Index. Page numbers in italics refer to Figures. Page numbers in bold refer to Tables.

Transcription

1 Index Page numbers in italics refer to Figures. Page numbers in bold refer to Tables. 2D imaging techniques 175, 179 confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) 180 optical microscopy (OM) 175, , 184, 185 scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 175, 180, 180, 186, 186, 188, 189, 191 coal bed methane study 243, 244, 245, 246 Opalinus Clay permeability study 90, 90 transmission electron microscopy (TEM) 175, 180, 187, 188, 191 X-ray radiography 175, 180 3D electron microscopy (EM) 175, 182, 183, 191 3D imaging techniques 175 3D electron microscopy (EM) 175, 182, 183, 191 focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM) 86, 107, 177, , 183, 187, 188, 189 Opalinus Clay porosity study 18, 20, 21 serial blockface scanning electron microscopy (SBF-SEM) 182, 187, 188, 189 X-ray computed tomography (XCT) 175, 176, , 181, 182, 183, 185, 185, , 186, 187, 189, 191 4D synchrotron XCT 190 acoustic wave velocities 6 7 Whitby mudstone 49, 52 56, 53, 53, 54, 56, acoustic wave velocity anisotropy 7 adsorbed gas storage 5, 107, 122, 177 American Petroleum Institute (API) 16, 24, 68 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) 24 anisotropy of shales 177 arrester crack orientation 296 back-scattered electron (BSE) imaging 180, 187 Barnett shale 2, 187, 188, 203, 204, 205, 206, , 212, 259 Barrett Joyner Halenda (BJH) theory 23, , , 217, 218, 218, 219, 219, bedding/laminae, imaging of , 185 bedding-parallel cracks see hydraulic conductivity of cracks BET see Brunauer Emmett Teller (BET) theory BIB-SEM see broad ion beam scanning electron microscopy (BIB-SEM) bioturbation 177 Whitby mudstone 43, 58, 59 BJH see Barrett Joyner Halenda (BJH) theory Bossier shale 2, 203, 204, 205, 206, , 212, 259 see also stress-dependence of porosity and permeability in Bossier shale; water vapour sorption Bowen Basin, Queensland see coal bed methane porosity and permeability in Bowen Basin Bowland shale 2, 283 imaging of 187, 188, 189 Preese Hall 307, 333, , 334, 336, 337, 340, 341 Brazilian test 286 breakdown pressure 5 brittleness of mudrocks 4 5 broad ion beam scanning electron microscopy (BIB-SEM) 86, 107 Bossier shale study , 124, 124 Opalinus Clay permeability study 90, 90, 92 97, 94, 95, 95, 96, 97, 98 Brownian flow 177 Brunauer Emmett Teller (BET) theory 23, 210, 214, 215, , 220 BSE see back-scattered electron (BSE) imaging burial and compaction 2 3, 3, 177, , , 277, 278 see also diagenetic impacts on mudrock properties Callovo-Oxfordian claystone 203, 204, 204, 205, 206, , 212 see also gas transport properties through Callovo- Oxfordian mudstones; water vapour sorption capillary condensation , , 223, 229 capillary pressure capillary tube model 91 carbon capture and storage (CCS) see poro-elastic effects in smectite-rich cap rock carbon dioxide diffusion see poro-elastic effects in smectite-rich cap rock Carboniferous Coal Measures 283, 289, 289 Carboniferous Mudstones 284 cation exchange capacities (CEC) Opalinus Clay porosity study 17, 18 19, 31 water vapour sorption study , 204, 212, , 224, 225, 225, 226 cemented mudrocks 276, 279, 284, Chattanooga shale 259, 263 chemical compaction 3 classification of mudrocks 1 2, , , 275, 276 Clay Mineral Society 204 clay mineralogy shale instability and , 254, 254 of unconventional shale reservoirs alternative interpretation of , 262, 263, 264, 265, 266 conventional interpretation of in United States 258, 258, 259, 259, 260 closed porosity 27 CLSM see confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) coal bed methane 7 coal bed methane porosity and permeability in Bowen Basin geological setting 236, 237, 238 and sampling coal analysis , 239 geochemical modelling 239, 240 X-ray diffraction 236, coal sample characteristics , 241 geochemical modelling , 246, 247 igneous intrusion sample 242, 249

2 362 INDEX coal bed methane porosity and permeability in Bowen Basin (Continued) modelling using coal mineralogy 245, 247, 248 scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 243, 244, 245, 246 X-ray diffraction , 242, 243 discussion geochemical modelling hydrothermal alteration petrographical interpretations and implications , 249 coal-seam gas (CSG) see coal bed methane porosity and permeability in Bowen Basin coked margins 249 compaction 2 3, 3 compaction mudrocks 276, 279, 284, compressibility of mudrocks , 284 COMSOL solver 157, 166 Condor mudrock 203, 204, 205, 206, , 212 confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) 180 consolidation behaviour, Callovo-Oxfordian claystone , 135, 136 correlative multi-scale imaging of shales D imaging techniques 175, 179 confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) 180 optical microscopy (OM) 175, , 184, 185 scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 175, 180, 180, 186, 186, 188, 189, 191 transmission electron microscopy (TEM) 175, 180, 187, 188, 191 X-ray radiography 175, 180 3D imaging techniques 175 3D electron microscopy (EM) 175, 182, 183, 191 focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM) 177, , 183, 187, 188, 189 serial blockface scanning electron microscopy (SBF-SEM) 182, 187, 188, 189 X-ray computed tomography (XCT) 175, 176, , 181, 182, 183, 185, 185, , 186, 187, 189, 191 advanced imaging techniques 4D synchrotron XCT 190 neutron imaging 190 application of multi-scale imaging of shale microstructure bedding/laminae , 185 fractures , 186 minerals and organic matter , 187 definition of multiple scales , 178 image-based modelling 191 image quantification nature of shales and shale reservoirs representative analysis 190 discussion, implications , 250 sample preparation 179 shale characterization techniques 184 upscaling 191 crack conductivity 5 6, 70 72, 71 Callovo-Oxfordian claystone , 150, 150, 151 see also hydraulic conductivity of cracks crack porosity and aspect ratio distribution, Whitby mudstone 53, 54 56, 56 crystallinity index 279 Cu-triethylenetetramine complex (Cu-Trien) method 204 cubic law 67 Darcy s law 6, 18, 20, 40 41, 60, 88, 91 92, , 122, 132, 177 Darley Dale sandstone 296, 299, 299, 300, 300, 301 deformability of mudrocks , 284 DEL see double electric layer (DEL) concept diagenetic impacts on mudrock properties compressibility , 284 diagenetic maturity , 280 diagenetic rank , 282, 285, 285, 286, , 287 effects of burial diagenesis 2 3, 3, 177, , , 277, 278 and engineering performance of UK mudrocks 284, , 288, 289, 290 index tests for the evaluation of mudrocks , 284, 285, 286, 287 mudrocks in geotechnical engineering , 275, 276 prediction of durability 284, , 286, 287 prediction of fracture development removal of overburden and stress relief effects , 281, 282, 283 strength , 284 Diagenetic Rank Parameter 285, 285, 287, 287 digital image analysis (DIA) digital image correlation (DIC) 189 digital volume correlation (DVC) 189 divider crack orientation 296 double electric layer (DEL) concept , 257 Dubinin Astakhov theory 211, 214, 215, , 216, 217, 218, 218, 219, 219, 221 durability, prediction of 284, , 286, 287 durable mudrocks 275 DVC see digital volume correlation (DVC) dynamic vapour sorption (DVS) set-up 207, 207 Eagle Ford mudrock 2, 203, 204, 205, 206, , 212, 258, 259, 260 earthquakes, induced 67 Preese Hall , 328, 329, 332, 335, , 346, , , 350, 353 EBSD see electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) EDX see energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) effective porosity 27 effective stress law 75 elastic properties 4, 4 electrical analogue of fluid flow 70 71, 70, 72, 78, 78 electrical low-pass filters 71, 72 electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) 184 EM see 3D electron microscopy (EM) energy dispersive (EDS) detection 236, 239 energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) 184 environmental-sem (ESEM) 180 ESEM see environmental-sem (ESEM) exhumation of buried sediment , 281, 282, 283

3 INDEX 363 fault stability during hydraulic fracturing displacements induced by simulated hydrofractures , 311 hydraulic fracture dimensions and stage nomenclature , 311 hydraulic fracture methodology influence of hydraulic fracturing on fault stability changes of fault stability before hydraulic fracturing , 320 overall induced changes of fault stability 317, sequence of hydraulic fracturing , , 316, 317, 318 summary initial reservoir state , 308, 309, monitoring displacement and stress changes 310 discussion FIB-SEM see focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM) finite-element method 157, 166 flow simulation 191 fluid storage see gas storage fluid transport 5 6, in cracks 5 6, 70 72, 71 Callovo-Oxfordian claystone , 150, 150, 151 electrical analogue of 70 71, 70, 72, 78, 78 slip flow 108, 109, 122 see also gas transport properties through Callovo- Oxfordian mudstones; hydraulic conductivity of cracks fluorescence microscopy 184 focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM) 86, 107, 177, , 183, 187, 188, 189 Opalinus Clay porosity study 18, 20, 21 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) 184 fracture conductivity 5 6, 70 72, 71 Callovo-Oxfordian claystone , 150, 150, 151 see also hydraulic conductivity of cracks fracture development, prediction of fracture mechanics 5 fracture porosity 177 fracture simulation 191 fracture toughness 5 temperature and Darley Dale sandstone 296, 299, 299, 300, 300, 301 Indiana limestone , 298, 299, 299, 300, 300, 301 Lanhelin granite 297, , 299, 300 Mancos shale 296, 296, , 299, 302 methodology , 297, 298 fractures, imaging of , 186 free gas storage 5, 107, 125, 126, 177 frictional sliding 4 and fracture conductivity 72, 73 75, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77 78, 81 FTIR see Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) Fullers Earth Clay 280 gas adsorption measurement 4, 177, 184 see also low-pressure nitrogen adsorption; nitrogen physisorption isotherms gas expansion technique see helium-pycnometry gas-in-place assessments 16 Gas Research Institute (GRI) 16 see also GRI (Gas Research Institute) permeability determination gas slippage 6, 41, 109 Bossier shale , 116, 117, 119, 120, 120, 122, 123 Whitby mudstone 51 52, 52, 58, 60 gas storage 5 6, 125, 126, 177 gas transport properties through Callovo-Oxfordian mudstones background 132 apparatus , 133 samples 132, 134, 134, 135 consolidation behaviour , 135, 136 desaturation 142 gas entry and breakthrough , 137, 138 gas flow through fractures , 150, 150, 151 geotechnical data 134, 135 hydraulic behaviour 136, 136 localization of flow , 146 modelling gas behaviour , self-sealing behaviour 141, 145 shut-in response 141, 144 steady-state flow and gas permeability , 139, 140, discussion Gault Clay 280, 280 geochemical modelling, coal bed methane study 239, 240, , 246, 247, geotechnical engineering, classification of mudrocks , 275, 276 geothermal temperature 278 Goonyella seam see coal bed methane porosity and permeability in Bowen Basin GRI (Gas Research Institute) permeability determination 6 Bossier shale study 110, 113, 115, 125, 125 Gulf Coast shales 258, 259, 259 Gurvich rule 210, , 214, 215, 216, , 218, 219 Hagen Poiseuille law see Poiseuille s law Haynesville shale 2, 180, 182, 183, 187, 203, 204, 205, 206, , 212, 259 helium-pycnometry 16, 43, 85, 107, 177, 184 Bossier shale study 110, , 114, 117, 119 Opalinus Clay permeability study 88, 92, 92 Opalinus Clay porosity study 20, 23, 26 32, 29, 29, 31 hydraulic behaviour, Callovo-Oxfordian claystone 136, 136 hydraulic conductivity of cracks 7 8, background 70 72, 71 electrical analogue of fluid flow 70 71, 70, 72 experimental procedures 72 samples and apparatus 68 70, 69, 70 electrical analogue of fluid flow 78, 78 host-rock matrix permeability 72, 72, 73, 73 hydraulic conductivity 76 78, 76, 77

4 364 INDEX hydraulic conductivity of cracks (Continued) sliding friction 72, 73 75, 73, 74, 75, 76, discussion application to hydraulic fracturing 80 81, 81 effects of shear stresses 78 80, 80 host-rock matrix permeability 79 hydraulic fracturing 80 81, 81, 107 breakdown pressure 5 regulation of see also fault stability during hydraulic fracturing; Preese Hall fracture development and induced seismicity hydrothermal alteration hysteresis loop scanning 218 hysteretic velocity behaviour, Whitby mudstone illitic minerals , 278 see also instability of illitic shales image-based modelling 191 immersion techniques 107 index tests , 284, 285, 286, 287 Indiana limestone , 298, 299, 299, 300, 300, 301 ineffective porosity 27 instability of illitic shales clay mineralogy and , 254, 254 clay mineralogy of unconventional shale reservoirs alternative interpretation of , 262, 263, 264, 265, 266 conventional interpretation of in United States 258, 258, 259, 259, 260 double electric layer concept and , 257 pore-size distribution and shale texture, structure and fabric and 256 water and , 255 interparticle pores 177 intraparticle pores 177 intrusion illitization 249 ion-beam polishing 179 jar slake test , 286, 287 K-model Kelvin capillary pressures Kelvin equation 34, , 216, 222, kerogen bodies 177 Kimmeridge Clay 280 Klinkenberg-corrected permeability 109 Bossier shale 114, 115, 117, 118, 120, 121, 121, 122 Klinkenberg effects 70 Whitby mudstone 51 52, 52 Knudsen flow 18, 41, 60, 177 Knudsen numbers 6, 17 18, 20, 41 Kozeny Carman equation 85, 92, 98, 121 Langmuir theory 210 Lanhelin granite 297, , 299, 300 lattice Boltzmann (LB) method 86, 102 Lias Clay 280, 280, 284 liquid saturation and immersion (LSI) technique, Opalinus Clay porosity study 23 24, 26 32, 29, 29, 31 London Clay 280, 280, 284 Longmaxi mudrock 203, 204, 205, 206, , 212 low-pressure nitrogen adsorption 107 Opalinus Clay porosity study 20, 22 23, 23, 26 35, 29, 29, 33, 34 LSI see liquid saturation and immersion (LSI) technique MacEwan crystallites 261 Magnus sandstone 261, 262, 262, 264 Mancos shale 259, 296, 296, , 299, 302 Marcellus shale 2, 259, 306 mean free path (MFP) length 6, 18, 41, 109, 114 Mercia Mudstone 280, 284 mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) 16, 85, 107, 177, 184 Bossier shale study 110, 112, 114, , 124, 124 Opalinus Clay porosity study 19 22, 21, 22, 26 34, 29, 29, 31, 33 metamudrocks 275 methane storage 125, 126 Methylene Blue Adsorption test 286, 287, 287 Meuse/Haute Marne Underground Research Laboratory, France 131 Micro-CT 86, 181, 182, , 187 microseismic monitoring 354 microstructural anisotropy 7 microstructural heterogeneity and permeability of Opalinus Clay broad ion beam scanning electron microscopy (BIB-SEM) 90, 90 digital image analysis (DIA) helium-pycnometry 88 non-steady-state single-phase water permeability tests 88 89, 89 permeability modelling samples 86 87, 87, 87 scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 90, 90 broad ion beam scanning electron microscopy (BIB-SEM) 92 97, 94, 95, 95, 96, 97, 98 helium-pycnometry 92, 92 microstructure, mineralogy and pore morphology 93 95, 94, 95, 95 permeability 92, 93 permeability modelling 97 98, 98 pore-size distribution 96 97, 98 porosity, pore shape and pore orientation 95 96, 96, 97 discussion permeability permeability modelling pore space geometry 101, 101 porosity and pore size distribution , 100 porosity permeability relationships , 102, 103 microstructure 3 4, 3 controls on permeability shales 176, mineral composition 2, 2 effects on water sorption isotherms 223, 223 shales 176, 184 see also clay mineralogy mineral matrix pores 177 MIP see mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP)

5 INDEX 365 mixed-layer illite smectite (I/S) see also instability of illitic shales Mohr Coulomb failure 5, 163, 164, , moisture absorption test 286, 287, 287 monolayer capacity 210 water vapour sorption study 214, 215, 218, 219, , 221, 224, 224 Mont Terri Underground Rock Laboratory (URL), Switzerland see Opalinus Clay montmorillonite see instability of illitic shales Moranbah Coal Measures 236, 237 see also coal bed methane porosity and permeability in Bowen Basin multi-scale imaging see correlative multi-scale imaging of shales Na-montmorillonite 156, 161, , 163 Nano-CT 181, 182, 183, , 187, 189 Navier Stokes equations 67, 86 neutron imaging 190 New Albany shale 259, 263 Newark mudrock 203, 204, 205, 206, , 212 nitrogen physisorption isotherms, water vapour sorption study 207, 209, , 217, 218, 219, 219 non-dispersive infra-red detectors (NDIRs) 112 non-durable mudrocks 275 non-steady-state single-phase water permeability tests 88 89, 89 nuclear waste disposal 7, 131 Opalinus Clay 4, 16 17, 203, 204, 205, 206, , 212 see also microstructural heterogeneity and permeability of Opalinus Clay; porosity of Opalinus Clay; water vapour sorption optical microscopy (OM) 175, , 184, 185 Ordovician mudstones 284, 288, 288 organic matter , 184 see also total organic carbon (TOC) organic matter pores 177 organic maturity, effects on water sorption isotherms 223 oscillating pore fluid pressure method see pore-pressure oscillation method overburden removal , 281, 282, 283 Oxford Clay 280 permeability Callovo-Oxfordian claystone , 139, 140, Klinkenberg-corrected 109, 114, 115, 117, 118, 120, 121, 121, 122 pressure-dependence 6 7, 109 see also coal bed methane porosity and permeability in Bowen Basin; microstructural heterogeneity and permeability of Opalinus Clay; pressuredependent permeability of Whitby mudstone; stress-dependence of porosity and permeability in Bossier shale permeability anisotropy 7 Opalinus Clay 99 Whitby mudstone 50, permeability modelling, Opalinus Clay permeability study 91 92, 97 98, 98, permeameter tests 85, 88, 98, 99 phase-contrast XCT 182, 183 physisorption theory and models Barrett Joyner Halenda (BJH) theory 23, , , 217, 218, 218, 219, 219, Brunauer Emmett Teller (BET) theory 23, 210, 214, 215, , 220 Dubinin Astakhov theory 211, 214, 215, , 216, 217, 218, 218, 219, 219, 221 Gurvich rule 210, , 214, 215, 216, , 218, 219 plasticity index 284, 288 plasticity of mudrocks 4 point load index 286 Point Load test 286 Poiseuille s law 41, 60, 67, polydisperse spheres model (PDSP) 25, 34 polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) resin 179 pore-conductivity model, Whitby mudstone 53, 56 58, 56, 57 pore network structure, Whitby mudstone 59, 59, 61 pore-pressure oscillation method 71, 73 Whitby mudstone study 44 46, 45, 46, 47, 47, 48 pore-size distributions (PSDs) 202 Opalinus Clay porosity study 24, 34 and shale instability water vapour sorption study , 217, 218, 219, 223, 225, 226, 226, 229 see also microstructural heterogeneity and permeability of Opalinus Clay pore space analysis, Bossier shale study 110, , 114, 114 pore volume, stress-dependence of 108 pore volume distribution (PVD), Opalinus Clay porosity study 25, 28, 28, 32 34, 33 pores, in shales 177, 184 poro-elastic effects in smectite-rich cap rock model , 158 chemical potentials , 161 clay properties , 163 interlayer thickness , 161, 162, 163 partial molar volumes 159, , 161 poro-elastic constants 158, , 172 poro-elastic equations and discussion , 170 adsorbed concentrations 165, 166 fluid and rock properties , 164, 164, 165 permeability 167, 167 pore and interlayer space pressure , 167 shear capacity utilization (SCU) , 168, 169, 170 total stresses 168, 168 porosity 3 4, 3 see also coal bed methane porosity and permeability in Bowen Basin; porosity of Opalinus Clay; stress-dependence of porosity and permeability in Bossier shale porosity of Opalinus Clay cation exchange capacities (CEC) 17, focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM) 18, 20, 21 helium-pycnometry 20, 23 liquid saturation and immersion technique 23 24

6 366 INDEX porosity of Opalinus Clay (Continued) low-pressure nitrogen adsorption 20, 22 23, 23 mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) 19 22, 21, 22 samples small- and very-small-angle neutron scattering 20, 24 25, 25, 26, 27 total organic carbon (TOC) 17, water content porosity 18 19, 20 X-ray diffraction 17, X-ray fluorescence 17, discussion comparison of porosity values 26 32, 29, 29, 31 pore volume distribution 28, 28, 32 34, 33 specific surface areas 28, 29, 34 35, 34 Posidonia mudrock , 187, 203, 204, 205, 206, , 212 practical pore detection resolution (PPR) Preese Hall fracture development and induced seismicity 307, background previous analyses 333, seismic sections 330, , 331 site 328, 329, 332 stratigraphy 333, 334 fluid injection analysis , 338, 339 hydraulic fracturing analysis , 342 fracking stage 1 338, , 342, 343, 344 fracking stage 2 339, , 345, 346, 347, 348, 349 fracking stages 3, 4 and , 350 induced earthquake events , 328, 329, 332, 335, , 346, , , 350, 353 discussion , 352 implications for regulation pressure cycling 50 pressure-dependent permeability of Whitby mudstone background acoustic wave velocities 49 permeability measurement 44 49, 45, 46, 47, 48 pore compressibility measurement 49 porosity measurement 43, 43 samples 42 43, 42, 44 acoustic wave velocities 52 56, 53, 53, 54, 56 crack porosity and aspect ratio distribution 53, 54 56, 56 permeability 49 52, 50, 51, 52 permeability anisotropy 50 pore-conductivity model 53, 56 58, 56, 57 pressure cycling 50, 50 discussion acoustic wave velocities application to reservoir models permeability 58 60, 59 permeability anisotropy pore network structure 59, 59, 61 pressure cycling velocity hysteresis see also stress-dependence of porosity and permeability in Bossier shale PSDs see pore-size distributions (PSDs) pulse-decay method, Whitby mudstone study 45, 46 47, 47, 48, 49 pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) 184 radioactive waste disposal 7, 131 React modelling, coal bed methane study 239, , 247, representative analysis 190 representative elementary area (REA) analysis 190 representative elementary volume (REV) analysis 190 reservoir gas-in-place assessments 16 reservoir scale mechanical behaviour 8 Rock-Eval pyrolysis measurements, Bossier shale study 112, 113 SANS see small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) SAXS see small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) SBF-SEM see serial blockface scanning electron microscopy (SBF-SEM) scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 86, 175, 176, 177, 186, 186, 188, 189, 191 coal bed methane study 243, 244, 245, 246 Opalinus Clay permeability study 90, 90 scattering length densities (SLDs), Opalinus Clay porosity study 25, 25 SCU see shear capacity utilization (SCU) Scunthorpe Formation 289 secondary electron (SE) imaging 180 seismic velocity hysteresis, Whitby mudstone seismicity, induced 67 Preese Hall , 328, 329, 332, 335, , 346, , , 350, 353 self-sealing behaviour, Callovo-Oxfordian claystone 141, 145 SEM see scanning electron microscopy (SEM) serial blockface scanning electron microscopy (SBF- SEM) 182, 183, 187, 188 shale components shale gas production 16, 107, 108 see also hydraulic fracturing shale instability see instability of illitic shales shale reservoirs 177 unconventional alternative interpretation of , 262, 263, 264, 265, 266 conventional interpretation of in United States 258, 258, 259, 259, 260 shale smears 79 shear capacity utilization (SCU) , 168, 169, 170 shear strains see fault stability during hydraulic fracturing shear stress and fracture conductivity see hydraulic conductivity of cracks short-transverse crack orientation 296 short-wavelength infrared (SWIR) 236, 239, 240 shut-in response, Callovo-Oxfordian claystone 141, 144 simulated hydraulic fractures see fault stability during hydraulic fracturing SIROQUANT 236, 239, , 242 sliding friction 4 and fracture conductivity 72, 73 75, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77 78

7 INDEX 367 slip flow 108, 109, 122 slippage see gas slippage small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) 184 Opalinus Clay porosity study 20, 24 25, 25, 26 35, 26, 27, 28, 29, 29, 33, 34 small-angle to ultra-small-angle neutron scattering (SANS USANS) 107 small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) 184 smectite , 278 see also instability of illitic shales; poro-elastic effects in smectite-rich cap rock soils 275 over-consolidate solid-state transformation 261 SpecE8 modelling, coal bed methane study 239, 243, 245, 247, specific pore volume, Bossier shale , 111, 113, 115, , 119, 121, 121 specific surface areas (SSAs) 202, 210 Opalinus Clay porosity study 23, 24, 25, 28, 29, 34 35, 34 water vapour sorption study 214, 215, 217, 218, 218, 219, 219, , 220, 223, 223, 225 stiffness of mudrocks , 284 strain superposition see fault stability during hydraulic fracturing strength of mudrocks 4, , 284 stress-dependence of porosity and permeability in Bossier shale background stress-dependence of permeability 109 stress-dependence of pore volume and porosity 108 transport processes in shale gas systems permeability measurement , 111, 112 pore space analysis 110 samples , 110, 112, 113 specific pore volume measurement , 111 crushed-rock permeability coefficients 113, 115 gas slippage , 116, 117, 119 permeability , 115, 116, 117, 118, 119 pore space analysis , 114, 114 specific pore volume measurement 113, 115 stress-dependence of gas slippage 116, 119 stress-dependence of permeability 115, 118 discussion effects of gas type 122, 123 implications for gas storage 125, 126 pore structure comparisons , 124, 124 stress-dependence of gas slippage 120, 120, 122, 123 stress-dependence of permeability , , 121, 123 stress-dependence of pore volume , 119 stressed and unstressed permeability 125, 125 see also pressure-dependent permeability of Whitby mudstone stress relief effects , 281, 282, 283 sulphate-reducing bacteria 276 surface-chemistry-controlled sorption theory 228 swelling see poro-elastic effects in smectite-rich cap rock SWIR see short-wavelength infrared (SWIR) synchrotron 4D XCT 190 TEM see transmission electron microscopy (TEM) temperature and fracture toughness Darley Dale sandstone 296, 299, 299, 300, 300, 301 Indiana limestone , 298, 299, 299, 300, 300, 301 Lanhelin granite 297, , 299, 300 Mancos shale 296, 296, , 299, 302 methodology , 297, 298 temperature, geothermal 278 Terzaghi effective pressure law 6, 39, 42, 50 51, 61, 62, 72, 73, 77 Toarcian claystone 203, 204, 205, 206, , 212 total organic carbon (TOC) , 184 Bossier shale study 112, 113 effects on water sorption isotherms 223 Opalinus Clay porosity study 17, TOUGH2 models , transmission electron microscopy (TEM) 175, 180, 187, 188, 191 transport processes see fluid transport ultramicrotome serial block-face scanning electron microscopy (SBF-SEM) 182 ultrasonic P-wave velocities see acoustic wave velocities unconfined tensile strength tests 286 unconventional shale reservoirs alternative interpretation of , 262, 263, 264, 265, 266 conventional interpretation of in United States 258, 258, 259, 259, 260 United Kingdom diagenesis and engineering performance of mudrocks 284, , 288, 289, 290 distribution of mudrocks , 272 United States, unconventional shale reservoirs 258, 258, 259, 259, 260 Utica shale 258, 259, 260, 263 velocity hysteresis, Whitby mudstone very-small angle neutron-scattering (VSANS), Opalinus Clay porosity study 20, 24 25, 25, 26, 27 viscous flow 6, 72 see also Darcy s law vitrinite reflectance Bossier shale study 112, 113 and diagenetic changes 279, 284 Voigt Reuss Hill (VRH) averaging 53, 54, 57 Voigt stiffness matrix 52 53, 53 volume filling theory see Dubinin Astakhov theory VSANS see very-small angle neutron-scattering (VSANS) water, and shale instability , 255 water content porosity measurement 16 Opalinus Clay porosity study 18 19, 20, 26 32, 29, 29 water vapour sorption background Barrett Joyner Halenda (BJH) theory Brunauer Emmett Teller (BET) theory 210 Dubinin Astakhov theory 211 Gurvich rule 210 cation exchange capacities (CEC)

8 368 INDEX water vapour sorption (Continued) nitrogen physisorption isotherm measurement 207, 209 samples , 203, 204, 204, 205, 206 water sorption isotherm measurement , 207, 207, 208 X-ray diffraction , 204, 204, 205, 206 Barrett Joyner Halenda 216 bulk mineralogy 204, 205, 206, , 212 cation exchange capacities (CEC) 204, 212, , 213 Dubinin Astakhov 214, 215, 216 Gurvich pore volume and water porosity , 214, 215 hysteresis loop scanning 213, 214 monolayer capacity 214, 215, 218, 219 nitrogen physisorption isotherms , 217, 218, 219, 219 pore-size distributions , 217, 218, 219 specific surface area 214, 215, 217, 218, 218, 219, 219 water sorption isotherms 208, , 213, 214, 215, 216, , 219 discussion applicability of physisorption models to water sorption isotherms 218 capillary condensation , 223, 229 distribution of water in pore structure , 227 effects of cation exchange capacities , 224, 225, 225, 226 effects of mineralogy, organic matter and maturity 223, 223 hysteresis implications for geomechanical and petrophysical properties of mudrocks monolayer capacity , 221, 224, 224 pore-size distributions 223, 225, 226, 226, 229 specific surface area , 220, 223, 223, 225 surface-chemistry-controlled sorption theory 228 total pore volume and porosity volume filling 221 wavelength dispersive (WDS) detection 236 Weald Clay 280 Westbury Formation Mudstone 289, 289 Whitby mudstone 2 see also pressure-dependent permeability of Whitby mudstone X-ray computed tomography (XCT) 86, 175, 176, , 181, 182, 183, 185, 185, , 186, 187, 189, 191 X-ray diffraction (XRD) Bossier shale study 112, 113 coal bed methane study 236, , , 242, 243 Opalinus Clay porosity study 17, 18 19, 31 water vapour sorption study , 204, 204, 205, 206 X-ray fluorescence (XRF) 17, 18 19, 236, 240 X-ray microtomography (Micro-CT) 86, 181, 182, , 187 X-ray nanotomography (Nano-CT) 181, 182, 183, , 187, 189 X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) 184 X-ray radiography 175, 180 Young Laplace equation 19, 229