ritte n, and G u s ta v D u e rfe ld t in th e tw e lfth (1867). Some e a rly le g isla tio n a ffecting Arago in c lu d e d : a n a c t to in c o rp o ra te A rago (J a n u a ry 10, 1860); an a c t a u th o riz in g H e n ry W. S o m m erla d and George W a lth e r to operate a fe rry across th e M is s o u ri a t A ra g o (J a n u a ry 3, 1862);5 4 an a ct ^o in c o rp o ra te th e "G e rm a n S a e n g e rb u n d o f Arago", a vocal m u s ic g ro u p (J a n u a ry 9, 1862); a n d an a c t e x te n d in g th e rig h t o f c o n s tru c tio n on th e St. L o u is a n d N e b ra ska T r u n k R a ilro a d w h ic h w as to pass th ro u g h R u lo and A rago, b u t w as n e ve r b u ilt. 5 5 A t f ir s t g la n ce, th e in c o rp o ra tio n o f th e G e rm a n S a e n g e rb u n d seems lik e a s u p e rfic ia l to p ic fo r th e le g is la tu re to have considered. In fact, th e group played an im p o rta n t role in G e rm a n social life. L ike th e T u rn v e re in e, the B u ffa lo S a e n g e rb u n d g re w o u t o f th e

135 116 G e rm a n -A m e ric a n W o rk in g m e n 's U n io n. W h a t th e T u rn v e re in e w as to th e a ter, the S aengerbund was to vocal m usic. A p o tte r nam ed C. W illia m B ra u n organized th e m u s ic a l g ro u p in B u ffa lo on A p ril 20, 1853, as the "L ie d e rkra e n zch e n," to provide v a rie ty to th e evening e n te rta in m e n ts o f th e W o rk in g m e n 's U n io n, and to p e rfo rm m u s ic a l se le ctio n s a t special events lik e co n ve n tio n s and c h u rc h socials. As w ith th e T u rn v e re in e, in fig h tin g a m o n g th e m e m b e rs led to a s p lit w ith in th e g ro u p. In F e b ru a ry, 1855, yo u n g e r m em bers changed th e nam e o f th e g ro u p to "L ie d e rk ra n z," a g a in st th e w ish e s o f th e less n u m e ro u s o ld e r m em bers. T h a t th e change o ccu rre d th ro u g h a dem ocratic vote, d id n o t p re ve n t the o ld e r m em bers fro m leaving to fo rm th e ir ow n g ro u p. T h e y reorganized as th e B u ffa lo S a e n gerbund on A p ril 21, 1855, in th e g ro ce ry sto re o f R ic h a rd F la ch. S u c h g ro u p s seem to have given m e m b e rs as m u c h p o litic a l tra in in g as vocal tra in in g. B y in c o rp o ra tin g a s im ila r G e rm a n S a e n g e rb u n d in A rago in 1860, th e m em bers o f th e fro n tie r s e ttle m e n t w ere try in g to preserve a n im p o rta n t social lin k to th e ir fo rm e r lives in B u ffa lo. 5*3 A rago declined d u rin g the late 1860s due to the c o n s tru c tio n o f the S t. J o s e p h a n d C o u n c il B lu ffs R a ilro a d on th e e a s te rn sid e o f th e M is s o u ri R iver. W hen the com pany b o u g h t n u m e ro u s steam boats to use as ferries, tra d e a lo n g th e riv e r collapsed, s tiflin g th e s m a ll riv e r to w n s. M a n y A rago re s id e n ts m oved in to th e c o u n try to fa rm fo r a liv in g, o r re lo c a te d to F a lls C ity w h ic h soon becam e th e le a d in g to w n in R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty. O th e r in d iv id u a ls, in c lu d in g L o u is A llg e w a e h r, re tu rn e d to B u ffa lo. If th e ra ilro a d 's c o n s tru c tio n phase s tifle d Arago, its co m p le tio n in flic te d m o rta l w ounds, because th a t line, and the ro u tin g o f th e U n io n P acific R a ilro a d th ro u g h O m aha, m e a n t A rago w o u ld lik e ly never g a in its ow n ra ilro a d. A flood in 1871, w h ic h w e n t fro m " b lu ff to b lu ff," in u n d a te d a ll o f th e firs t class lo ts in to w n, and th e c o m p le tio n o f th e A tc h is o n and N e b raska R a ilro a d to F a lls C ity sip h o n e d m o s t o f th e re m a in in g b u sin e ss because th e ra ilro a d p ro vid e d F a lls C ity w ith access to m a rk e ts th a t A rago c o u ld n o t m a tc h. A fte r th a t year, som e o f th e p r im a r y b u ild in g s in to w n b u rn e d dow n, w h ile o th e r b u ild in g s a n d hom es were m oved to n e a rb y fa rm s o r to F alls C ity. O n ly a h a n d fu l o f

136 117 th e o rig in a l se ttle rs rem ained in the v ic in ity o f Arago a fte r W ith A ra g o p ra c tic a lly deserted, J o h n S ch u le n b e rg, one o f th e m o s t active b u ild e rs in th e F alls C ity area, m oved m o st o f the houses to Fargo. B o rn in P ru s s ia in 1840, S ch u le n b e rg w as a n o th e r ca rp e n te r w h o la n d e d in A ra g o v ia B u ffa lo. A rriv in g ju s t seven years a fte r A rago w as fo u n d e d, S c h u le n b e rg w as soon to use h is c a rp e n try s k ills to d is m a n tle w h a t A llg e w a e h r and the others had b u ilt. 58 A ra g o 's fin a l hopes la id w ith th e St. L o u is a n d N e b ra s k a T r u n k R a ilro a d w h ic h w as supposed to ru n th ro u g h R ulo, Arago, S t. S tephens, B ro w n v ille, and th e n n o rth to O m aha. A n election held on J u ly 6, 1872, to p ro v id e th e ra ilro a d w ith $ 6 0,8 0 0 in bonds, fa ile d a n d th e lin e w as n e ve r b u ilt. The o rig in a l p ro p o s itio n called fo r R u lo P re c in c t to issue $ 2 2,3 0 0 in bonds, A rago P re cin ct $ 2 5,5 0 0, and St. S te p h e n s P re c in c t $ 1, The tw e n ty-ye a r bonds were to be issued b y S eptem ber 1, 1872, b e a rin g e ig h t p e r ce n t in te re s t, a n d w ere to be h e ld b y th re e tru s te e s u n t il th e c o m p le tio n o f c o n s tru c tio n b y th e ra ilro a d c o m p a n y. O ne p ro v is io n s tip u la te d th a t c e rta in p a ym e n ts w o u ld be m ade u p o n th e c o m p le tio n o f five m ile s o f g ra d in g and b rid g in g, in c lu d in g $ p e r m ile o f tra c k ru n n in g th ro u g h A rago P re cin ct. The c o m p a n y w as to co m plete th e lin e b y S eptem ber 1, 1873, th o u g h th e fa ilu re o f th e b o n d e le ctio n k ille d the p ro je c t.59 A c c o rd in g to o ffic ia l census figures, Arago's p o p u la tio n flu c tu a te d fro m 193 re sid e n ts in 1860, to 364 in 1870, and b a c k to 193 in 1880, b u t these ra w n u m b e rs do n o t te ll th e s to ry o f w h a t happened a t A rago b e tw e e n the census years. A t its h e ig h t, A rago had betw een 1000 and 1700 citizens. W ith its e ffic ie n t fe rry across th e M is s o u ri, i t served as a gatew ay to th e re st o f N ebraska, and its death le ft R ulo a n d B ro w n v ille as th e n e a re s t to w n s w ith fe rrie s. A t th e tu r n o f th e c e n tu ry, o n ly s ix fa m ilie s s till lived on the fo rm e r to w nsite. Arago's fa st a scent a n d dem ise w a s c o m m o n fo r fro n tie r to w n s, fo r even as th e end o f riv e r tra d e s tra n g le d th e c o m m u n ity, A rago h a d caused th e d ecline o f n e a rb y St. S tephens b y o u t-co m p e tin g w ith it. 50 Arago existed fo r s u c h a b rie f tim e th a t it appears o n ly on old h is to ric a l m aps, and few people to d a y k n o w o f it. T im e has se e m in g ly erased th e s to ry o f th e G e rm a n refugees w h o

137 118 s o u g h t to escape fro m re v o lu tio n a n d recession, a n d w h o a rriv e d in N e braska on Independence Day, 1858.

138 119 ENDNOTES "TH E M O ST B E A U T IFU L V IE W M Y EYES E V E R LO O KED ON" 1 K e n n e th S ta m p p, A m e rica in 1857: A N a tio n on th e B r in k (New Y o rk: O xfo rd U n iv e rs ity Press, 1990), , ^S ta m p p, A m e rica in , ^S ta m p p, A m e rica in , Lew is C. E d w a rd s, H is to ry o f R ich a rd son C o u n ty. N ebraska: Its People. In d u s trie s a n d In s titu tio n s. 2 vols. (In d ia n a p o lis : B. F. B ow en a n d C o m p a n y, In c., 1917), 1 : H u n d re d s o f copies o f these o rig in a l c o n tra c ts m a y be seen in th e Deed R ecord a t th e R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty C o u rth o u se. ^ B u f f a l o M o rn in g E xpress. 2 6 J u n e , o b itu a ry. ^S om e nam es in th is ch a p te r have d iffe re n t sp e llin g s in d iffe re n t s o u rc e s : D u e r fe ld t / D u e h r fe ld, S c h u e /S c h e u, and D e lle n b a u g h /D e lle n b a c h. 7 A c c o rd in g to a second a cco u n t, th e le a d e rs o f th e A rago T o w n C o m p a n y o f B u ffa lo, New Y o rk b o u g h t 1600 acres fo r th e a m o u n t o f $ 2 4,3 5 0, c o n s is tin g o f $ 2 0,0 0 0 p a id dow n in cash b y L o u is A llgew aehr. G u s ta v D u e rfe ld t c a rrie d th e balance to A rago in gold sewed in s id e a h id d e n b e lt. U p o n a rriv in g in N e b raska, A llg e w a e h r a n d D u e rfe ld t e xa m in e d th e re cord a t Salem, th e n p a id o ff th e m ortgage. E d w a rd s, R ic h a rd s o n C o u n tv. 1: ; F alls C itv J o u rn a l. 4 J u n e 1934, p. 3, c ^E d w a rd s, R ich a rd son C o u n tv. 1: J o s e p h W a n d e l, The G e rm a n D im e n s io n o f A m e ric a n H is to ry (Chicago: N elso n -H a ll In co rp o ra ted, 1979), lo W andel, The G erm an D im e n sio n o f A m e rica n H is to ry V e it V a le n tin, C h a p te rs o f G erm an H is to ry, tra n s. E th e l T a lb o t S cheffauer (New Y ork: George A lle n and U n w in L td., 1940; re p rin t ed., H am den, C o n n e cticu t: A rc h o n Books, 1965), , l^ H ild e g a rd B in d e r Jo h n so n, "A d ju s tm e n t to th e U n ite d S tates," in T he F o rtv -E ig h te rs. P o litical Refugees o f the G erm an R e volu tio n o f 1848.

139 120 ed. A. E. Z u c k e r (New Y ork: C o lu m b ia U n iv e rs ity Press, 1950; re p rin t ed., N ew Y o rk : R u sse ll a n d R u sse ll, 1967), ; W a n d e l, T h e G e rm a n D im e n s io n o f A m e rica n H is to ry ^Law rence S. Thom pson and F ra n k X. B ra u n, "The F o rty -E ig h te rs in P o litic s," in The F o rty E ig h te rs. P o litic a l Refugees o f th e G e rm a n R e v o lu tio n o f ; W a n d e l, T he G e rm a n D im e n s io n o f A m e ric a n H is to ry l ^ G eschichte der D eutschen in B u ffa lo u n d E rie C o u n tv. N. Y.. m it B io g ra p h ie n u n d Illu s tra tio n e n h e rvo rra g e n d e r. D e u ts c h -A m e rik a n e r. w elche z u r E n tw ic k e lu n g der S ta d t B u ffa lo beigetragen h a b e n (B u ffa lo, N ew Y o rk : V e rla g u n d D ru c k vo n R einecke & Zesch, 1898), C o m m o n ly k n o w n as "The G erm ans in B u ffa lo," th is b o o k is w ritte n in b o th G erm an and E n g lish. l^ A t th e tim e o f th e R e vo lu tio n, G erm an w o rk e rs la b o re d fro m tw e lve to s ixte e n h o u rs p e r d a y to earn su b siste n ce in co m e o r less. E ffo rts b y w o rk e rs a t s e lf-im p ro v e m e n t w ere h a m p e re d b y th e g u ild s y s te m w h ic h fa vo re d m a s te r c ra fts m e n. D u rin g th e fa m in e a n d fin a n c ia l c ris is o f 1847, w o rke rs begged fo r g o ve rn m e n t p ro te c tio n, b u t w h e n little a ssista n ce m a te ria liz e d th e y g ra v ita te d to w a rd s o c ia lis tic w o rk e rs ' associations w h ic h advocated u n iv e rs a l e m p lo ym e n t and h ig h e r wages. M ore ra d ic a l groups a g ita te d fo r u n iv e rs a l suffrage, fre e d o m o f th e press, and th e rig h t o f assem bly. The gove rn m e n t p e rm itte d u n io n s dedica te d to im p ro v in g th e s p iritu a l, m o ra l, social, and civic live s o f th e w o rk e rs, th o u g h such groups appealed m a in ly to h a n d ic ra fts m e n seeking fe llo w s h ip and re cre a tio n. The G ym n a stic U n io n and th e S in g in g U n io n w ere exam ples o f th is type o f o rg a n iza tio n. P. H. Noyes, O rg a n iz a tio n a n d R e vo lu tio n. W o rkin g -C la ss A sso cia tio n s in th e G e rm a n R e vo lu tio n s o f (P rinceton: P rin ce to n U n iv e rs ity Press, 1966), , 42, l ^ G e s c h i c h t e d e r D e u t s c h e n i n B u f f a l o l^ T h e G e rm a n w o rd "tu rn e re i" is re la te d to th e E n g lis h v e rb in fin itiv e "to tu rn," and refers to th e c irc u la r m o vem ents in c o rp o ra te d w ith in J a h n 's exercises. H is follow ers were k n o w n as T u rn e rs. A u g u s tu s J. P ra h l, "The T u rn e r," in The F o rtv -E ig h te rs. P o litic a l Refugees o f th e G e rm a n R e volution o f l^ A lb e r t B e rn h a rd t F a u s t, The G e rm a n E le m e n t in th e U n ite d S ta te s. 2 vols. (New Y ork: The S teuben Society o f A m erica, 1927), 2 : ; W andel, The G erm an D im e n sio n o f A m e rica n H is to ry ; P rahl, "The T u rn e r," in The F o rtv -E ig h te rs

140 p ra h l, "The T u rn e r," in The F o rtv -E ig h te rs. 84. ^ F a u s t, The G e rm a n E le m e n t in th e U n ite d S ta te s. 2 : ; W andel, The G erm an D im e n sio n o f A m e rica n H is to ry l The G erm an E lem e n t in the U n ite d S ta te s. 2 : ; W andel, The G erm an D im e n sio n o f A m e rica n H is to ry ; P rahl, "The T u rn e r," in The F o rtv -E ig h te rs ^ Geschichte der Deutschen in B u ffa lo p ra h l, "The T u rn e r," in The F o rtv -E ig h te rs. 100; W a n d e l, The G erm an D im e n sio n o f A m e rica n H is to ry F a u s t, The G e rm a n E le m e n t in th e U n ite d S ta te s. 2 :3 9 0 ; W andel, The G erm an D im e n sio n o f A m e rica n H is to ry V o id e r, m o re c o n s e rv a tiv e G e rm a n s re m a in e d lo y a l to th e D e m o c ra tic P a rty even th o u g h th e ir fa ith in i t w as s tra in e d b y events. T h e d o m in a n t S o u th e rn D e m o c ra ts ir rita te d a ll G e rm a n s b y th e ir in tra n s ig e n c e on slavery, s u p p o rt fo r the K ansas-n ebraska B ill and a n tifo re ig n le g is la tio n, a n d o p p o s itio n to hom estead le g is la tio n. J o h n s o n, "A d ju s tm e n t to th e U n ite d States," in The F o rtv -E ig h te rs , w a n d e l, The G erm an D im e n sio n o f A m e rica n H is to ry T h o m p so n a n d B ra u n, "The F o rty -E ig h te rs in P o litic s," in T h e F o rtv -E ig h te rs , G eschichte der D eutschen in B u ffa lo ^ H is t o r ia n s disagree a b o u t the im p o rta n ce o f th e G erm an vote in L in c o ln 's v ic to ry. A p p a re n tly, th e m a jo rity o f G erm ans voted fo r L in c o ln in Illin o is, b u t fo r D ouglas in W isconsin. O lder G erm an im m ig ra n ts were m o s tly J a c k s o n ia n D em ocrats, w ho re m a in e d w ith th e p a rty th a t e a rlie r h a d been good to th e fo re ig n -b o m. F o rty -E ig h te rs te rm e d th e m "v o tin g c a ttle " o r "G rays," even as th e y trie d to lead th e m p o litic a lly. F o rty - E ig h te rs w ere fre e th in k e rs w ho advocated u n iv e rs a l suffrage, a b o litio n o f S u n d a y la w s, ta x a tio n o f c h u rc h p ro p e rty, th e e ig h t h o u r day, a n d g o v e rn m e n t o w n e rsh ip o f ra ilro a d s. T h o m p so n and B ra u n, "The F o rty - E ig h te rs in P olitics," in The F o rtv -E ig h te rs. 115, p ra h l, "The T u rn e r," in The F o rtv -E ig h te rs ; W a n d e l, The G erm an D im e n sio n o f A m e rica n H is to ry

141 P rahl, T h e T u rn e r, in The F o rtv -E ig h te rs p a u s t, The G e rm a n E le m e n t in th e U n ite d S ta te s. 2 : ; W andel, The G erm an D im e n sio n o f A m e rica n H is to ry ; P ra h l, "The T u rn e r, in The F o rty -E ig h te rs o e s c h ic h te der D eutschen in B u ffa lo ]3 o rn in G e rm a n y in 1826, W ilh e lm P faender w as a n a ctive T u rn e r as a yo u n g m a n and he im m ig ra te d to the U n ite d S tates ju s t p rio r to th e R e v o lu tio n o f 1848 to escape p e rse cu tio n. W hen H e cke r v is ite d C in c in n a ti, Pfaender's adopted hom e, and urged th e fo u n d in g o f a T u rn e r society, Pfaender became one o f its o rig in a l m em bers. He is b e st k n o w n fo r fo u n d in g th e T u rn e r co lo n y a t New U lm, M in n e s o ta. T h o u g h th e re sid e n ts o f New U lm abandoned socialism in 1858, th e to w n reflected its lib e ra l T u rn e r b a c k g ro u n d, w ith the T u m h a lle fo rm in g th e so cia l ce n te r o f to w n a n d th e p u b lic lib r a ry h o s tin g n u m e ro u s le c tu re s b y lib e ra l speakers. S om ew hat exce p tio n al was the e xtre m e ly c o rd ia l re la tio n s h ip betw een C a th o lic, L u th e ra n, and lib e ra l leaders. T ra d itio n a lly, th e sixm e m b e r school b o a rd in New U lm co n siste d o f tw o fre e th in k e rs, tw o C a th o lics, a n d tw o P ro te sta nts. M o st o f New U lm s m e n e n lis te d in the U n io n A rm y d u rin g th e C iv il W ar, le a v in g th e s e ttle m e n t exposed to a tta c k d u rin g th e S io u x u p ris in g o f 1862, also k n o w n as L ittle C row 's R e b e llio n. New U lm received th e b r u n t o f th e a tta c k since i t w a s th e w e s te rn -m o s t to w n in M in n e s o ta a t th e tim e. R e in fo rc e m e n ts fro m n e a rb y F o rt R idgely forced th e In d ia n a tta cke rs to re tre a t a fte r th e y had k ille d e ig h t a n d w o u n d e d seventy persons in th e to w n. W a n d e l, The G e rm a n D im e n sio n o f A m e rica n H is to ry ; J o h n so n, "A d ju s tm e n t to th e U n ite d States," in The F o rtv -E ig h te rs E dw ards, R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1: E chvards, R ic h a rd s o n C o u n tv. 1: ; Arago (N e b r.) S o u th e rn N e b ra s k ia n. N ew spaper C ollections, N e b raska S tate H is to ric a l S o cie ty A rchives, L in co ln, N ebraska. It is d iffic u lt to fin d m a n y sources o f in fo rm a tio n a b o u t A rago because it existed as a v ita l to w n fo r less th a n tw e n ty years. A ll th a t is le ft are s ix copies o f th e S o u th e rn N e b ra skia n fro m th e p e rio d w h e n it w as p u b lis h e d in A rago, som e re m in is c e n c e a cco u n ts, and several d e scrip tio n s in new spapers fro m n e a rb y to w n s. 3 7E dw ards, R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1: E dw ards, R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1:

142 39N oel Iverson, G e rm a n ia. U. S. A.: S ocial C hange in N ew U lm M in n e s o ta (M inneapolis: U n iv e rs ity o f M in n eso ta Press, 1966), E d w a rd s, R ichardson C o u n ty. 1: , E dw ards. R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1: E d w a rd s. R ichardson C o u n tv. 1: N e b ra s k a C ity N ew s. 11 A u g u s t 1860, p. 2, c. 3; F a lls C ity (Nebr.) B ro a d A xe. 20 Novem ber 1860, p. 2, c A rago (Nebr.) S o u th e rn N e b ra skia n. 21 S eptem ber 1872, p. 2, c. 45Arago (Nebr.) S o u th e rn N e b ra skia n. 2 J u ly 1867, p. 3, c E d w a rd s, R ichardson C o u n ty. 1:429, ?The b rie f d e s c rip tio n o f th e A rago (Nebr.) S o u th e rn N e b ra s k ia n com es fro m an a b s tra c t o f the new spaper fo u n d a t th e Reference D e sk in th e N ew spaper C ollections Room o f th e N ebraska State H is to ric a l S ociety A rch ive s. 48Arago (Nebr.) S o u th e rn N e b ra skia n. 16 J u ly 1867, p. 2, c A rago (Nebr.) S o u th e rn N e b ra s k ia n. 2 J u ly, p. 2, c. 5; 16 J u ly 1867, p. 2, c. 1. SOEdwards, R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 2 : S le d w a rd s, R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1:429; 2:796. S ^ E d w a r d s. R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1 : E dw ards, R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1: E dw ards, R ichardson C o u n ty. 1: E dw ards, R ich a rd son C o u n tv. 1:140, , G eschichte der D eutschen in B u ffa lo S ^E dw ards, R ichardson C o u n tv. 1:

143 E d w a rd s, R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 2 : ^ E d w a r d s, R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1:302, E d w a rd s, R ich a rd son C o u n ty, 1:213, 590.

144 125 CHAPTER FIVE LESSONS NOT LEARNED: FR O M H A LF-B R E E D TRACT FAILURES TO DAW ES A C T C A LA M ITY L ittle is k n o w n a b o u t events on tb e H a lf-b re ed T ra c t p rio r to its w id e sp re a d w h ite se ttle m e n t, p e rh a p s because th e e a rlie s t in h a b ita n ts le ft ve ry few records. The firs t w h ite se ttle rs seemed u n a w a re o f its lo ca l h is to ry a n d m o s t w o u ld have accepted as fa c t th e la te r re m in is c e n c e th a t, "The c o u n try w as one open w ilderness, tra ckless, u n k n o w n, and the hom e o n ly o f th e w ild a n im a ls and a b o rigines, w hose h a b ita tio n dates b a c k o f w ritte n h is to ry." 1 T h a t sta te m e n t is in c o rre c t fo r tw o reasons. T h e w o rd "o n ly " re v e a ls a n im p lic it p re ju d ic e th a t e q u a te s th e "a b o rig in e s" w ith th e "w ild a n im a ls" and in s in u a te s th a t w h ite s h a d a s u p e rio r c la im to th e la n d over p re vio u s o ccu p a n ts. B y th e te rm s o f several tre a tie s, th e In d ia n s and m ixed-bloods received th e ir la n d s along th e M is s o u ri R iver in exchange fo r la n d s th e y h a d p re v io u s ly ceded in Io w a a n d M is s o u ri. S econd, m o s t In d ia n s a n d m ix e d -b lo o d s h a d in h a b ite d th e area fo r less th a n a single g e n e ra tio n because th e tre a tie s th a t sent th e m to eastern N ebraska were w ritte n in the 1830s a n d 1840s. P rio r to 1854, In d ia n g roups h u n te d and roam ed th ro u g h o u t th e p ra irie s a n d p la in s, v is itin g th e area o f the H a lf-b re ed T ra c t o n ly in se a rch o f gam e or to tra d e w ith w h ite s w ho established te m p o ra ry fu r posts there. A lo n g th e M is s o u ri River, a few m iles n o rth o f the H alf-b reed T ra c t, w as a tra d in g p o s t operated b y J o h n C h a rle s C abanne, w h o b ro u g h t goods u p r iv e r fro m S t. L o u is. B efore w h ite s e ttle m e n t, th e a re a w as ch a ra cte rize d b y m o tio n, w ith s m a ll groups com in g and going fro m the h u n t and liv in g in m a k e s h ift cam ps. Y et the In d ia n s a n d th e ir m ix e d - b lo o d relatives were m ore sedentary th a n th e tru e P lains trib e s d ire c tly to th e w est, a n d th e re fo re th e y seemed to have a s tro n g e r c la im to th e ir la n d s as defined b y w h ite legal concepts. Iowas, O m ahas, Otoes, a few S io u x, and a g row in g n u m b e r o f m ixed-bloods were p re se n t on th e T ra c t

145 126 b y 1857 w h e n the g o ve rn m e n t advertised in eastern new spapers th a t it w as going to a llo t the l a n d. ^ M a n y o f th e In d ia n s w h o lived se m i-se d e n ta ry lives n e a r th e riv e r h a d been m oved in to th e area to s a tis fy e a rlie r tre a tie s. In 1837, th e Iow as, Sacs and Foxes located fifte e n m iles so u th o f th e re s e rv a tio n n e a r p re s e n t H ig h la n d, K a n sa s, w h e re th e y re m a in e d u n t il th e y w ere tra n s fe rre d to a new re serva tio n d ire c tly s o u th o f th e B ig N em aha R iver, b e lo w the H alf-b reed T ra ct. F o r m o st o f those years th e Iow as w ere led b y W h ite C lo u d w ho died in N o h a rt succeeded W h ite C lo u d as c h ie f in th a t year and led the Iowas u n til h is death in 1863, a lth o u g h he w as assisted b y tw o lesser chiefs nam ed To-hee and M o-hee. M oless w as th e c h ie f o f th e Sacs and Foxes d u rin g th e 1850s and 1860s. In 1854, o ve r Iow as w ere lis te d o n th e ro lls a t th e N o h a rt a g e n cy in R ic h a rd s o n C ounty, and over 300 Sacs and Foxes had also m oved to the n e w re serva tio n, th o u g h th e m en h u n te d th ro u g h o u t the area a n d o n to th e w e ste rn p la in s, w h ile th e ir fa m ilie s stayed b e h in d. A t th a t tim e, few w h ite m en h a d established p e rm a n e n t hom es in the a r e a. 3 M o s t allottees w ere th e descendants o f F re n ch tra d e rs and In d ia n w o m e n fro m th e trib e s sp e cifie d in th e tre a ty, a n d o u t o f 389 re c ip ie n ts were m in o rs. T h o u g h a n y a tte m p t to cla ssify th e m ixed-b lo o d a llo tte e s is a rb itra ry, th e y m a y be d e scribed as fo u r "types." Som e allo tte e s were m ixed-blood m en w ho settled on th e H a lf-b re e d T ra c t in a s e m i-p e rm a n e n t m a n n e r. O th e rs w ere m ixe d -b lo o d w o m e n m a rrie d to w h ite m e n. Since these w o m e n w ere p ra c tic a lly in v is ib le in w r itte n a c c o u n ts, it is necessary to describe th e m th ro u g h re cord s a b o u t th e ir h u s b a n d s. A th ird g ro u p consisted o f the m ixe d -b lo o d m e n and w om en w h o received th e ir properties, b u t q u ic k ly le ft the area because th e T re a ty o f P ra irie d u C h ie n d id n o t re q u ire re cip ie n ts to p h y s ic a lly o ccu p y th e ir a llo tm e n ts. O f equal sig n ifica n ce were the 260 m in o rs w hose a llo tm e n ts cam e u n d e r th e c o n tro l o f a v a rie ty o f a d u lt m ix e d -b lo o d a n d w h ite "g u a rd ia n s."4 Som e o f th e m ix e d -b lo o d m e n w h o becam e s e m i-p e rm a n e n t s e ttle rs on th e H alf-b reed T ra c t were Joseph D eroin, Louis Neal, A n to in e B a ra d a, J o h n P ilcher and Joseph Piquot. Joseph D e ro in was th e son o f a

146 127 F re n c h tra d e r nam ed A m able D e ro in and an Otoe In d ia n w o m a n. B o rn n e a r B ellevue a b o u t 1819, D e ro in m oved to th e m a in O toe v illa g e n e a r th e m o u th o f the Platte R iver w h e n he w as seventeen years old. H is firs t w ife w as a n O m a h a In d ia n w o m a n nam ed M e e k-k a -A h u -M e w h o gave b ir th to h is d a u g h te r M a ry a b o u t The n e x t year, D e ro in a n d h is y o u n g fa m ily settled on the H alf-b reed T ra c t near the fu tu re villa g e o f St. D e ro in, w here he m a rrie d tw o m ixed-blood sisters nam ed J u lie and S oula B a s k e tte, w h o to g e ther w o u ld bear e ig h t o f h is c h ild re n. B ecause th e new a rra n g e m e n t displeased h is firs t w ife, she re tu rn e d to th e O m ahas in D e ro in operated a tra d in g p o st a t h is nam esake c o m m u n ity in the 1840s a n d 1850s, th e n opened a second one a t the Otoe R e se rvatio n on th e B ig B lu e R iver in Gage C o u n ty d u rin g the m id s. A c c o rd in g to re m in isce n ce s, D e ro in added the "S a in t" to th e nam e o f h is to w n as a stra ta g e m to a ttra c t se ttle rs a fte r the opening o f N ebraska T e rrito iy, b u t D e ro in h im s e lf was no sain t, as h is v io le n t p e rs o n a lity te stifie d. O n A p ril 21, 1858, he w e n t to th e c a b in o f Jam es B eddow n o rth w e s t o f to w n to c o lle c t a s ix d o lla r p a ym e n t fo r a pig. E a rlie r, he had th re a te n e d to w h ip B e ddow i f he did n o t pay the debt. W hen he a rrive d a t B eddow 's fence, th e y o u n g m a n sh o u te d fro m h is c a b in th a t D e ro in s h o u ld n o t advance a n y fu rth e r ; th e n B e d d o w fire d a fa ta l s h o t a t h is s till-a d v a n c in g a d v e rs a ry. A ju r y la te r d e te rm in e d th a t B e d d o w h a d a cte d in se lfdefense.5 O n A u g u s t 8, 1860, S o u la D e ro in file d a p e titio n a g a in s t H e a th N u c k o lls, th e n re s id in g a t St. D e ro in, w h o w as th e a d m in is tra to r o f Jo se p h D e ro in s estate. She dem anded fin a n c ia l s u p p o rt fo r h e rs e lf and h e r c h ild re n a n d th e e x e m p tio n o f som e p ro p e rty fro m th e estate, p ro b a b ly th e re serva tio n la n d a llo tte d to the c h ild re n w h ic h D e ro in had c o n tro lle d as th e ir g u a rd ia n. N u c k o lls contended th a t S o u la w as n o t D e ro in 's la w fu l w ife. D u rin g th e h e a rin g, several w itn e sse s agreed th a t she h a d been D e ro in 's p rim a ry w ife. R obert W h ite clo u d, th e son o f th e Iow a c h ie f W h ite C loud, confirm ed th a t S oula and D e ro in h a d exchanged p ro p e rty and were therefore m a rrie d according to In d ia n custo m. He also te s tifie d th a t D e ro in h a d b rie fly ta k e n a fo u rth w ife w h o m he h a d k id n a p p e d fro m a n In d ia n n a m e d M e d ic in e H o rse, b u t he w a s

147 128 s u b s e q u e n tly forced to re lin q u is h h e r in exchange fo r a fifth w o m a n w ho h a d been b ro u g h t to h im b y th e b ro th e rs o f th e w o m a n he h a d k id n a p p e d. P o ssib ly fe a rin g th a t she m ig h t be p u n is h e d b y M e dicin e H orse, th e kid n a p p e d w o m a n ra n o ff w ith C harles R o b id o u x fo r a tim e, th e n re tu rn e d to D e ro in. D espite s u c h c o n fu s in g te s tim o n y, th e c o u rt ru le d th a t S o u la h a d been J o s e p h D e ro in 's le gal w ife a n d th a t th e c h ild re n were h is h eirs. I t aw arded h e r $200 s u p p o rt fro m th e estate fo r one year. A t the tim e o f D eroin's death, the o n ly H a lf-b re e d T ra c t la n d th a t he h e ld in h is ow n nam e w as a o n e -te n th in te re s t in th e to w n o f St. D e ro in w h ic h w as v a lu e d a t $ In a b o u t 1862, S o u la a n d h e r c h ild re n m oved to th e Iow a R e se rvatio n in K ansas, and th e c h ild re n a tte n d e d th e K ickapoo T ra in in g School a t H o rto n. F lo o d in g forced th e re s id e n ts o f St. D e ro in to move the to w n aw ay fro m th e riv e r, b u t the collapse o f riv e r tra d e fin a lly destroyed the com m u n ity. 6 Louis Neal, th e son o f an A m e rica n fa th e r and a m ix e d -b lo o d Otoe w om an, w as firs t to receive reservation la n d in severalty. A t th a t tim e, he w as tw e n ty-five years old, had a tw e n ty-th re e ye a r old w ife nam ed S usan, a b ro th e r n a m e d George, a n d th re e siste rs, H a rrie t, E liz a b e th, a n d M a iy. 7 H is m a te rn a l g ra n d fa th e r was a fo rm e r S u p e rin te n d e n t o f In d ia n A ffa irs s ta tio n e d a t F o rt L e a ve n w o rth. T h o u g h N eal w as n o t w e lleducated, he was considered clever b y people w ho k n e w h im. F ro m 1850 u n til 1856, he operated a liv e ry stable in Ja ckso n C o u n ty, M is s o u ri, and drove m a il w agons betw een Independence and S a lt Lake C ity. Neal b u ilt a c a b in on th e H a lf-b re e d T ra c t in 1853, b u t, u n a b le to m ake a liv in g th e re, he soon re tu rn e d to M is s o u ri. Because o f h is p o litic a l b e lie fs a n d p ro b a b le a n ti-s la v e ry feelings, he was forced to flee J a c k s o n C o u n ty d u rin g th e b itte r s la ve ry fig h t th a t o ccu rre d a lo n g th e b o rd e r. Neal s e ttle d a t A s p in w a ll in 1856, w here h is m o th e r a n d h e r fo u r yo u n g e s t c h ild re n h a d s e ttle d tw o ye a rs e a rlie r. W h e n h is m o th e r d ie d on N ovem ber 18, 1856, she le ft h e r eighteen-year-old son George in charge o f the y o u n g e r c h ild re n. Neal w as a lre a d y m a rrie d b y th a t tim e and liv in g w ith h is w ife Susan* N eal m a rrie d S u sa n F o n te n e lle, the d a u g h te r o f F re n c h tra d e r L u c ie n F o n te n e lle a n d an O m aha In d ia n w o m a n, a t B ellevue in 1856.

148 129 S u s a n h a d fo u r b ro th e rs, in c lu d in g th e fa m o u s O m a h a c h ie f Logan F o n te n e lle w h o w as k ille d b y the S io u x w h ile on an e lk h u n t in N eal k ille d S usan's b ro th e r Tecum seh, a n o th e r O m a h a leader, d u rin g an a rg u m e n t in D e ce m ber 1858, over a n a n n u ity p a y m e n t. A n o th e r b ro th e r, H e n ry, a lm o s t k ille d Neal in revenge, b u t th e m ix e d -b lo o d s u rv iv e d despite b e in g beaten and slashed n u m e ro u s tim e s w ith a kn ife. A lth o u g h fir s t charged w ith the m u rd e r o f T ecum seh, a ju r y co n victe d N eal o f m a n s la u g h te r fo r w h ic h he served m ore th a n tw o ye a rs in an O m a h a ja il. He m ade peace w ith h is w ife 's fa m ily th ro u g h a g ift o f va lu a b le ponies.9 W illia m M. S ta rk gave Neal the la n d a t A s p in w a ll, tw o a n d a h a lf m ile s s o u th o f N em aha C ity on the b a n k s o f the M is s o u ri R iver. D espite a w a r o f w o rd s in lo ca l new spapers to the co n tra ry, Neal a p p a re n tly sold h is p ro p e rty rig h ts in 1856 to area m e rc h a n t Isaac T. W h yte before the la n d h a d a c tu a lly been a llo tte d to h im. W h e n J a m e s D e n v e r a n d M a tth e w R om bach appeared in Septem ber o f 1857, Neal resold h is la n d to R om bach. S om ehow the p a rtie s solved th e ir differences, fo r w h e n the to w n o f A s p in w a ll w as in co rp o ra te d, its p ro p rie to rs were lis te d as L o u is Neal, M a tth e w R om bach, Ben H olladay, L u c re tia H olladay, Ja m es C raig, D a riu s P hipps, D. J. W a itia n, P a tric k M c L a u g h lin, a n d J o h n s o n Lyon. T h o u g h Isaac W hyte d id n o t appear on the lis t, he was able to b u y choice la n d elsew here on th e re serva tio n w h ic h suggests th a t he a n d D enver cam e to a n a rra n g e m e n t. W hyte, Neal, Ben and A n d re w H o lla d a y began o p e ra tin g the A s p in w a ll fe rry together in 1858, and Neal also ra n th e firs t general store in A s p in w a ll. He served as a q u a rte rm a s te r sergeant in the U n io n A rm y fro m J a n u a ry 1863 u n til J u ly 1865, w h e n he re tu rn e d to h is sto re in A s p in w a ll. In late 1878, he m oved o n to th e O m a h a R eservation in T h u rs to n C o u n ty, w here he lived, except fo r s ix y e a rs re sid ence in B ellevue, u n til h is d e a th in S u sa n Neal died in J u n e o f 1897 a t B e llevu e. Neal e x h ib ite d a tru e k n a c k fo r c o lle c tin g b e n e fits fro m th e governm ent, fo r in 1904, he was liste d firs t on the a n n u ity ro ll fo r O m aha In d ia n s. 10 A n to in e B a ra d a, a fte r w h o m th e villa g e a n d p re c in c t o f B a ra d a w ere n a m e d, is m ore w e ll-k n o w n th a n m o s t o th e r a llo tte e s because

149 130 L o u ise P o u n d a n d M a ri S andoz w ro te a c c o u n ts o f h im. * 1 B a ra d a e s ta b lish e d h is to w n on th e H alf-b reed T ra c t in th e n o rth e a s t c o rn e r o f R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty, along w ith several o th e r m ixe d -b lo o d s w h o received la n d in th e area. B a ra d a P re cin ct a ttra cte d pioneers because o f its good so il, a b u n d a n t tim b e r, and re p u ta tio n fo r p ro d u c in g am ple cro ps even d u rin g d ro u g h t years. B a ra d a w as b o rn in 1807 a t St. M a ry's, Iow a, a s m a ll p io n e e r to w n across th e M is s o u ri R ive r fro m F t. C a lh o u n. H is fa th e r w as a F re n ch m a n nam ed M ich a e l B a ra d a a n d h is m o th e r w as a fu ll-b lo o d e d O m aha. M ich a el B a ra d a had served as an in te rp re te r fo r the U n ite d S tates g o vernm ent and h a d helped tra n s la te th e n e g o tia tio n s fo r th e T re a ty o f P rairie d u C hien. He and h is yo u n g fa m ily lived a t F t. Lisa, a b o u t m ile s u p th e M is s o u ri R ive r fro m p re s e n t-d a y O m a h a, N ebraska. W hen A n to in e w as seven, a group o f S io u x In d ia n s h e ld h im captive u n til h is fa th e r p a id tw o ponies fo r h is release. A C olonel Rogers o f th e U n ite d States A rm y a p p a re n tly persuaded M ich a e l B a ra d a to send th e b o y to St. Louis so th a t the boy's a u n t could re a r h im u n t il he was old enough to a tte n d W est P o in t M ilita ry Academ y. A t C a ro n d o le t, ju s t s o u th o f St. Louis, d ru n k e n sold ie rs o f the e sco rt a b a n d oned th e boy, a n d he w andered a b o u t to w n fo r several days u n til he w as delivered to h is a u n t, M rs. M ousette. He lived w ith h e r in St. Louis fo r several years, th e n w o rke d fo r a tra d in g com pany w h ic h to o k h im onto th e G re a t P lains a n d to th e R ocky M o u n ta in s. 12 T h o u g h o n ly n in e years old, B a ra d a accom panied the tra d e rs o f the N o rth w e s te rn F u r C om pany o f St. Louis. In 1816, he v is ite d th e site o f th e fu tu re H alf-b reed T ra c t w ith a sm a ll band o f In d ia n s w h o h u n te d and cam ped th e re th a t w in te r. T h u s he was one o f th e e a rlie st m ixe d -b lo o d s to explore th e area. A c c o rd in g to B a ra d a 's ow n a c c o u n t, he a n d th e In d ia n s tra p p e d 700 e lk and deer on one day in th e m u d a t th e m o u th o f th e B ig N em aha R iver, w h ic h, even i f a n exaggeration, te s tifie d to th e b o u n ty o f th e area. He re tu rn e d m a n y tim e s d u rin g la te r years as a g u id e fo r w h ite h u n te rs and tra d e rs, a n d he w as p re se n t w h e n th e fir s t p e rm a n e n t w h ite se ttle rs a rriv e d in the m id s. D ue to h is p o w e rfu l b u ild and know ledge o f th e p la in s and m o u n ta in s, B a ra d a w as in great d e m a n d as a guide fo r the St. Louis tra d e rs w h o w e n t w e st to sell th e ir

150 131 w a re s to th e In d ia n s. He m a rrie d a F re n ch w o m a n n a m e d Jo s e p h in e V ie rh e n and to g e ther th e y had n in e ch ild re n, several o f w h o m settled in n o rth e a s te rn N ebraska on o r n e a r th e O m aha In d ia n R eservation. H is s is te r E u p h ra s ia a n d h e r h u s b a n d F u lto n Peters also s e ttle d on th e re s e rv a tio n n e a r h e r b ro th e r's tow n. B arada died in R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty in 1885 and w as b u rie d in the C a th o lic C em etery a b o u t a h a lf m ile east o f h is village. 13 M ixe d -b lo o d J o h n P ilch e r is b e st k n o w n as th e son o f renow n e d tra d e r J o s h u a P ilch e r w h o succeeded M a n u e l L isa as p re s id e n t o f th e M is s o u ri F u r C om pany in 1821, and w ho was a p p o in te d S u p e rin te n d e n t o f In d ia n A ffa irs in D u rin g th e 1820s and 1830s, J o s h u a P ilch er tra d e d w ith th e O m aha In d ia n s fro m p re se n t-d a y C o u n c il B lu ffs, helped d ire c t several fu r com panies, and earned a re p u ta tio n as a capable fie ld m a n a g e r in th e In d ia n trade. W hen the elder P ilch e r died in 1843, h is O m a h a In d ia n w ife and y o u n g son w e n t to live am ong th e O m ahas in e a s te rn N e b raska. J o h n P ilc h e r w as in h is e a rly tw e n tie s w h e n he received h is H alf-b reed T ra c t la n d w h ic h he sold to A le xa n d e r S. B a lla rd on M a y 2, 1859, th e same day it w as allo tte d to h im. He m a rrie d a w h ite w o m a n nam ed H a rrie t A rlin g to n in 1860 a t D e ca tu r, N ebraska, on the O m a h a In d ia n R eservation, w here he w o rke d as a g o v e rn m e n t agent. T h e y b o u g h t p ro p e rty fro m H e n iy Fontenelle, th e m a n w ho h a d savagely b eate n Louis Neal a fte r the k illin g o f Tecum seh Fontenelle. A m ixe d -b lo o d nam ed Joseph P iq u o t (Pecotte o r Picotte) fo u n d e d th e village o f W innebago on h is a llo tm e n t tw o m iles w e st o f Y a n k to n. He w as p e rh a p s descended fro m e ith e r Jo se p h P icotte w h o m a naged a tra d in g p o s t a t F o rt J o h n (later F o rt Laram ie) in 1844, o r H onore Picotte w h o w as a tra d e r fo r th e A m e ric a n F u r C o m p a n y in th e 1840s. W in n e b a g o boasted tw o g eneral stores, a p o p u la r sa lo o n, a h o te l, a b la c k s m ith sh o p, a n d tw e n ty w e ll- b u ilt hom es. T he h o m e s w ere n o tic e a b ly b e tte r th a n those o f n e a rb y tow ns because th e y w ere b u ilt b y a respected ca rp e n te r fro m St. S tephens nam ed George M a yfie ld. The to w n s p e o p le c o n s is te d a lm o s t e n tire ly o f F re n c h m e n, In d ia n s, a n d m ixe d -b lo o d s. 1^ Y a n k to n w as located on the M is s o u ri R iver a b o u t th re e m ile s n o rth o f R ulo, m id w a y betw een R ulo and A rago. T h o u g h m ixe d -

151 132 b lo o d s live d in to w n, Y a n k to n was p rim a rily occupied b y w h ite se ttle rs. A t its h e ig h t i t h a d th re e general stores, three saloons, a h o te l, a n d a b la c k s m ith shop. Here a F re n c h m a n nam ed H e n ry G o u le tte (G oulet) o p e ra te d one o f th e fir s t b o w lin g a lle ys w e st o f th e M is s o u ri R ive r. Y a n k to n 's fin e riv e r la n d in g and a b u n d a n t coal reserves persu a d e d some e a rly pioneers th a t it w o u ld become the m o st im p o rta n t to w n in th e area. H o u s to n N u cko lls w as a fo u n d e r and stro n g p ro m o te r o f th e c o m m u n ity, even w h ile he p rom o te d St. S tephens, W innebago, a n d o th e r sites. He w as ty p ic a l o f the la n d sp e cu la to rs w ho floated several "paper to w n s" in hopes th a t one o r m ore w o u ld succeed. S tephen and H e a th N u c k o lls had th e ir nam es on the to w n s a rtic le s o f in c o rp o ra tio n also, b u t th e y were n o t as a c tiv e ly in vo lve d in p ro m o tin g the to w n as w as H o u s to n. The to w n 's p h y s ic ia n and law yer m e t tra g ic ends. P h ysician J. H. D avis w as s h o t to death in F alls C ity in a n a rg u m e n t over th e lo c a tio n o f th e c o u n ty seat, and a tto rn e y D avid B ro w n jo in e d the C onfederate A rm y d u rin g the C iv il W a r o n ly to be k ille d in b a ttle. Y a n k to n had an o p tim u m p o p u la tio n o f a b o u t persons in 1857, b u t m o st people abandoned th e to w n over th e n e x t tw o ye a rs w h e n h ig h w a te rs th re a te n e d to w a s h a w a y th e b u ild in g s, m a n y o f w h ic h were la te r m oved to n e a rb y tow ns. A n o th e r type o f a llo tte e on th e H a lf-b re ed T ra c t w as th e m ix e d - b lo o d w o m a n w ho received la n d w h ile she w as m a rrie d to a w h ite m an. D u rin g th e s u m m e r o f 1855, several h u s b a n d s o f m ix e d -b lo o d w om en, F re n c h m e n C harles R ouleau, E. H e n ri J o h n so n, W illia m K e n ce le u r, E li B e d a rd, and E li P lante le ft th e ir hom es in S io u x C ity, Iow a to e s ta b lis h H a lf-b re e d T ra c t cla im s to w h ic h th e ir w ives were e n title d b y th e te rm s o f th e T re a ty o f P rairie d u C hien. A ll five m en inspected th e re serva tio n and s ta k e d o u t th e la n d w h ic h th e y h oped th e ir w ive s w o u ld receive. J o h n s o n described the area as p rim itiv e, "in h a b ite d b y In d ia n s and a few F re n c h m e n, w ho w ere m a rrie d to squaw s or h a lf-b re e d s, th e re b e in g no im p ro v e m e n ts, e xcept o c c a s io n a lly here and th e re, a n In d ia n c o rn fie ld." 17 J o h n s o n w as s tru c k b y th e a b u n d ance o f gam e, d e sp ite th e large n u m b e r o f In d ia n s w ho lived and h u n te d in th e area. 18 R ouleau and h is com panions sp e n t th e ir fir s t n ig h t a t the hom e o f J o h n B. D id ie r, a F re n c h m a n w ho liv e d ju s t o ff th e re s e rv a tio n in

152 133 R ic h a rd s o n C ounty. He was m a rrie d to a w h ite w o m a n and h a d no cla im on th e H alf-b reed T ra ct. D id ie r was b o rn in F rance on C h ris tm a s D ay o f A t age tw e n ty, he im m ig ra te d to th e U n ite d S tates, e v e n tu a lly s e ttlin g in C in c in n a ti w here he w orked as a store cle rk. He m oved to St. L o u is in 1849 and w e n t to w o rk fo r th e C h o u te a u b ro th e rs w h o w ere le a d in g m e rch a n ts in th a t city. A fte r th re e years, Pierre C h o u te a u placed D id ie r in charge o f h is tra d in g p o st n e a r F o rt L a ra m ie a t a tim e w h e n n e a rb y In d ia n s fe lt in c re a s in g ly alarm ed b y th e large n u m b e r o f w h ite e m ig ra n ts heading west. D id ie r trie d to persuade A rm y L ie u te n a n t J o h n L. G ra tta n n o t to a tte m p t to a rre s t th e In d ia n accused o f k illin g a cow b e lo n g in g to a M o rm o n w h o w as tra v e lin g n e a r th e fo r t, b u t u n fo rtu n a te ly th e y o u n g officer d id n o t accept th e w a rn in g. W h e n th e B ru le c h ie f C o n q u e rin g B ear re fu se d to d e liv e r th e a ccused to th e soldiers, G ra tta n fire d on th e In d ia n s, w ho c o u n te r-a tta cke d, ca u s in g th e d e a th o f G ra tta n and th e m en o f h is d e ta ch m e n t. Soon a fte r G ra tta n 's M a ssacre w h ic h o ccu rre d on A u g u s t 19, 1854, D id ie r m oved east and s e ttle d o n a acre fa rm in R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty, m a k in g h im th e second w h ite se ttle r in th e co u n ty. The fo llo w in g year, he m a rrie d M a ry P in e a u, th e d a u g h te r o f th e F re n c h C a n a d ia n p o s t tra d e r a t F o rt L a ra m ie. The D id ie rs lived to g e ther on th e o rig in a l fa rm u n til h e r death in 1908, a fte r w h ic h J o h n rem ained alone u n til h is d e a th n in e years la te r a t th e age o f n in e ty. *9 In 1855, w h e n th e five F renchm en a rrive d in R ulo, th e re w ere few o th e r w h ite m en besides D id ie r in residence in th e im m e d ia te v ic in ity. F re n c h m a n F. X. D up uis, w h o m they visited, w as m a rrie d to th e w id o w o f th e fa m o u s Iow a c h ie f W h ite C loud. A n o th e r w h ite m a n w as C h a rle s M a rtin, a F re n ch C anadian, a b o u t w h o m it has been w ritte n th a t "there n e ve r live d a m ore p ic tu re s q u e o r c h iv a lric c h a ra c te r o f th e old p la in s a n d m o u n ta in s."20 Once, w h ile h u n tin g in U ta h, M a rtin cam e across som e In d ia n s w h o w ere p re p a rin g to b u rn a fo u rte e n -y e a r-o ld ca p tive P a iu te g irl to avenge th e loss o f th e ir c h ie f in b a ttle. He m anaged to co nvince th e w a rrio rs to exchange her fo r some ponies and te n ts, a n d the g ir l w a s released to h im a n d s u b s e q u e n tly becam e h is w ife. W h e n R o u le a u and the o thers m e t h im, M a rtin had ju s t d riv e n a h e rd o f cattle

153 134 a n d m u s ta n g ponies to h is hom e, a tra d itio n a l e a rth lodge n e a r p re s e n t R u lo, w here he live d w ith h is P aiute w ife. A lth o u g h M a rtin h a d h u n te d a n d tra v e le d e x te n s iv e ly betw een th e M is s o u ri R ive r a n d th e R o cky M o u n ta in s, he recognized th a t th e area w as d e stin e d to be settle d, and he erected th e fir s t general store in R ulo w h ic h operated u n til h is d e a th in 1860 o r In 1856, th e five F re n ch m e n and th e ir m ix c d -b lo o d w ives becam e p e rm a n e n t se ttle rs a t R ulo, tw o m iles n o rth o f th e the B ig N em aha River, w h ic h w as nam ed a fte r C harles R ouleau. The village sta n d s o n th e spot w h e re R u lo s w ife received h e r 320-acre a llo tm e n t, and th e s u rro u n d in g a re a w a s a llo tte d to o th e r fa m ily m e m b e rs, th e re b y c re a tin g a m o dera te ly-size d la n d h o ld in g. C o n te m p o ra ry w h ite pioneers h e ld these m ix e d -b lo o d s in lo w esteem, as in d ic a te d b y th is a n o n ym o u s a ccount: "T h is c la s s o f o c c u p a n ts w a s n o t p a r tic u la r ly d is tin g u is h e d fo r e n te rp ris e... [and they] s e rio u s ly re ta rd e d th e progress and g ro w th o f th is se ctio n o f o u r c o u n ty [R ich a rdso n C o u n ty ]."22 Some m ixe d -b lo o d s e v e n tu a lly w ere p u sh e d o u t b y the new wave o f eastern s e ttle rs p rio r to th e C iv il W ar. R o u le a u a n d h is com panio n s la id o u t th e to w n in 1856 a n d h a d i t in c o rp o ra te d th re e years la te r, a t w h ic h tim e p a rt o f th e la n d a llo tte d to E li B e d a rd s w ife, a sis te r to R o u le a u s w ife, w as in c lu d e d in th e to w n s ite. The m e n w h o fo u n d e d R u lo w ere C h a rle s R o u le a u, E li B e d a rd, E. H e n ri J o h n so n, C harles M a rtin, E li Plante, a n d F. X. D u p u is. R u lo th riv e d d u rin g th e wave o f new m ig ra tio n in the m id s, th o u g h i t re lie d to o h e a v ily on riv e rb o a t tra d e fo r its e c o n o m ic s u rv iv a l. R a ilro a d s k ille d riv e rb o a t tra d e, a n d m a n y to w n s fa ile d w h e n th e ra ilro a d s bypassed th e m. R ulo su rvive d because i t w as on th e p a th o f th e A tc h is o n and N ebraska R ailroad, and i t a lre a d y had a p o p u la tio n o f p e rh a p s people b y th e tim e th e lin e re ach e d i t fro m K a n sa s in W hen R ouleau a n d th e others visite d th e H alf-b reed T ra c t in 1855, one o f th e w h ite re s id e n ts th e y m isse d w as S te p h e n S to ry, th e fir s t p e rm a n e n t w h ite s e ttle r in R ich a rd son C o u n ty. He cam e to th e area in 1844 and se ttle d along th e riv e r w here St. S tephens e v e n tu a lly stood, a to w n w h ic h he co -fo u n d e d. S to ry w as b o rn in V e rm o n t in 1810, b u t

154 135 s p e n t th e m a jo rity o f h is y o u th in M o n tre a l, C anada. T h e re he m e t J o s e p h R o b id o u x w ith w h o m he w o rke d in th e In d ia n tra d e. L a te r, R o b id o u x e sta b lish e d a n u m b e r o f w e ste rn tra d in g posts, in c lu d in g one a t St. Joseph, M is s o u ri, w here S to ry jo in e d h im in 1836 and re m a in e d fo r several years. He m oved to R ichard son C o u n ty in 1844, te n years before th e area w as a c tu a lly opened fo r w h ite s e ttle m e n t, p ro b a b ly to tra d e w ith th e local In d ia n s. W ith in tw o years, S to ry m oved b a c k to St. Jo se p h, w here he m a rrie d an In d ia n w om an nam ed E liz a b e th R obidoux, th e w id o w o f Joseph R o b id o u x's son, Ferron. He and h is w ife produce d th irte e n c h ild re n. S to ry e n lis te d in th e A rm y d u rin g th e M e x ic a n - A m e ric a n W ar, w as w o u n d e d in the B a ttle o f M onterey, a n d received an e a rly disch a rg e. He em ig ra te d to C a lifo rn ia in 1849, b u t la c k in g a n y success in th e goldfields, he re tu rn e d to h is hom e in St. Jose p h th e n e x t year. He s u b s e q u e n tly re tu rn e d to h is cabin a t St. S tephens w h e re he o p e ra te d a fe rry w h ic h c a rrie d m a n y o f the e a rly p io n e e rs across th e M is s o u ri R iver a fte r th e K ansas-n ebraska A c t p e rm itte d w h ite s e ttle m e n t in W ith G e n e ra l B e n ja m in Loan, th e b ro th e r-in -la w o f e a rly p io n e e r W illia m R. C ain, he fo u n d ed the to w n o f St. S tephens in T h e fo llo w in g year, S to ry sold p a rt o f h is n e a rb y fa rm to th e G erm ans w h o fo u n d e d A rago, th o u g h th e to w n riv a lry e v e n tu a lly sapped th e v ita lity fro m St. S te p h e n s. The in tro d u c tio n o f ste a m fe rrie s on th e M is s o u ri p u t h im o u t o f b usiness, and S to ry w o rke d h is lo ca l fa rm u n til 1879, w h e n he m oved in to R ulo fo r re tire m e n t. Three years la te r, he died fro m co m p lica tio n s o f p n e u m o n ia a t th e age o f s e v e n t y - t w o. 2 4 A th ir d g ro u p consisted o f the m ixe d -b lo o d m en and w om en w ho received th e ir p ro p e rtie s, b u t q u ic k ly le ft th e area sin ce th e T re a ty o f P ra irie d u C h ie n d id n o t re q u ire re c ip ie n ts to p h y s ic a lly o ccu p y th e ir a llo tm e n ts. M o s t re c ip ie n ts o f th is ty p e s o ld th e ir p ro p e rtie s im m e d ia te ly, b u t o th e rs le ft th e ir la n d id le fo r a w h ile. F u lto n Peters, a n o th e r w h ite m an m a rrie d to a m ixed-blood w om an, seemed to se ttle on h is H a lf-b re ed T ra c t la n d a lm o st as an a fte rth o u g h t. Peters w as b o rn in G e rm a n y in 1835, grew u p in St. L o u is, and becam e a s h ip ca rp e n te r. He cam e to th e G re a t P lains in 1853 to w o rk on a w agon tra in headed fro m K a n sa s C ity to F o rt Lara m ie. W ith in tw o years, he m ade th re e

155 136 w e s te rn trip s, th o u g h events on th e th ird one co n vin ce d h im to seek o th e r e m ploym ent. O n a trip to Idaho in 1854 w ith 105 w agons, a sm a ll g ro u p o f d issa tisfie d travelers s p lit fro m the m a in co m p a n y and began to tra v e l fu r th e r w e s t to O regon. A fte r ju s t te n m ile s, a la rg e r force o f In d ia n s, o r M o rm o n s d isg u ise d as In d ia n s, a tta c k e d a n d k ille d m a n y m e m b e rs o f th e group, th o u g h a few s u rvivo rs escaped a n d re jo in e d the la rg e r w agon tra in. Tw o n ig h ts la te r the o rig in a l p a rty w as a tta cke d and its liv e s to c k scattered. Peters and tw e n ty -fo u r o th e r m en recovered m o st o f th e m is s in g a n im a ls, b u t th e y w ere a tta c k e d w h ile a tte m p tin g to rescue a n o th e r g ro u p o f im m ig ra n ts w h o had entered the area. Peters b a re ly escaped w ith h is life. In 1856, he m a rrie d E u p h ra s ia B a ra d a, the s is te r o f A n to in e B arada, and shared w ith h e r th e b e n e fit o f th e a llo tm e n t o f H a lf-b re ed T ra c t la n d. He traveled to N ebraska in 1856 to locate the a llo tm e n t, th e n re tu rn e d in 1858 to im prove the p ro p e rty. A fte r one year, he re tu rn e d to St. L o u is w here he w o rke d a t s h ip b u ild in g fo r th e n e x t decade. N o t u n til 1870 d id Peters and h is w ife se ttle p e rm a n e n tly on th e ir la n d in R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty, w here th e y c o n tin u e d fa rm in g and ra is in g liv e s to c k u n til h e r d e a th in 1888, and h is d e a th in W h y th e co uple settled p e rm a n e n tly in N ebraska a t th a t tim e is a m a tte r fo r s p e cu la tio n. Perhaps M rs. Peters w ished to be n e a r h e r b ro th e r, A n to in e, w h o liv e d in R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty u n til h is d e a th in O r p e rh a p s Peters grew tire d o f s h ip b u ild in g a t th e age o f th irty -fiv e and decided to t r y h is h a n d a t fa rm in g. Perhaps the depressed econom y in St. Louis, o r th e c o n d itio n o f th e s h ip b u ild in g in d u s try in 1870, d e m anded th a t he lo o k fo r o p p o rtu n itie s elsewhere. A t any rate, it does n o t seem th a t liv in g o n the la n d w as m u c h o f a p rio rity w ith th e m u n til 1870, n e a rly th irte e n years a fte r th e y h a d gained title to th e ir p ro p e rty.^5 The fin a l g ro u p o f H alf-b reed T ra c t re sid ents in c lu d e d m in o rs, fu lly tw o -th ird s o f a ll allottees, w hose la n d came to be c o n tro lle d b y w h ite a n d m ixed-b lo o d g u a rd ia n s. In 1841, Isaac M cc oy h a d lis te d tw e n ty-o n e j. O toe m ixed-b lo o d s as eligible to receive H alf-b reed T ra c t la n d, in c lu d in g "Jo seph Robedeaux' ch ild re n, viz. son nam ed R obedeaux [sic] o f fu ll age, liv in g w ith th e O toes. sam e place. Son Jo, and a d a u g h te r n a m e d L a lebre, a t th e Son H a rry a t Portage de S ioux, M is s o u ri, a n d d a u g h te rs

156 137 R osella and M a n i w ith Ioways, a ll o f m a tu re age."26 S ixteen ye a rs la te r, th e re w ere tw e n ty -tw o R o b id o u x allottees, m o s t o f w h o m w ere m in o rs. M a n y o f th e m en a lre ady described had m ixed-blood c h ild re n w hose la n d th e y m anaged. J o s e p h D e ro in c o n tro lle d a t le a s t seven a llo tm e n ts, in c lu d in g h is ow n, h is w ife S oula's, and those o f five o f h is c h ild re n. A c tu a lly there were seventeen a llo tm e n ts made to persons nam ed D eroin, o n ly five o f w h o m were a d u lts. W ith o u t lo o kin g a t each in d iv id u a l patenl o r deed, i t w o u ld be im p o s s ib le to k n o w w h ic h a d u lts served as g u a rd ia n s fo r w h ic h m in o rs. I t is ce rta in, however, th a t several D e ro in m e n a n d w o m e n cam e to c o n tro l a large piece o f la n d because o f th e a llo tm e n ts m ade to th e ir c h ild re n.27 L o u is N eal c o n tro lle d th e a llo tm e n ts g rante d to h im and h is w ife Susan, as w e ll as th e fo u r w h ic h belonged to h is yo u n g e r b ro th e rs and sisters. Before N eal's m o th e r died on N ovem ber 18, 1856, she in d ica te d th a t she w a n te d h e r son George to be le ft in charge o f th e fa m ily, perhaps because Louis, w h o w as th e oldest son, h a d a lre a d y le ft hom e. Y et w h e n th e g o ve rn m e n t a llo tte d th e la n d d u rin g th e fo llo w in g year, George w as o n ly eighteen years old a n d w as c o n s id e re d a m in o r. L o u is, a t tw e n ty -fo u r ye a rs o f age, w a s nam ed g u a rd ia n and given p ra c tic a l c o n tro l o f the fo u r a d d itio n a l p ro p e rtie s.28 W illia m K e n c e le u r (K ensler) cam e to c o n tro l seven a c re a llo tm e n ts. H is w ife Zela and th e ir three ch ild re n, E u sta cia, Tansan, and Levi, a ll received H alf-b reed T ra c t land, as d id three o th e r m in o rs nam ed Peter, S usan, and H e n rie tta Laclare w ho lived w ith K e n c e le u r a n d fo r w h o m th e F re n c h m a n served as g u a rd ia n. The seven p a rc e ls o f la n d w ere located n e a r th e village o f B a ra d a.29 Two o th e r m en w h o c o n tro lle d m u ltip le a llo tm e n ts were C harles R ouleau and S tephen S tory, w ho, since th e y were w h ite m en, m ake it re la tiv e ly easy to d e te rm in e th e n u m b e r o f th e ir a llo tm e n ts b y c o u n tin g each tim e someone nam ed R u lo (Rouleau) or S to ry appeared on th e lis t o f allotees. These p e rso n s w ere w ive s or d e p e n d e n t c h ild re n o f th e tw o m en. The lis t show ed fo u r a llo tm e n ts g ive n to persons nam ed R u lo and five given to persons nam ed S to ry. 80 O th e r n a m e s th a t appeared fre q u e n tly on th e lis t o f a llo tte e s w ere: B a rrid a (Barada), 7 tim es; W elch, 6 tim es; O 'Pelt (alias R itte r), 7 tim e s; D o rio n, 11 tim e s; P aul, 7 tim e s; Pecotte, 7 tim e s; G o u le tte, 5 tim e s ;

157 138 T ra ve rsie, 9 tim e s; and R obedeaux (R obidoux), 22 tim e s. The m ix e d - b lo o d S io u x n a m e d P ierre D o rio n, w h o w as a n in te rp re te r fo r th e A m e ric a n F u r C o m p any as early as 1810, m a y have been th e p ro g e n ito r o f th e D o rio n a llo tte e s. T h e R o b id o u x re c ip ie n ts w e re p ro b a b ly descended fro m Joseph R o bidoux o r one o f h is b r o t h e r s. 31 One fin a l n o te w o rth y w h ite g u a rd ia n w as Zephyre R econtre, w ho w a s re p u te d to have traveled w ith th e Lewis a n d C la rk E x p e d itio n. He se ttle d on th e H alf-b reed T ra c t w ith h is fo u r c h ild re n w ho were allottees, b u t a fte r several years th e y sold th e ir la n d a n d m oved on to th e D a k o ta te rrito ry. 32 a clue as to w h y so m a n y m ixed-b lo o d s q u ic k ly sold th e ir a llo tm e n ts is fo u n d in a b rie f a c c o u n t w ritte n in 1875 b y F re n c h m a n E. H e n ri J o h n s o n w hose m ixed-blood w ife received re serva tio n la n d : "In th e y e a r 1859, th e In d ia n agent [W illia m M. S ta rk ] h a v in g c o m p le te d h is m is s io n o n the reserve, w ith d re w h is presence, and le ft u s to th e m ercies o f th e w h ite m an, b y w h o m we were received w ith frie n d s h ip, a tta ch e d to th e b alance o f th e c o u n ty and in tro d u c e d to and allow ed th e p rivile g e o f p a y in g taxes lik e o th e r m en, w h ic h b le ssin g we have n o t as y e t been d e p rive d of. "33 w h a t happened to th e m ixe d -b lo o d s w h o received b u t q u ic k ly sold th e ir a llo tm e n ts on th e H alf-b reed T ra ct? H is to ria n B e rlin C h a p m a n d e m o n s tra te d th a t since tw o -th ird s o f th e re c ip ie n ts w ere m in o rs, i t w as easy fo r w h ite m en to b u y large p a rc e ls o f la n d fro m th e m.34 S ince so m a n y re c ip ie n ts were m in o rs, i t is lik e ly th a t th e y re m a in e d in th e area even th o u g h th e y sold th e ir la n d. As lo n g as th e ir g u a rd ia n s re m a in e d there, so too d id th e m in o rs, as w as th e case w ith th e c h ild re n o f m en lik e B arada, R ouleau, K enceleur, a n d S to ry. W hen th e g u a rd ia n s le ft, u n d o u b te d ly the m in o rs u s u a lly le ft w ith th e m. The c h ild re n o f J o s e p h D e ro in w h o a cco m p a n ie d th e ir m o th e r S o u la to K a n sa s p ro vid e a good exam ple. H is to ric a l a cco u n ts lik e C h a p m a n 's, w h ic h e m phasize d h o w q u ic k ly th e a llo tm e n ts w ere so ld, m a y have u n in te n tio n a lly given th e false im p re s s io n th a t a ll o f th e m ix e d -b lo o d re c ip ie n ts q u ic k ly le ft th e area. T h a t does n o t seem to have been th e case. M o st o f the m e n w ho b o u g h t H alf-b reed T ra c t la n d were n o t largescale speculators, lik e R om bach and N u cko lls, or m em bers o f e m ig ra tio n

158 139 societies. R ather, th e y were fa rm e rs o r b u sinessm en seeking to b u y la n d th ro u g h p re -e m p tio n o r on th e se condary m a rk e t, b u t w h o ended u p b u y in g re s e rv a tio n la n d because it w as a v a ila b le a t b a rg a in ra te s. S te p h e n B. M ile s and E d w in S. Tow le a cquire d s ig n ific a n t a m o u n ts o f p ro p e rty on the H alf-b reed T ra c t fo r "regular" b u sin e ss p u rp o se s and n o t p rim a rily as sp eculations. M iles, w ho held governm ent c o n tra c ts to carry m ail* u tiliz e d h is la n d to graze the a n im a ls used in h is b u sin e ss. Tow le w a s a la w ye r a n d la n d agent w h o tra d e d some parcels o f la n d and held o th e rs fo r re n ta l incom e. H is descendents s till ow n m u c h o f th e la n d th a t he b o u g h t in the late 1860s. S tephen Boyd M ile s w as an im p o rta n t p io n e e r b u s in e s s m a n w ho b o u g h t large a m o u n ts o f re serva tio n land, th o u g h h is a c q u is itio n s there w ere m in o r w h e n com pared to h is h o ld in g s elsewhere. B o rn in J a n u a ry 1822, M ile s g re w u p in P e n n s y lv a n ia. In 1854, he o b ta in e d th e g o ve rn m e n t c o n tra c t to c a rry m a il betw een Independence and S a lt Lake C ity, a d ista n ce o f 1250 m ile s b y stage road, o r t h ir ty days each w ay. T he ro u te to U ta h w as p a rtic u la rly dangerous due to a tta c k s b y S io u x a n d C heyenne. M ile s, w h o also tra n s p o rte d m a il th ro u g h se ctio n s o f M is s o u ri, K ansas, N e braska and Texas, was th e firs t m a n to c a rry m a il in to R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty, and organized th e c o u n ty s fir s t b a n k. M iles c a rrie d m a il betw een St. Joseph, F a lls C ity, and th e v illa g e th a t is n o w k n o w n as B e a trice, N ebraska. The g o vern m e n t p a id h im p a rtly w ith "m a il g ra n t la n d ", a lte rn a tin g se ctions o f la n d, w h ic h gave h im title to considerable pro p e rty th a t becam e the fo u n d a tio n o f h is fo rtu n e. 3 5 In 1856, M ile s b o u g h t several th o u s a n d acres o f R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty la n d n e a r D aw son w h ic h w as n o t p a rt o f th e H a lf-b re e d T ra ct. These h o ld in g s becam e th e h e a rt o f the M iles R anch, w h ic h g rew to over acres in th e 1870s. The o rig in a l tra c t w as u sed to ra ise and re cupera te horses and m u le s u tiliz e d in the m a il service, a n d it becam e one o f th e fir s t g re a t ra n ch e s e sta b lish e d w e s t o f th e M is s o u ri R iver. M ile s ca rrie d th e m a il th ro u g h 1871, w h e n he re tire d a n d began ra is in g c a ttle w ith h is son Joseph H. M iles. The o p e ra tio n in vo lve d d riv in g large h e rd s o f cattle fro m Texas to th e ra n c h w here th e y w ere fa tte n e d before s h ip m e n t to th e liv e s to c k m a rk e ts in C hicago. M ile s and h is son also

159 140 becam e active in th e b a n k in g in d u s try. U p o n h is d e a th in M iles le ft the b u lk o f h is m illio n d o lla r estate to h is son Joseph, le a d in g some o th e r re la tives to la u n c h a tw elve-year a tte m p t to b re a k th e w ill. A fte r five trip s to th e sta te suprem e c o u rt, th e ju s tic e s decided in fa v o r o f Jo se p h M iles and o th e r h e irs sp e cifica lly m e ntio n e d in the w ill. S tephen M iles b o u g h t over 1,100 acres o f reservation la n d ju s t s o u th o f th e village o f B a ra d a. It is n o t cle a r w h e th e r he o rig in a lly b o u g h t th e H a lf-b re e d T ra c t fo r use in h is c o n tra c t m a il b u sin e ss or as a g eneral in v e s tm e n t, b u t th e lo c a tio n o f th e p ro p e rtie s re la tiv e ly n e a r th e M is s o u ri R ive r suggests th a t he m a y have considered s h ip p in g fre ig h t a n d m a il fro m th a t site. He m a y also have p la n n e d to use th e site as a pla ce to re cupera te h is horses, as he was doing a t the M iles R a n ch.36 E d w in S. Tow le, a la w ye r and la n d agent w h o live d in F a lls C ity, w as b o rn in 1843 a t M ish a w a ka, In d ia n a, w here he a tte n d e d th e lo ca l schools and w o rke d on h is fa th e r s fa rm as he grew to m a tu rity. A fte r th e s ta rt o f th e C iv il W ar, he received an a p p o in tm e n t to th e U n ite d S ta te s N aval A cadem y, and re m a in e d there u n til th e s u m m e r o f 1862, w h e n th e g o ve rn m e n t se n t h im w e st as a n a vy re c ru ite r to O m a h a and L e a ve n w o rth. He se ttle d in F a lls C ity in S eptem ber 1862, a n d s tu d ie d la w in th e office o f Judge Is h a m Reavis. A fte r a b r ie f to u r w ith the N e b raska V o lu n te e r C a va lry in the D akotas, Tow le re tu rn e d to w o rk fo r Ju d g e Reavis. He began the p ra ctice o f la w in e a rly 1864 in F a lls C ity, w here he re m a in e d fo r the balance o f h is life.37 In the la te 1860s, Tow le a c q u ire d over 7,0 0 0 acres o f re serva tio n la n d, e v e n tu a lly o w n in g ones ix th o f B a ra d a P re cin ct a t a tim e w h e n the average fa rm in th e c o u n ty w a s 160 acres. He a n d h is re a l estate p a rtn e r A u g u s t S c h o e n h e it a d v e rtis e d 10,0 0 0 acres fo r sale in M o st o f T ow le's la n d w as co n ce n tra te d in B a ra d a and St. Stephens P recincts, w h ic h are ju s t s o u th o f A s p in w a ll P re c in c t in N e m a h a C o u n ty, w h e re D e n v e r a n d h is associates h e ld l a n d. 38 There is no a p p a re n t connectio n betw een Tow le a n d D e n v e r s g ro u p, th o u g h Tow le m a y have trie d to b u y la n d n e a r A s p in w a ll, th in k in g th a t it m ig h t become an im p o rta n t to w n. A p p a re n tly, Tow le and h is descendents saw la n d as a lo n g -te rm in v e s tm e n t ra th e r th a n as a s p e c u la tio n, because th e Tow le fa m ily s till ow ns s u b s ta n tia l

160 141 a m o u n ts o f la n d in R ich a rd son C ounty. D u rin g h is life tim e, Tow le w as a ju d g e, and a m em ber o f the N ebraska Legislature. 39 A lth o u g h he w as an in flu e n tia l person, ve ry little w as w ritte n a b o u t E d w in S. Tow le. I t m ay, how ever, be p o ssib le to c h a ra c te riz e h im in d ire c tly b y d e s c rib in g h is fa th e r-in -la w D avid D o rrin g to n. D o rrin g to n a n d h is w ife A n n were th e fir s t w h ite persons to e s ta b lis h a p e rm a n e n t hom e in F a lls C ity w h e n the c ity w as la id o u t in 1857 b y th e w a rrio r- a b o litio n is t J im Lane and others. Lane w as an o rig in a l m e m b e r o f the to w n s ite com pany, b u t h is nam e was n o t lis te d b y re s id e n ts w h o were fe a rfu l o f a ttra c tin g re trib u tio n from slavery advocates. D avid D o rrin g to n w a s b o rn d u rin g J a n u a ry 1812 in E n g la n d w here he w as educated and becam e a s k ille d carpenter. He m a rrie d in 1839 and came to the U n ite d S tates th re e years la te r, firs t s e ttlin g in O neida C o u n ty, New Y ork, th e n D o n ip h a n C o u n ty, K a n sa s T e rrito ry, in e a rly 1857, a n d fin a lly in R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty in Septem ber o f th a t same year. D o rrin g to n became one o f F a lls C ity 's m o s t im p o rta n t e a rly leaders, a lo n g w ith E lm e r S. D u n d y, Is h a m Reavis, D a n ie l Reavis, A u g u s t S ch o e n h e it, D a v id H o lt, Jesse C ro o k a n d E d w in S. Tow le. He w as a b u ild in g c o n tra c to r w ho h elped c o n s tru c t m a n y o f the o rig in a l b u ild in g s in the c ity. D o rrin g to n 's fa m ily came to in c lu d e E d w in S. Towle, the w e a lth y a tto rn e y w ho m a rrie d h is d a u g h te r K ittie, a n d Judge Isham Reavis, w h o m a rrie d h is d a u g h te r A n n ie. 40 In te n s e ly in te re s te d in p o litic s, D o rrin g to n led th e seventeen-year fig h t to e s ta b lis h F a lls C ity as the c o u n ty seat and he served as the to w n 's th ir d m ayor. He w as an a b o litio n is t a n d fre e -so ile r w h o helped o rg a n iz e th e R e p u b lic a n P a rty in R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty. "M o th e r D o rrin g to n ", as h is w ife A n n w as called, tended to s ic k re sid e n ts before th e a rriv a l o f tra in e d doctors. The D o rrin g to n stable, b e h in d th e ir hom e a t S ix te e n th a n d S tone, served as th e F a lls C ity "s ta tio n " on th e U n d e rg ro u n d R ailroad. J im Lane sent slaves along the ro u te k n o w n as th e "J im Lane T ra il", w h ic h led fro m K ansas to Iowa, and passed n e a r F a lls C ity. W hen th e D o rrin g to n s live d in D o n ip h a n C o u n ty in K ansas T e rrito ry, the p ro -sla ve ry "Jayhaw kers" had th re a te n e d to b u rn dow n the hom es o f a b o litio n is ts. T h o u g h m o st w o m e n a n d c h ild re n m oved to

161 142 safety, A n n re m a in e d w ith h e r h u s b a n d. Once, w h e n M rs. D o rrin g to n w as alone in h e r Kansas cabin, a m a n appeared w h o asked h e r to h id e h im fro m a b a n d o f Ja y h a w k e rs, w h ic h she d id. W h e n h is p u rs u e rs a rriv e d, she refused th e m e n tra n ce to th e ca b in. A s one m a n m oved to w a rd th e door, M rs. D o rrin g to n grabbed a ke ttle o f b o ilin g w a te r w h ic h she h a d prepared and th reatened to scald h im i f he came a n y closer. The J a y h a w k e rs w ith d re w, p ro m is in g to re tu rn la te r, b u t in the m e a n tim e the m a n in the cabin was able to escape.41 St. Stephens, Arago, Y a n kto n, and R ulo were th e im p o rta n t riv e r to w n s a n d p o rts o f e n tra n c e fo r R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty. B ecause St. S tephens a n d Y a n k to n h a d the best la n d in g s, th e y were th e fir s t to w n s w here rive rb o a ts stopped. Arago overtook the others in the 1860s due to th e in d u s trio u s n e s s o f its G e rm a n p o p u la tio n. Y et th e s u b s e q u e n t c o lla p se o f riv e r tra d e caused a ll fo u r to w n s to d e clin e. O n ly R u lo s u rv iv e d because it w as in c lu d e d on th e ro u te o f one o f th e ra ilro a d s. The fir s t o ffic ia l e ffo rt to b u ild a ra ilro a d th ro u g h R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty fo llo w e d a n a ct o f th e T e rrito ria l L e g isla tu re on N ovem ber 4, 1858, to in c o rp o ra te th e M is s o u ri R iver and N em aha V a lle y R a ilro a d C om pany. The firm p la n n e d to b u ild a ra ilro a d fro m th e m o u th o f th e B ig N em aha R ive r to F o rt K earny and to jo in any o th e r lin e th a t m ig h t be c o n s tru c te d w e s tw a rd u p the P latte V alley. C harles M a rtin, E li B edard, S te p h e n B. M ile s, W illia m K enceleur, W illia m P. Loan, and m a n y o th e rs s u p p o rte d th e ra ilro a d in p rin c ip a l. Yet, w h e n it cam e tim e to m e et th e c a p ita l s to c k re q u ire m e n t o f $ 3,0 0 0,0 0 0, s u p p o rt d w in d le d a n d th e ro a d w as never b u ilt.^2 A g roup o f F alls C ity m en so u g h t to b u ild a ra ilro a d fro m A tc h is o n, in K ansas T e rrito ry, to F alls C ity, th e n u p the va lle y o f the B ig N em aha R iver, a n d n o rth to L in c o ln. T h o u g h th e N em aha V a lley, L in c o ln, and L o u p F o rk R a ilro a d w as never co n stru cte d, it has h is to ric a l im p o rta n c e because th e m en in vo lve d w ith th e p ro je c t in c lu d e d E d w a rd S. Tow le, A u g u s t S ch o e n h e it, a n d D a n ie l and Is h a m Reavis. The p ro je c t fa ile d w h e n th e A tc h is o n and N ebraska R a ilro a d was firs t to g a in fin a n c in g to c o n s tru c t a road over m u c h the same ro ute. B y J u ly 4, 1871, th a t road w as b u ilt as fa r n o rth as F alls C ity. A n o th e r ra ilro a d p ro je c t th a t fa ile d

162 143 to m a te ria lize w as th e St. Louis and N ebraska T ru n k R a ilro a d w h ic h was to r u n th ro u g h R ulo, A rago and St. S tephens P re cin cts, th e n th ro u g h B ro w n v ille a n d n o rth to O m aha. The c o m p a n y re q u ire d $ 6 0, in b o n d s fro m th e re sid e n ts o f R ichard son C o u n ty. O n J u ly 6, , th e vo te rs defeated the b o n d proposals and the ra ilro a d w as never b u ilt. A s im ila r fa te o c c u rre d fo r th e F a lls C ity, B ro w n v ille, a n d F o rt K e a rn y R ailroad, also k n o w n as the M id la n d Pacific R ailw a y.43 A lth o u g h few H alf-b reed T ra c t allottees s till ow ned th e ir la n d one decade a fte r it becam e ava ila b le fo r p u b lic sale, a llo tm e n t in se ve ra lty w as g a in in g p o p u la rity am ong reform ers as a proposed rem edy fo r In d ia n p ro b le m s. A fte r th e C iv il W ar, e a ste rn h u m a n ita ria n s a g g re ssive ly p ro m o te d a g e n e ra l a llo tm e n t law, d e sp ite th e te rrib le re c o rd fo r a llo tm e n t in s e v e ra lty d u rin g th e p re v io u s h a lf-c e n tu ry. H ad th e y e xa m ined its fa ilu re on th e N em aha H a lf-b re ed T ra c t, th e y m ig h t have a void e d th e d is a s tro u s consequences o f th e D aw es A c t, a g e n e ra l a llo tm e n t la w w h ic h w as enacted in T hey believed, how ever, th a t e a rlie r p ro b le m s re s u lte d fro m p o o r im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e a llo tm e n t p ro v is io n s a n d n o t fro m th e co n ce p t its e lf. E lim in a tin g c o m m u n a l la n d h o ld in g w as one o f th e ir to p p rio ritie s, a lo n g w ith a b o lis h in g th e tr e a ty syste m, e s ta b lis h in g a g o v e rn m e n t e d u c a tio n syste m, a n d g r a d u a lly e x te n d in g A m e ric a n c itiz e n s h ip to th e In d ia n s. T he h u m a n ita ria n s believed th a t in d iv id u a l p ro p e rty o w n e rsh ip w o u ld provide a s tro n g in ce n tive fo r In d ia n s to w o rk h a rd and to a d o p t the w h ite m odel o f c a p ita lis m. As th e w h ite p o p u la tio n increased in th e W est a fte r th e C iv il W ar, th e n u m b e r o f c o n flic ts betw een In d ia n s a n d w h ite s surged, le a d in g C ongress to c o n s id e r several v e rs io n s o f a n a llo tm e n t b ill. R eco g n izin g th e in e v ita b ility o f the w h ite advance, th e h u m a n ita ria n s u rg e n tly s o u g h t to rescue th e In d ia n s b y a s s im ila tin g th e m in to w h ite so c ie ty. A s a h a lf-s te p a lo n g th e w a y to a g e n e ra l a llo tm e n t law, C ongress im p lim e n te d th e u n executed a llo tm e n t p ro v is io n s o f p re vio u s tre a tie s. In , it extended the benefits o f th e H om estead A c t o f so th a t in d iv id u a l In d ia n s could receive a llo tm ents, th o u g h th e la n d w as in a lie n a b le fo r five ye a rs a fte r th e issu a n ce o f th e fin a l p a te n t. The re s u lts w ere u n c le a r since few In d ia n s applied fo r la n d.44

163 144 A p ro to ty p e a llo tm e n t b ill em erged d u rin g F e a rin g th a t w h ite C o lo ra d a n s w o u ld d e prive th e Utes o f th e ir re s e rv a tio n la n d s, p ro p o n e n ts pressed fo r le g is la tio n to g ra n t in d iv id u a l p lo ts to th e Utes a n d to open th e re m a in in g la n d s to w h ite settlem ent. O n M a rc h 6, 1880, U te re p re se n ta tives agreed to accept reduced re serva tio n s in U ta h and C olorado, and to a p ro v is io n fo r 160-acre a llo tm e n ts. The ra tific a tio n debate in C ongress w as intense, w ith p roponents a rg u in g th a t a llo tm e n t in s e v e ra lty w o u ld o ffe r th e b e st chance fo r In d ia n a c c u ltu ra tio n. S u p p o rte rs co n te n d e d th a t In d ia n s had to be a s s im ila te d sin ce th e g o v e rn m e n t h a d neve r d e m o n stra te d an a b ility to p ro te c t In d ia n la n d rig h ts. O pponents argued th a t it w o u ld be best to "civilize " th e In d ia n s b e fo re g iv in g th e m in d iv id u a l title to la n d. T h e y cla im e d th a t since in d iv id u a l ow n e rsh ip violated In d ia n custom s, th e In d ia n s w o u ld n o t use th e la n d p ro fita b ly, and th a t w h ite specula to rs w o u ld end u p w ith th e la n d in ste a d. O n J u n e 15, 1880, Congress passed th e la w a llo ttin g la n d in severalty to the Utes o f C o l o r a d o. 45 C o m m issio n e r o f In d ia n A ffa irs E zra H a yt presented th e d ra ft o f a g e n e ra l a llo tm e n t b ill to Congress in J a n u a ry The novel fe a tu re w a s a tw e n ty -fiv e y e a r n o n -a lie n a tio n p ro v is io n w h ic h p re v e n te d th e In d ia n s fro m s e llin g o r a ssig n in g th e ir la n d s fo r th e specified p e rio d o f tim e. P roponents hoped th a t th is extended p e rio d w o u ld o ffe r enough tim e fo r th e In d ia n s to get on th e ir feet fin a n c ia lly a n d to a d o p t th e c u ltu re tra its o f w h ite society. D espite s tro n g a p p ro va l b y th e H ouse C o m m itte e on In d ia n A ffa irs, th e b ill never progressed to a vote in e ith e r h o u se. A b ill in tro d u c e d b y Texas S e n a to r R ic h a rd Coke on M a y 19, 1880, provided fo r a llo tm e n t in severalty and th e sale o f excess la n d s to th e governm ent. A llo tm e n t co u ld proceed o n ly w ith th e co n se n t o f tw o - th ir d s o f trib a l m ales, and th e a llo tm e n ts w ere to be in a lie n a b le fo r tw e n ty -fiv e ye a rs. O nce th e la n d s w ere d is trib u te d to fa m ilie s, th e In d ia n s w o u ld be governed b y the law s o f the state o r te rrito ry. O ver the n e x t seven years, Congress debated the Coke b ill in one fo rm o r a n o th er, as c ritic s charged th a t th e m a in p u rpose o f th e th e b ill w as to a cq u ire In d ia n la n d s fo r w h ite settlem ent. The strongest opponent o f th e b ill w as C o lo ra d o S e n a to r H e n ry T e lle r w h o rid ic u le d th e u n iv e rs a lity o f th e

164 145 m e asu re because he th o u g h t th a t a sta n d a rd s o lu tio n d id n o t ta k e in to a c c o u n t th e d iv e rs ity o f In d ia n trib es. The Coke b ill w as in tro d u c e d in 1882, 1884, and 1885, b u t failed to w in passage d u rin g those years.46 In e a rly 1886, S enator H e n ry L. Dawes in tro d u c e d a new v e rs io n o f th e Coke b ill before the Senate. A lth o u g h Daw es w as a n e w co m e r in s u p p o rt o f th e b ill, he w as th e c h a irm a n o f th e C o m m itte e on In d ia n A ffa irs, a n d so h is nam e, n o t Coke's, w as a ffixe d to th e b ill th a t soon becam e law. In its fin a l fo rm it w as k n o w n as th e D aw es G e n e ra l A llo tm e n t A ct, a n d i t w as signed b y P re sid e n t G ro ve r C le ve la n d on F e b ru a ry 8, Like its predecessor b ills, it p rovided fo r th e a llo tm e n t o f 160 acres to heads o f fa m ilie s and lesser a m o u n ts to o th e r persons. A llo tte e s received a p a te n t d e c la rin g th a t th e g o v e rn m e n t w o u ld h o ld th e ir la n d s in tr u s t fo r tw e n ty -fiv e years, a t w h ic h tim e th e y w o u ld receive th e ir p o rtio n s in fee s im p le.47 B ecause o f th e d is a s tro u s consequences o f th e D aw es A c t, one m ig h t have assu m e d th a t its passage w as secured b y la n d -h u n g ry s p e c u la to rs a n d settle rs, b u t th a t was n o t th e case. R a th e r, i t w as th e e a ste rn h u m a n ita ria n s, the self-pro cla im e d "frie n d s o f th e In d ia n," w ho w o n passage o f th e A ct. T h e ir s u p p o rt w as w e ll-in te n tio n e d, th o u g h m is g u id e d. The h u m a n ita ria n s su p p o rte d th e b ill fo r tw o m a in reasons: fir s t, th e y believed th a t c o m m u n a l la n d h o ld in g p re ve n te d th e In d ia n s fro m "a dvancing" and a s s im ila tin g in to w h ite c u ltu re ; a n d second, th e y believed th a t greedy w h ite s w o u ld e ve n tu a lly acq u ire c o m m u n a l la n d s as th e y h a d done elsewhere. I f in d iv id u a l In d ia n s held th e ir o w n p lo ts, th e h u m a n ita ria n s believed, th e y w o u ld be m ore lik e ly to w o rk h a rd to keep th e m, and th e y w o u ld be b e tte r prepared to defend th e m le g a lly. The fa ta l fla w w ith p a s t exam ples o f a llo tm e n t in s e v e ra lty w as th a t th e tre a tie s h a d n o t re quire d th e In d ia n s to h o ld th e ir la n d s fo r a set p eriod o f tim e to p e rm it th e fo rm a tio n o f c a p ita lis t va lu e s th a t th e g o ve rn m e n t h o p e d to in s till in them. The h u m a n ita ria n s w h o fo rm u la te d th e Dawes A c t th e re fo re in s u re d th a t the g o vernm ent w o u ld h o ld th e la n d in tru s t fo r tw e n ty -fiv e years. T h is p ro te ctive p e riod w o u ld p re v e n t th e In d ia n s fro m se llin g th e ir la n d h a s tily, w o u ld p re ve n t w h ite s fro m p re s s u rin g or

165 146 tric k in g th e In d ia n s in to selling, and w o u ld give th e In d ia n s a g e n e ra tio n to progress along th e road to w h ite civilization. 48 T he re fo rm e rs re jo ice d a t th e passage o f th e D aw es A c t a n d p re d ic te d a n e w e ra fo r th e In d ia n s. Som e fe lt th a t th e A c t w as e q u iv a le n t to a general n a tu ra liz a tio n la w fo r th e In d ia n s, and th a t th e y w o u ld q u ic k ly ta ke th e ir places as fu ll m em bers o f A m e ric a n society. W h a t a c tu a lly tra n s p ire d was fa r from the rosy p re d ic tio n s a n d i t in s u re d fu rth e r d e m o ra liz a tio n o f In d ia n peoples. The loss o f N ative A m e ric a n la n d s o ccu rre d in tw o d is tin c t phases: the sale o f s u rp lu s la n d to w h ite s; and the le a sin g o f the in d iv id u a l a llo tm e n ts w h ic h u ltim a te ly gave w a y to w h ite o w n e rsh ip o f the properties. Dawes o rig in a lly p la n n e d to a llo t la n d on ju s t one re serva tio n and th e n to g ra d u a lly extend th e p la n to o th e r lo c a tio n s. W ith in seven m o n th s, la n d h a d been a llo tte d o n s ix re s e rv a tio n s, a n d D aw es w as e xp re ssin g fe a rs a b o u t th e speed o f im p le m e n ta tio n. He feared la n d s p e c u la to rs w o u ld p re s s u re th e g o v e rn m e n t to a llo t th e la n d q u ic k ly in o rd e r to a c q u ire th e s u rp lu s la n d s. A s s u rp lu s la n d s w ere sold b a c k to th e g o ve rn m e n t and th e n re sold to th e w h ite s, In d ia n o w nership d w in d le d fro m 1 5 5,6 32,3 1 2 acres in 1881; to 104,3 14,3 4 9 acres in 1890; to 7 7,8 6 5,3 7 3 acres in In s h o rt, th e In d ia n s h a d lo s t a b o u t h a lf o f th e ir la n d, labeled as s u rp lu s la n d, w ith in th irte e n ye a rs a fte r passage o f th e A ct. B y 1900, o n ly 5,4 0 9,5 3 0 acres had a c tu a lly passed to in d iv id u a l I n d i a n s. 49 L e a sin g p ro ve d to be th e u n fo re se e n fa c to r th a t defeated th e tw e n ty -fiv e ye a r n o n -a lie n a tio n p rovisio n, and e ve n tu a lly th e p u rp o se o f th e A c t its e lf. W hen la w m a ke rs passed th e Dawes A ct, th e y p ro vid e d th a t th e a llo tm e n ts w o u ld be in a lie n a b le and n o n -ta x a b le fo r tw e n ty -fiv e ye a rs to p ro te c t th e In d ia n s fro m p a rtin g w ith th e ir la n d s a t a n e a rly date. S u p p o rte rs believed th e p ro v is io n w o u ld m ake th e In d ia n s less s u s c e p tib le to p re s s u re fro m la n d -h u n g ry w h ite s to se ll th e ir la n d s. D u rin g th e tw e n ty -fiv e years, th e fe d e ra l g o v e rn m e n t w o u ld h o ld th e la n d s in tr u s t fo r th e b e n e fit o f th e In d ia n and h is h e irs, and w h ite s c o u ld n o t to u c h th e lands. A fte r the tru s t period expired, th e governm ent w o u ld issue th e la n d in fee sim p le.50 A m azingly, th e In d ia n s them selves co m p la in e d th e lo u d e s t a b o u t th e p rote ctive fe a tu re s o f th e Dawes A ct.

166 147 W om en, ch ild re n, the disabled, stu d e n ts aw ay a t school, and o th e rs were u n a b le to b e n e fit fro m th e ir la n d s because th e y c o u ld n o t fa rm th e ir h o ld in g s o r lease th e m to w h ite s fo r re n ta l paym ents. Even able-bodied In d ia n s h a d no d ra ft a n im a ls o r fa rm tools w h ic h w o u ld have allow ed th e m to use th e ir la n d effectively, n o r co u ld th e y seek lo a n s u s in g th e a llo tm e n ts as c o lla te ra l w h ile th e la n d w as u n d e r tr u s t s ta tu s. The tw e n ty -fiv e year tru s t period represented a generation d u rin g w h ic h tim e m a n y In d ia n s w o u ld receive no real gain fro m the p ro p e rty h e ld on th e ir b e h a lf. Since the g o vernm ent had the o p tio n to extend th e tr u s t period, th e In d ia n s m u s t have w ondered w h e th e r th e y w o u ld ever receive a n y b e n e fit fro m th e ir a llo tm e n ts. T h e In d ia n s, a n d even som e h u m a n ita ria n s, soon argued th a t th e re cip ie n ts sh o u ld be able to lease a p o rtio n o f th e ir la n d so th a t th e y could b u y the tools th e y needed to fa rm th e b a la n ce o f th e ir p ro p e rty, o r in the case o f needy In d ia n s, th a t th e y c o u ld s u b s is t on th e in co m e. Besides, i f th e p o in t o f a llo tm e n t in s e v e ra lty w as to p ro m o te re s p o n s ib ility a n d c iv iliz a tio n a m o n g th e In d ia n s, th e n the In d ia n s sh o u ld have the rig h t to m ake decisions a b o u t th e b e s t use th e ir o w n la n d s. The d e c is io n -m a k in g process, it w as argued, w o u ld help the In d ia n s move along the p a th to m a tu rity.51 S e n a to r Dawes w as one o f th e few c h a m p io n s o f th e D aw es A c t w h o opposed the leasing schem e, fo r he fe lt th a t i f th e In d ia n s were able to d ra w in co m e fro m th e la n d, th e y w o u ld be less in c lin e d to w o rk it them selves. On F e b ru a ry 28, 1891, Congress approved th e le asing o f the In d ia n a llo tm e n ts, w ith th e safeguard th a t th e S e cre ta ry o f th e In te rio r h a d to a p prove a ll le a s in g re q u e sts. P ro p o n e n ts b e lie ve d th a t th e re s tric tio n w o u ld p re v e n t u n m a n a g e d leasing. S u c h o p tim is m w as u n fo u n d e d, fo r b y 1893, the S ecretary o f the In te rio r h a d delegated th e le a s in g d e cisio n s to h is lo ca l agents w ho w ere v u ln e ra b le to p re s s u re fro m w h ite s w ho w ish e d to fa rm th e a llo tte d la n d s. In th e fo llo w in g years, leasing became a w idespread practice, w ith in cre a sin g n u m b e rs o f In d ia n s choosing n o t to w o rk th e la n d them selves. Leasing u n d e rm in e d th e p rim a ry goal o f th e Dawes A c t to encourage th e In d ia n s to becom e e co n o m ica lly se lf-supportin g, and it assured th a t m o st In d ia n s w o u ld sell th e ir la n d s w h e n th e tw e n ty-five year tru s t period was o v e r. 52

167 148 The Dawes A c t failed to achieve its in te n d e d goals o f tra n s fo rm in g th e In d ia n s in to s e lf-s u p p o rtin g farm ers and a s s im ila tin g th e m in to w h ite s o c ie ty. In s te a d, th e In d ia n s s o ld th e ir la n d s a n d b e ca m e m o re d e p e n dent th a n ever on governm ent subsidies fo r th e ir s u rv iv a l. H ad th e e astern h u m a n ita ria n s and p o litic ia n s, w ho so e n th u s ia s tic a lly p rom o te d th e Dawes A ct, a c tu a lly stu d ie d the h is to ry o f a llo tm e n t in se ve ra lty fro m th e tim e o f P resident Jefferson to th e ir ow n day, th e y m ig h t have realized th a t th e p ro g ra m faced d is m a l odds fo r success. Past experience h a d s h o w n th a t a llo tm e n t in se veralty d id n o t w o rk, and n o w h e re w as th a t m ore e vid e n t th a n in the experience o f the N em aha H a lf-b reed T ra c t.

168 149 ENDNOTES LESSONS NOT LEARNED 1 Lew is C. E dw ards, H is to ry o f R ich a rd son C o u n ty. N ebraska: Its People. In d u s trie s a n d In s titu tio n s. 2 vols. (In d ia n a p o lis : B. F. B ow en and C om pany, Inc., 1917), 1:105. ^ R a y H. M a ttis o n, "J o h n Pierre C abannc," in The M o u n ta in M en a n d th e F u r T rade o f th e F a r W e st, ed. Le R oy R. H a fe n, 10 vo ls. (G le n d a le, C a lifo rn ia : A r th u r H. C la rk C o m p a n y, 1965), 2 : ; E d w a rd s, R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1: ^E d w a rd s, R ich a rd son C o u n tv. 1: ^ B e r lin B. C h a p m a n, "The N em aha H a lf-b re e d R e s e rv a tio n," N e braska H is to ry 38 (M arch 1957): j. H. D u n d a s, G ra n g e r H is to ry o f N em aha C o u n ty (A u b u rn, N ebraska: B y the A u th o r, 1902), 39. The same in fo rm a tio n is co n ta in e d in th e N ebraska State P arks C o m m ission b ro ch u re fo r In d ia n Cave State P a rk, th o u g h the o rig in a l source seems to have been th e a c c o u n t b y D u n d a s. ^ C h a rle s O. Snow, "H is to ry o f the H a lf-b re e d T ra c t," N ebraska H is to ry 16 (M arch 1935): 44-47; D undas, Nem aha C o u n tv. 39. ^C h a p m a n, "The Nem aha H alf-b reed R eservation," j. S te rlin g M o rto n a n d A lb e rt W a tk in s, Illu s tra te d H is to ry o f N e b ra s k a. 3 vols. (Lincoln, N ebraska: Jacob N o rth and C om pany, 1907), 2 : ; A. T. A n d re a s, H is to ry o f The S tate o f N e b ra s k a. 2 vols. (Chicago: The W estern H is to ric a l Co., 1882), 2: A n d re a s, H is to ry o f N e b ra s k a. 2 : ; M o rto n a n d W a tk in s, Illu s tra te d H is to ry o f N e b ra ska. 2 : ; S am uel A llis, "F o rty Years A m o n g th e In d ia n s a n d on th e E a s te rn B o rd e rs o f N e b ra s k a," T ra n s a c tio n s a n d R e p o rts o f th e N e b ra ska S ta te H is to ric a l S o cie ty (L in coln, N ebraska: N ebraska State H is to ric a l Society, 1887), 2 : ; A la n C. T ro ttm a n, "Lucien Fontenelle," in The M o u n ta in M en and the F u r T ra d e o f th e F a r W e st. 5 ; ; N ebraska A d v e rtis e r (B ro w n v ille ), 30 D ecem ber 1858; 26 M a y 1859.

169 150 lo A n d re a s, H is to ry o f N e b ra ska. 2 : ; M o rto n a n d W a tk in s, Illu s tra te d H is to ry o f N e b ra ska. 2 : ; C h a p m a n, "The N e m a ha H a lf-b reed R eservation," 16; N ebraska A d v e rtis e r. 17 J u n e M a ri Sandoz, "Some o f th e T a ll Tales o f N e b raska," N e b ra s k a H is to r y 24 (M a rch 1943): ; Louise P ound, "N e b ra ska 's A n to in e B a ra d a A gain," N ebraska H is to ry 30 (December 1949): l^ P o u n d, "N ebraska's A n to in e B a ra d a A g a in," ; E d w a rd s, R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1: l^ P o u n d, "N ebraska's A n to in e B a ra d a A g a in," ; E d w a rd s, R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1: , l^ L in c o ln, N ebraska, N ebraska S tate H is to ric a l S ociety A rch ive s, P ilc h e r F a m ily, M S 1352; R ay H. M a ttis o n, "J o s h u a P ilc h e r," in The M o u n ta in M en and the F u r Trade o f the F a r W est. 4 : ; R ich a rd E. O glesby, M a n u e l L is a a n d th e O p e n in g o f th e M is s o u ri F u r T ra d e (N orm an: U n iv e rs ity o f O kla h o m a Press, 1963), l^ L e Roy R. H afen, ed., The M o u n ta in M en and th e F u r T ra d e o f th e F a r W e s t. 1: , , 4:290, 9:3 1 5 ; E d w a rd s, R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1:578. l^ E d w a rd s, R ichardson C o u n ty. 1: E dw ards. R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1:712. f ^E d w a rd s, R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1: , *9 p a u l D. R iley, "J o h n B. D id ie r," in The M o u n ta in M en and th e F u r T ra d e o f th e F a r W e s t. 9 : ; E dw ards, R ic h a rd s o n C o u n ty. 2 ; ^ E d w a r d s, R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1: le d w a rd s, R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1: , E dw ards. R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1: ^E d w a rd s, R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1: , ^ H a fe n, The M o u n ta in M en and th e F u r Trade o f th e F a r W e s t. 6 :3 8 1, 4:261; M e rrill J. M attes, "Joseph R obidoux," in The M o u n ta in M en

170 151 a n d th e F u r T rade o f th e F a r W e s t. 8 : ; E d w a rd s. R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1: ^^E d w a rd s, R ichardson C o u n ty. 1: , 2 : c h a p m a n, "The N em aha H alf-b reed R eservation," L in c o ln, N ebraska, N ebraska S tate H is to ric a l S o ciety A rch ive s, H a lf-b re e d T ra ct, M S H a lf-b re e d T ra ct, M S l. Q. S m ith to S e n a to r P. W. H itc h c o c k, U n d a te d, H a lf-b re e d T ra c t, M S 726, N e b ra ska S tate H is to ric a l S o cie ty A rc h iv e s, L in c o ln, N ebraska. 3 0 H a lf-b re e d T ra ct, M S H a lf-b re e d T ra c t, M S 726: H afen, The M o u n ta in M en a n d th e F u r Trade o f th e F a r W est. 8 : , 311; H a rrie t D. M u n n ic k, "Pierre D o rio n," in The M o u n ta in M en and th e F u r Trade o f th e F a r W e st. 8 : ; M a tte s, "Joseph R o b id o u x," in The M o u n ta in M e n a n d th e F u r T ra d e o f th e F a r W est. 8: E dw ards, R ichardson C o u n ty. 1:190, E dw ards, R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1: c h a p m a n, "The N em aha H alf-b reed R eservation," ]yio rto n a n d W a tk in s, Illu s tra te d H is to ry o f N e b ra s k a. 2 :7 0 6 ; E d w a rd s, R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 2: , M o rto n a n d W a tk in s, Illu s tra te d H is to ry o f N e b ra s k a. 2 :7 0 6 ; E d w a rd s, R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1:644, 2 : , M o rto n and W a tkin s, Illu s tra te d H is to ry o f N e b raska. 2: N em aha V a lie v J o u rn a l (Falls C ity, Nebr.), 21 J a n u a ry 1869, p. 2, c M o rto n a n d W a tk in s, Illu s tra te d H is to ry o f N e b ra s k a. 2 :7 6 0 ; E d w a rd s, R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1:140.

171 E dw ards, R ich a rd son C o u n tv. 1: , 2 : E dw ards, R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1: , 2 : ^E d w a rd s. R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1: E dw ards, R ich a rd son C o u n ty. 1: F ra n c is P a u l P ru ch a, The G re a t F a th e r: T he U n ite d S ta te s G o v e rn m e n t a n d th e A m e ric a n In d ia n. 2 vols. (L in coln : U n iv e rs ity o f N e braska Press, 1984), 2: c h a rle s j. K appler, ed., In d ia n A ffairs: Laws and T re a tie s. 5 vols. (W a sh in gto n : G o ve rn m e n t P rin tin g O ffice, 1904; re p rin t ed., New Y o rk: A M S Press, Inc., 1971), 1: ; Prucha, The G reat F a th e r. 2 : p ru c ha, The G reat F a th e r. 2 : u. S., S ta tu te s a t Large. 2 4 : ; P rucha, The G reat F a th e r. 2 : Spru c ha, The G reat F a th e r. 2: p ru c h a, The G reat F a th e r. 2 : SO pm cha, The G reat F a th e r. 2:668, P rucha, The G reat F a th e r. 2: u. S., S ta tu te s a t Large. 2 6 : ; P rucha, The G reat F a th e r. 2 :

172 153 CONCLUSIONS: FR O M 1857 TO TO DAY W h a t w o u ld be the response to d a y i f th e C o m m is s io n e r o f In d ia n A ffa irs w ere c a u g h t d e fra u d in g the In d ia n s? No d o u b t th e re w o u ld be in te n s e new s coverage, a h u g e p u b lic o u tc ry, a n d a g o v e rn m e n t in v e s tig a tio n c u lm in a tin g in th a t o ffic ia l's d is m is s a l. A n a n a lo g o u s s itu a tio n arose in 1991, w h e n, d u rin g Senate c o n firm a tio n h e a rin g s, A n ita H ill accused S uprem e C o u rt nom inee C larence T h o m a s o f se xu a l m is c o n d u c t w h ile he w as D ire c to r o f the E q u a l E m p lo y m e n t O p p o rtu n ity C o m m issio n. The a n a lo g y stem s fro m th e fa c t th a t th e g o ve rn m e n t's c h ie f e n fo rce m e n t o ffic ia l a g a in s t sexu a l h a ra s s m e n t in th e w o rk p la c e allegedly w o u ld be g u ilty o f the ve ry m is c o n d u c t th a t he w as a p p o in te d to e lim in a te. In 1857, Ja m es W. D enver abused h is p o s itio n as In d ia n C o m m is s io n e r to h e lp associates b u y H alf-b reed T ra c t la n d and, in the process, h u r t th e people he w as a p p ointed to p rote ct. H is agent a llo tte d th e b e s t p ro p e rtie s to m ixed-b lo o d s w h o had agreed in advance to sell th e ir la n d b a c k to th e co m m issio n e r's g roup. D e n ve r's a c tio n s w ere u n e th ic a l and ille g a l since he used h is in flu e n ce to p e rs o n a lly b e n e fit a t th e expense o f m ix e d -b lo o d s w h o received in fe rio r la n d, a n d w h ite s e ttle rs w h o w ere d e n ie d th e o p p o rtu n ity to b u y th o se sam e choice p ro p e rtie s. The im p ro p rie ty o f th e a llo tm e n t process on th e H a lf-b re e d T ra c t w as recognized b y o th e r w h ite landseekers w h o g roused th a t th e y w ere n o t p a rt o f th e dealings, th o u g h th e y blam ed th e agent W illia m M. S ta rk in s te a d o f D enver w h o otherw ise received e xce lle n t review s in th e lo c a l new spapers fo r h is w o rk as co m m issio n e r. D e n ve r's m is c o n d u c t a p p e a rs in c o n g ru o u s w h e n h is p u b lic life is e x a m in e d as a w h o le, e s p e c ia lly h is service as th e te rrito ria l gove rn o r o f "B le e d in g K a n sa s" w h e re he helped to re sto re o rd e r a t th e ris k o f h is ow n life. P erhaps a c o m b in a tio n o f greatness and p ettiness w as ty p ic a l o f D enver. O n th e H a lf-b re ed T ra c t, a llo tm e n t in se ve ra lty fa ile d to p ro m o te th e a s s im ila tio n o f th e m ixed-b lo o d s because th e y w ere n e ve r p ro vid e d th e tra in in g, to o ls a n d s u p p lie s th a t w o u ld have p e rm itte d th e m to

173 154 succeed as fa rm e rs; a n d th e y were b u rd e n e d b y taxes once th e y received title to th e ir la n d s. F ro m the allottee's p o in t o f view, it m ade sense to sell h is p ro p e rty q u ic k ly to th e w h ite s w ho were cla m o rin g to b u y it. W ith o u t in te n d in g to do so, C ongress had created a perfect e n v iro n m e n t fo r la n d sp e cu la tio n. I f C ongress had held the la n d in tr u s t fo r tw e n ty -fiv e years, le ft it u n ta x e d, a n d h e lp e d th e a llo tte e s b u y to o ls a n d s u p p lie s, th e m ix e d -b lo o d s p ro b a b ly c o u ld have m ade th e tra n s itio n to a s e ttle d life s ty le. W h e n C ongress passed th e D aw es S e v e ra lty A c t (G eneral A llo tm e n t A ct) in 1887 w h ic h d id in c lu d e th e tr u s t fe a tu re, a llo tm e n t fa ile d to p ro m o te a s s im ila tio n because Congress p e rm itte d th e a llo tte e s to lease th e ir la n d s, th e re b y d e stro yin g th e in c e n tiv e fo r th e In d ia n s to fa rm, since th e y c o u ld g a in incom e th ro u g h leasing, and g iv in g w h ite s access to th e la n d. The D awes A c t w as th e c u lm in a tio n o f a lm o s t a c e n tu ry o f im p le m e n tin g the failed p o lic y o f a llo tm e n t in severalty. These repeated fa ilu re s c a ll in to q u e stio n th e g o vern m e n t's e n tire p o lic y o f a s s im ila tio n, fo r Congress ty p ic a lly u n d e re stim a te d th e c u ltu ra l obstacles face b y th e In d ia n s w ho were expected to a d o p t w h ite c u ltu re. W h ile th e re fo rm ers so u g h t to a c c u ltu ra te th e In d ia n s so th a t th e y w o u ld b le n d in to s o c ie ty fo r th e ir ow n p ro te c tio n, th e y la c k e d th e k in d o f respect fo r th e In d ia n s th a t w o u ld have allow ed th e n atives to m a ke th e ir o w n choices. The " c u ltu ra l im p e ria lis ts " p resu m e d to m a ke im p o rta n t decisio n s fo r th e In d ia n s, tre a tin g th e m as i f th e y w ere c h ild re n, o r cla y to be m olded. A t th e ir a n n u a l conferences a t Lake M o h o n k, th e "social engineers" resolved to b rin g a b o u t th e d is in te g ra tio n o f trib e s, to educate In d ia n c h ild re n in w h ite s u b je c ts, to p ro v id e C h ris tia n m o ra l a n d re lig io u s tra in in g, and to p rom o te E n g lis h as th e language o f necessity. These w ere d ra s tic social changes th a t were th ru s t u p o n th e beleaguered In d ia n s. The u n d e rly in g re a lity w as th a t th e re fo rm e rs co n sid e re d th e In d ia n s to be savages w ho, because th e y possessed som e re d e e m in g q u a litie s, m ig h t be re h a b ilita te d. T he a ttitu d e w a s n o t u n lik e th e p a te rn a lis m so p re v a le n t d u rin g th e p re s id e n c y o f A n d re w J a c k s o n. In ste a d o f re m o vin g th e In d ia n s fu rth e r w e st "fo r th e ir o w n good," th e la te r re fo rm e rs w a n te d to tra n s fo rm th e m so th a t th e y m ig h t m e ld in to w h ite society. P erhaps a b e tte r goal w o u ld have been fo r th e fe d e ra l

174 155 g o v e rn m e n t to h o n o r its tre a ty c o m m itm e n ts a n d p ro te c t N a tive A m e ric a n s on re serva tio n s h e ld in com m on o r d iv id e d in to p ro te cte d p a rc e ls o f la n d fo r those tr ib a l m em bers w h o w is h e d to o w n th e m in d iv id u a lly. Because o f the horre n d o u s re sults o f a llo tm e n t in se ve ra lty and the o th e r re fo rm s, it is te m p tin g to disregard the re fo rm ers as w e ll-m e a n in g b u t im p ra c tic a l id e a lis ts. G iven th e c u ltu ra l c la sh a n d th e p re v a le n t a ttitu d e s in w h ite society, it m a y even have been im p o s s ib le to achieve b e n e fic ia l re s u lts fo r N ative A m e ricans. I f so, th e re fo rm e rs m a y have been the tru e re a lis ts a fte r a ll. They u n d erstood th a t w ith o u t som e type o f in te rv e n tio n th e In d ia n s w ere b o u n d to lose th e ir la n d a n d p o s s ib ly t h e ir liv e s. C o m p le te a c c u ltu ra tio n o f th e In d ia n s m a y have d e m o n s tra te d th e re fo rm e rs ' la c k o f re spect fo r th e In d ia n s, b u t it u n d o u b te d ly seemed th e o n ly s o lu tio n to th e re a litie s o f th e tim e s. The lo ss o f a llo tte d la n d seem s to have been in e v ita b le, fo r h o w c o u ld w eakened a n d dem oralized In d ia n s have prevented b e in g overw helm ed b y aggressive w h ite s. W h ile C ongress a n d th e re fo rm e rs a tte m p te d to rescue th e In d ia n s, b o th groups assum ed th e in fe rio rity o f these "w ards o f th e n a tio n." A llo tm e n t in se ve ra lty sh o u ld n o t be viewed as a n iso la te d p o licy, b u t as one o f several m a jo r effo rts to a ssim ila te N ative A m e ric a n s in to w h ite society. N or d id a tte m p ts a t a ssim ila tio n end w ith th e fa ilu re o f the D aw es A c t. T h ro u g h o u t A m e ric a n h is to ry, w h ite a ttitu d e s to w a rd In d ia n s have ranged fro m T o lera tio n o f trib a l sovereignty to c o n te m p t fo r it. F o llo w in g W o rld W a r II, a c o a litio n o f u n lik e ly p a rtn e rs p ro m o te d a s s im ila tio n as th e s o lu tio n fo r the "In d ia n p ro b le m." L ib e ra l re fo rm ers a tta c k e d th e existence o f re serva tio n s as p a rt o f a b ro a d e r ca m p a ig n a g a in s t ra c ia l segregation w ith in society. P o litical conservatives favored a s s im ila tio n as th e m eans to end the federal governm ent's expensive and d iffic u lt in v o lv e m e n t w ith trib e s. D evelopers hoped to a c q u ire trib a l la n d s fo r p riv a te and co m m e rcia l use. A ll th re e g ro u p s belie ve d th a t a s s im ila tio n w o u ld solve the "In d ia n p ro b le m." The s p e c ific p ro g ra m s th a t these diverse groups came to s u p p o rt were k n o w n as co m pensation, te rm in a tio n and re lo c a tio n.1

175 156 C o m p e n sa tio n w as an a tte m p t to settle trib a l cla im s a g a in s t th e U n ite d S tates g o ve rn m e n t th ro u g h th e p a ym e n t o f fu n d s d e te rm in e d b y th e In d ia n C la im s C o m m issio n, w h ic h C ongress e s ta b lis h e d in The c o m m is s io n w as a th re e -p e rs o n b o a rd w h ic h co n s id e re d c la im s a ris in g p rio r to T rib a l leaders had u n til th e end o f 1951 to file th e ir claim s, a n d C ongress set a te n -ye a r p e riod to fo llo w d u rin g w h ic h th e co m m issio n w as to com plete its task. To m a n y w h ite A m e rica n s, fo r w h o m th e d o lla r w as th e s ta n d a rd m e a s u re o f v a lu e, m o n e ta ry co m pensa tio n seemed the logical w ay to repay In d ia n s fo r th e losses th e ir people h a d su ffe re d over th e p re vio u s 170 years. Y et m o s t In d ia n s considered th e re tu rn o f th e ir la n d s to be the o n ly ju s t co m pensa tio n, fo r la n d h a d been th e b a sis fo r th e ir fo rm e r w a y o f life, a n d m o s t h e ld a sa cre d a tta c h m e n t to w a rd it. As u s u a l, th e p o litic ia n s fa ile d to u n d e rs ta n d th e c u ltu r a l d iffe re n c e s c o n fro n tin g th e m, a n d th e ir co m p e n sa tio n p o licies re sulte d in h a rm fu l consequences fo r th e In d ia n s. W h ile each trib e h a d to dem onstrate "exclusive occupancy" o f th e la n d fo r w h ic h th e y s o u g h t co m pensa tio n, th e J u s tic e D e p a rtm e n t a tte m p te d to m in im iz e p a y m e n ts to th e trib e s b y a tta c h in g lo w v a lu e s to th e la n d. W ith in th e trib e s them selves, d iffe re n t fa c tio n s fo u g h t a b o u t h o w to spend th e com pensation m oney. 2 A n o th e r exam ple o f a s s im ila tio n is t s e n tim e n t w as th e te rm in a tio n m o vem e n t o f th e la te 1940s a n d 1950s. Since th e rem oval p e rio d o f the 1830s, p o litic ia n s h a d com e to v ie w In d ia n s as w a rd s o f th e U n ite d S tates governm ent. A s th e governm ent's p a te rn a lis tic re la tio n s h ip grew, so d id the size and th e costs o f th e b u re a u cra cy th a t a d m in is te re d In d ia n a ffa irs. The p o s t-w o rld W a r II a s s im ila tio n is ts w a n te d to end th e ro le o f th e federal governm ent, to dissolve trib a l sovereignty, and to in d iv id u a liz e th e N ative A m e ric a n s. "T e rm in a tio n " encom passed th e e ffo rts to end tre a ty o b lig a tio n s to th e trib e s, settle trib a l cla im s, c u t th e flo w o f fu n d s a n d services to th e trib e s, and to open trib a l la n d s to o u ts id e b u ye rs. B e g in n in g in 1946, C ongress co n sid e re d te rm in a tio n le g is la tio n o n a trib e -b y -trib e b a sis, F o u r years la te r, C o m m issio n e r o f In d ia n A ffa irs D illo n S. M y e r su p p re sse d tr ib a l c u ltu re on re s e rv a tio n s, sch e d u le d trib e s fo r te rm in a tio n, and prom oted the re lo catio n o f in d iv id u a ls in to th e

176 157 citie s. B y e n d in g services or tra n s fe rrin g th e m to the sta te s, th e fe d e ra l g o v e rn m e n t s o u g h t to force In d ia n s to a d o p t th e life s ty le s o f w h ite A m e rica n s. D u rin g the 1950s, te rm in a tio n efforts cost trib e s n u m e ro u s c u ltu ra l, e d u c a tio n a l, and eco n o m ic p ro g ra m s. W h e n C o ngress c u t fu n d in g fo r selected re serva tio n schools, In d ia n c h ild re n w ere forced to a tte n d p u b lic schools, som e a t g re a t dista n ce s, w h e re th e y w o u ld be e xposed to w h ite c u ltu re. A fte r C ongress re m o ve d fe d e ra l tr u s t p ro te c tio n over trib a l m in e ra l rig h ts, trib a l m em bers d ivided over w h e th e r to se ll o r lease th e n e w ly-a vaila b le la n d s. T e rm in a tio n re s u lte d in th e loss o f re s e rv a tio n la n d, fa c tio n a lis m w ith in th e trib e s, a n d in cre a se d m ig ra tio n o f In d ia n s to cities w here, w ith o u t e d u ca tio n o r jo b s k ills, th e y s a n k in to desperate poverty. Iro n ic a lly, th e federal g o v e rn m e n t sp e n t m o re m o n e y s u p p o rtin g n e w in d iv id u a ls on w e lfa re a n d o th e r socia l p ro g ra m s th a n i t h a d p re v io u s ly s p e n t on tr ib a l se rvice s p r io r to te rm in a tio n, and In d ia n s s till re m a in e d isolated s o c ia lly on re serva tio n s a n d in u rb a n ghettoes. In s h o rt, co m p e n sa tio n, te rm in a tio n, a n d re lo c a tio n fa ile d to b rin g In d ia n s in to m a in s tre a m society a n d le ft th e m w ith even greater h a rd s h ip s.3 The h is to ry o f th e N em aha H a lf-b re e d T ra c t a n d a llo tm e n t in seve ra lty c a rry im p o rta n t lessons fo r today, fo r an "In d ia n p ro b le m " s till e x is ts in a s m u c h as N a tive A m e ric a n s re m a in im p o v e ris h e d a n d m a rg in a liz e d. A t th e sam e tim e, th o u s a n d s o f n e w im m ig ra n ts fro m diverse c u ltu re s come to th e U n ite d States each year and face a s im ila r re a lity. The a tte m p t to absorb and a c c u ltu ra te these people appears in n u m e ro u s fo rm s, in c lu d in g new state law s th a t re q u ire E n g lis h as th e o ffic ia l language. W h a t s h o u ld th e g o ve rn m e n t p o lic y be to w a rd these people? S h o u ld th e governm ent a tte m p t to a c c u ltu ra te these new com ers o r leave th e m alone? The experience on the H a lf-b re ed T ra c t suggests th a t th e d e cisio n s h o u ld be le ft to th e people and n o t th e g o ve rn m e n t. W h e n th e g o ve rn m e n t dem ands a c c u ltu ra tio n, th e im p lic it m essage is th a t A m e ric a n c u ltu re is s u p e rio r to fo re ig n c u ltu re s, a n d in som e s itu a tio n s, th a t A m e rica n in d iv id u a ls are s u p e rio r to fo re ig n in d iv id u a ls. Like th e ir n in e te e n th c e n tu ry predecessors, th e re fo rm ers o f to d a y argue th a t to re q u ire change is b e st fo r society and fo r those in d iv id u a ls w ho

177 158 are expected to change. T h is concept o f forced c u ltu ra l h o m o g e n iza tio n is a s u rp ris in g a ttitu d e in a society p o rtra y e d as diverse a n d to le ra n t. Forced a c c u ltu ra tio n, w ith its dem and fo r u n ifo rm ity in s te a d o f u n ity - d e sp ite -d ive rsity, is th e denia l o f the m e ltin g p o t ideal. H is to ry also show s th a t forced a c c u ltu ra tio n is n o t v e ry effective since th e ta rg e te d peoples te n d to re s is t it. N or w o u ld n e w in c e n tiv e s change th is p o s itio n unless the people firs t approved o f th e changes th e y were being asked to m ake. The decision to change o r to re m a in th e same s h o u ld re s t w ith the people, and the p o s itio n o f th e g o ve rn m e n t s h o u ld be to fa c ilita te a c c u ltu ra tio n to the exte n t th a t it is desired b y th e people. W hatever the approach, it m u s t be b u ilt u p o n a fo u n d a tio n o f respect fo r th e people to w h o m it is directed. It fs h a rd to im agine a n y th in g u s e fu l a ris in g fro m w h ite A m e ric a n s d ic ta tin g change to In d ia n s a n d n e w im m ig ra n ts. The h is to ry o f th e H alf-b reed T ra c t illu s tra te s the fo lly o f a llo tm e n t a n d i t also c la rifie s th e m isconceptions a b o u t the process its e lf. T h o u g h th e m ixed-b lo o d s sold th e ir la n d s q u ic k ly, th e y d id n o t n e ce ssa rily leave th e a rea w ith th e sam e speed. Since tw o -th ird s o f a ll a llo tte e s w ere c h ild re n, th e y u n d o u b te d ly stayed w ith th e ir p a re n ts o r g u a rd ia n s a fte r th e a llo tm e n ts and sales were made. W hile no com plete s ta tis tic a l s tu d y h a s been done, it appears th a t those m ixe d -b lo o d s a lre a d y liv in g in th e area g e n e ra lly stayed there, w h ile some new com ers sold th e ir p ro p e rtie s a n d le ft. A n u n fo rtu n a te related idea is th a t the m ixe d -b lo o d s w ere too ig n o ra n t to h o ld onto th e va lu a b le la n d th a t th e g o vernm ent h a d a llo tte d to th e m. In tr u th, th e re w as little in c e n tiv e to settle and fa rm th e ir n e w ly -a c q u ire d la n d, and, w h e n faced w ith th e a d d itio n a l ta x b u rd e n, i t w as q u ite reasonable fo r th e m ixe d -b lo o d s to sell th e ir la n d q u ic k ly fo r th e best p rice th e y co u ld get u n d e r th e circu m sta n ce s. C e rta in ly L o u is Neal, Jo se p h D e ro in and o thers were in te llig e n t m en w ho recognized the va lu e o f th e ir a llo tm e n ts. M a n y lo c a l people to d a y believe th a t th e m ix e d -b lo o d s g e n e ra lly live d lik e th e se m i-n o m a d ic P lains In d ia n s. The a llo tm e n t lis t, how ever, co n ta in s m ore n o n -In d ia n th a n In d ia n nam es, and available b io g ra p h ic a l in fo rm a tio n suggests th a t m a n y o f these people h a d a d o p te d w h ite

178 159 life style s. O f course it w as m ore lik e ly fo r b ib lio g ra p h ie s to be w ritte n a b o u t those a llo tte e s w h o h a d adopted w h ite c u ltu re a n d stayed in the area th a n those w ho d id not. Yet even the In d ia n trib e s fro m w h ic h m o st o f th e m ix e d -b lo o d s cam e th e O m ahas, O toes, a n d Iow as w ere them selves a d o p tin g w h ite w ays d u rin g th e 1850s. Som e w rite rs have suggested th a t th e in c lu s io n o f th e m ixed-bloods in th e T re a ty o f P ra irie d u C h ie n represented concern b y the v a rio u s trib e s fo r these people. It m a y have been to a c e rta in extent, b u t i t also p ro vid e d th e m eans b y w h ic h th e fu ll-b lo o d m e m b e rs o f th e trib e s ended th e ir fin a n c ia l re s p o n s ib ility fo r th e m ixed-bloods. It seems lik e ly th a t b y p e rs u a d in g th e g o ve rn m e n t to m ake separate p ro v is io n s fo r th e m ix e d -b lo o d s, th e fu ll-b lo o d s d id n o t have to sh a re th e ir a n n u ity p a y m e n ts a n d o th e r b e n e fits w ith them. C o n te m p o ra ry new spapers contended th a t eastern sp e cu la to rs, the "la n d sh a rks," b o u g h t m o s t o f th e reservation la n d. In fa ct, som e o f th e biggest buye rs, s u c h as Jam es D enver, B en H o lla d a y, Ja m es C ra ig and S te p h e n N u c k o lls, w ere w e ll-e s ta b lis h e d w e s te rn m en. T h e evidence a g a in s t D enver is m o re c irc u m s ta n tia l th a n d ire ct. B y them se lve s, th e co m m e n ts b y D a n ie l Reavis in th e F a lls C ity J o u rn a l are in s u ffic ie n t to prove g u ilt because he w as n o t a d ire c t w itn e ss. He w as re la tin g sto ries a b o u t th e H a lf-b re e d T ra c t as to ld to h im b y h is fa th e r, J u d g e Is h a m Reavis, w ho, th o u g h in a p o s itio n to know, m ig h t have been ju s t passing on stories th a t he had heard and n o t w itnessed. Besides, D a n ie l Reavis's ^ n e w sp a p e r sto rie s w ere w ritte n in 1934, seventy-seven years a fte r th e e vents o ccu rre d, a n d c e rta in ly lo n g e n o u g h a fte r th e events fo r th e sto ries to have been exaggerated o r altered. Yet th e p reponderance o f th e evidence does in d ic a te D enver s in vo lve m ent in a s m u c h as he w as on the H a lf-b re e d T ra c t to in s p e c t th e la n d ; h is fa th e r-in -la w, M a tth e w R om bach, b o u g h t th e choicest la n d im m e d ia te ly afte r D e n ve r s v is it; and m a n y m ix e d -b lo o d s sold la n d to R om bach on th e sam e d a y as th e y received it. C om m ents m ade b y A s p in w a ll re sid ents F. L. W oodw ard and E d W iesenreder in d ic a te th a t it w as co m m o n ly k n o w n th a t D enver h a d a s tro n g fin a n c ia l in te re s t in the p ro p e rty th a t R om bach h e ld there.

179 160 The h is to ry o f th e N em aha H alf-b reed T ra c t is fa s c in a tin g because o f th e in trig u e th a t s u rro u n d e d the a llo tm e n t o f la n d a n d because o f the im p o rta n t m en, b o th w h ite and o f m ixed-blood, w ho p a rtic ip a te d in those events. It is hoped th a t the e xp o sitio n o f th e s to ry w ill encourage th e people o f s o u th e a s te rn N e b raska to take a second lo o k a t th e events o f th e ir ow n area and ask new questions o f the past.

180 161 ENDNOTES FROM 1857 TO TO DAY 1 Jam es S. O lson and R aym ond W ilso n, N ative A m e ric a n s in th e T w e n tie th C e n tu ry (U rbana: U n iv e rs ity o f Illin o is Press, 1984), ^ O ls o n a n d W ilso n, N ative A m e rica n s in th e T w e n tie th C e n tu ry ^ O ls o n a n d W ilso n, N ative A m e rica n s in th e T w e n tie th C e n tu ry

181 M NEMAHA COUNTY NEBRASKA OD NOCMMOT 'H I

182 SCSfpHSCS pssjcss vtm> ' V J fr? - u s s t o : r w t k M q n u im i^ r S f^ 1 SFWSs.Uftt.T wsmj S S i i i : m*. tt.^v J- irraa.s't um>^i 9&TO& t* * RICHARDSON COUNTY N E B R A S K A I» UJ2. c ST*p* cl. c w? saffinr y***' yffll

183 162 SELECTED BIBLIO G R APHY M ANUSCRIPTS D enver C ollection. W estern H is to ry C ollections. U n iv e rs ity o f O klahom a. N orm an, O klahom a. H a lf-b re ed T ra c t C ollection. N ebraska State H is to ric a l Society. L in co ln, N ebraska. M S 726. N u cko lls F a m ily C ollection. N ebraska State H is to ric a l Society. L in co ln, N ebraska. M S 567. P ilch e r F a m ily C ollection. N ebraska State H is to ric a l Society. L in co ln, N ebraska. M S M a tth e w R om bach Papers. C lin to n C o u n ty H is to ric a l Society. W ilm in g to n, O hio. L u lu N u cko lls W esner C ollection. N ebraska State H is to ric a l Society. L in co ln, N ebraska. M S 570. G O VERNM ENT DOCUM ENTS "Trade a n d In te rco u rse A ct." S ta tu te s a t Large, vol. 1 (1790). "E s ta b lis h m e n t o f G overnm ent T ra d in g Houses." S ta tu te s a t Large, vol. 1 (1796). "Trade a n d In te rco u rse A ct." S tatutes a t Large, vol. 2 (1802). "A ct fo r R e g u la tin g the In d ia n Trade." S ta tu te s a t Large, vol. 2 (1822). "T reaty o f P ra irie du C hien." S ta tu te s a t Large, vol. 3 (1830). "Trade a n d In te rco u rse A ct." S ta tu te s a t Large, vol. 4 (1834). "O fficers o f In d ia n A ffa irs; T h e ir D u tie s and C om pensation." Revised S ta tu te s o f th e U n ite d S tates. C. 162, s. 2078, v. 14 (1834). "An A c t M a k in g A p p ro p ria tio n s fo r C u rre n t and C o n tin g e n t Expenses o f th e In d ia n D e p a rtm e n t fo r the Year E n d in g the 3 0 th o f J u n e, 1855." S ta tu te s a t Large, vol. 10 (1854).

184 163 "A n A c t M a k in g A p p ro p ria tio n s fo r S u n d ry C ivil Expenses o f th e G o ve rn m e n t fo r th e Year E n d in g th e 3 0 th o f Ju n e, 1859." S ta tu te s a t Large, vol. 11 (1858). "G eneral A llo tm e n t A ct." S ta tu te s a t Large, vol. 24 (1887). "A m e n d m e n t to th e Dawes A ct." S ta tu te s a t Large, vol. 26 (1891). U. S. Congress. House. Speech o f H onorable J. W. D enver o f C a lifo rn ia. A g a in s t The B ill to E xpedite th e Issu in g o f Patents For C o n firm e d Land C la im s in C a lifo rn ia. 3 4 th Cong., 1st sess., Senate. M e m o ria l o f A sa W h itn e y p ra yin g "A g ra n t o f la n d, to enable h im to c o n s tru c t a ra ilro a d fro m Lake M ich ig a n to th e Pacific O cean." S. Doc. 69, 2 8 th Cong., 2 n d sess., Senate. M e m o ria l o f Asa W h itn e v p ra yin g "A g ra n t o f p u b lic la n d, to enable h is c o n s tru c tio n o f a ra ilro a d fro m Lake M ic h ig a n to the P acific O cean." S. Doc. 161, 2 9 th Cong., 1st sess., Senate. M e m o ria l o f Asa W hitnev. p roposin g to c o n s tru c t a ra ilro a d fro m Lake M ich ig a n to the Pacific O cean. S. Doc. 466, 2 9 th Cong., 1st sess., Senate. A sa W hitnev. p ra y in g g ra n t o f la n d to enable th e c o n s tru c tio n o f a ra ilro a d fro m Lake M ich ig a n to th e P acific O cean. S. M isc. Doc. 28, 3 0 th Cong., 1st sess., Senate. H onorable Jam es S. Green and W illa rd P. H a ll. R epresentatives in Congress fro m M isso u ri, regarding B ill S g ra n tin g rig h t o f w a y and la n d fo r th e St. Joseph and H a n n ib a l R a ilro a d. S. R eports 178, 3 0 th Cong., 1st sess., Senate. fthom as H. B enton, regarding the c o n s tru c tio n o f a ra ilro a d to th e Pacific O ceanl. Senate J o u rn a l, 3 1 s t Cong., 1st sess., Senate. M e m o ria l o f legislative assem bly o f New M exico th a t ra ilro a d and telegraph to Pacific m a y pass th ro u g h T e rrito ry. S. M isc. D oc. 36, 3 2 n d Cong., 2 n d sess., A u b u rn, N ebraska. O ffice o f th e C o u n ty C lerk. N em aha C o u n ty Deed R e co rd. Index, Books A, 1-6, 15, 63. The Deed Record co n sists o f a n in d e x, w h ic h lis ts la n d tra n s a c tio n s ch ro n o lo g ica lly fo r each 640-a cre section, and th e books, w h ic h c o n ta in copies o f th e deeds th a t re la te to th o se tra n s a c tio n s.

185 164 F a lls C ity, N ebraska. Office o f the Register o f Deeds. R ich a rd son C o u n tv Deed R ecord. Index. NEW SPAPERS A ra g o (Nebr.) S o u th e rn N e b raskian. 5 M arch; 2 J u ly ; 16 J u ly ; 17 D ecem ber 1867; 13 Novem ber 1868; 21 S eptem ber B u ffa lo (New York) M o rn in g E xpress. 26 Ju n e F a lls C itv (Nebr.) B road A xe. 20 Novem ber 1860 to 10 S eptem ber 1861; 5 M a rc h F a lls C itv (Nebr.) J o u rn a l. 4 J u n e N ebraska A d v e rtis e r (Brow nville). 7 J u n e 1856 to 6 M ay 1858; 28 M a rc h to 17 O ctober N ebraska C itv N ew s. 17 J a n u a ry 1857 to 4 M a y N ebraska R egister (R ulo). 16 A p ril N em aha V a lle y J o u rn a l (Falls C ity, Nebr.). 14 J a n u a ry to F e b ru a ry R u lo (Nebr.) W estern G u id e. 18 Ju n e to 10 Septem ber BOOKS A ndreas, A. T. H is to ry o f The State o f N ebraska. 2 vols. C hicago; W estern H is to ric a l Co., B altensperger, B ra d le y H. N ebraska; A G eography. B o u ld e r, C olorado; W estview Press, Inc., B a m s, George C. D enver. The M a n. S trasburg, V irg in ia : S henandoah P u b lis h in g House, B ro w n, A lb e rt J., ed. H is to ry o f C lin to n C ounty. O hio: Its People. In d u s trie s and In s titu tio n s. In d ia n a p o lis: B. F. Bow en and C om pany, In c., 1915.

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187 166 H afen, Le Roy R. "B en H olladay." In D ic tio n a ry o f A m e rica n B io g ra p h y. 9 : E d ite d b y D um as M alone. New Y ork: C harles S crib n e r's Sons, H afen, Le Roy R. The M o u n ta in M en and the F u r Trade o f th e F a r W e st. E d ite d b y Le Roy R. Hafen. 10 vols. Glendale, C a lifo rn ia : A r th u r H. C la rk C om pany, H aney, Lewis H. A C ongressional H is to ry o f R ailw ays in th e U n ite d S ta te s. 2 vols. M adison: U n iv e rs ity o f W isconsin Press, ; re p rin t ed., New Y o rk: A u g u s tu s M. Kelley P ublishers, Iverson, Noel. G erm ania. U.S.A.: Social Change in New U lm. M in n e s o ta. M in n e a p o lis: U n iv e rs ity o f M in n eso ta Press, Jam es W. D enver o f O hio: H is Life. H is Services, and H is A v a ila b ility. W a sh in g to n, D. C.: G ray and C larkson, P rinters, J o h n s o n, H ildegard B in d e r. "A d ju s tm e n t to the U n ite d S tates." In The F o rtv-e ig h te rs. P o litical Refugees o f the G erm an R e vo lu tio n o f pp E d ite d b y A. E. Z ucker. New Y ork: C o lu m b ia U n iv e rs ity Press, 1950; re p rin t ed., New Y ork: R ussell and R ussell, K appler, C harles J. E d ito r. In d ia n A ffairs: Laws and T re a tie s. 5 vols. W a sh in g to n, D. C.: G overnm ent P rin tin g Office, 1904; re p rin t ed., New Y ork: A M S Press, Inc., K n o tt, H. W. H ow ard "Jam es W illia m D enver." In D ic tio n a ry o f A m e rica n B io g ra p h y. 5 : E dited b y A lle n Jo h n so n and D u m a s M alone. New Y o rk: C harles S cribner's Sons, M a tte s,-m e rrill J. "Joseph R obidoux." In The M o u n ta in M en a n d th e F u r T rade o f the F a r W e st. 8: E dited b y Le Roy R. Hafen. 10 vols. G lendale, C a lifo rn ia : A rth u r H. C la rk Com pany, M a ttis o n, Ray H. "J o h n Pierre C abanne." In The M o u n ta in M en and the F u r T rade o f the F a r W est. 2: E dited b y Le Roy R. H afen. 10 vols. G lendale, C a lifo rn ia : A rth u r H. C la rk C om pany, M a ttis o n, Ray H. "Jo shua P ilcher." In The M o u n ta in M en and th e F u r Trade o f th e F a r W e st. 4: E dited b y Le Roy R. H afen. 10 vols. G lendale, C a lifo rn ia : A rth u r H. C la rk C om pany, M o rto n, J. S te rlin g, and W a tkin s, A lb e rt. Illu s tra te d H is to ry o f N e b ra ska. 3 vols. L in co ln, N ebraska: Jacob N o rth and C om pany, 1907.

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