Transactions Institute of Indian Geographers. Department of Geography, University of Pune Ganeshkhind, Pune

Transcription

1 Transactions Institute of Indian Geographers Department of Geography, University of Pune Ganeshkhind, Pune Vol. 36 No. 1 January 2014

2 Transactions Volume 36, No. 1, Winter 2014 Journal of the Institute of Indian Geographers Department of Geography, University of Pune

3 GOVERNING COUNCIL, IIG President ( ) Vice-President Secretary General Secretary Secretary Foreign Correspondence Secretary Treasurer Members Regional Representatives (Ex-officio Members) Editor Co-Editor Editorial Committee S.R. Jog, Pune V. S. Kale, Pune D. K. Nayak, Shillong Surya Kant, Chandigarh Srikumar Chattopadhyay, Thiruvananthapuram Veena Joshi, Pune Ram Deo Doi, Jaipur Ravi S. Singh, Varanasi R.G.Jaybhaye, Pune Jutta Dikshit, Pune Sunando Bandopadhyay, Kolkata De, Sunil Kumar, Shillong Amit Dhorde, Pune Jana Narayan, Burdwan Ravinder Kaur, Chandigarh A.C.Mohopatra, Shillong S. D. Pardeshi, Pune Patil, Y. V., Dhulia Sarla Sharma, Raipur Nina Singh, Rothak B, Shrinagesh, Hyderabad Mohan Krishan (North) B. S. Mipun, Shillong (East) B. Eswarappa, (South) R.D.Gurjar, Jaipur (West) S.R.Jog, Pune D.K.Nayak, Shillong V. S. Datye, J. N. Diddee, J. K. Dikshit, Alka Gadgil, Veena U. Joshi, V. S. Kale Acknowledgement The Institute of Indian Geographers is thankful to the I.C.S.S.R. for the grant received for , towards the publication of the Journal Transactions.

4 Information for Authors Transactions, a journal of the Institute of Indian Geographers, is published twice a year in January and July. The editor invites original articles that will contribute to advances and debates in all the sub-disciplines of Geography. Manuscripts should be submitted to: The Editor Transactions, Institute of Indian Geographers Department of Geography University of Pune Pune Authors are requested to submit manuscripts in two hard copies with a set of original maps/illustrations and a soft copy on CD on MS word file and all illustrations (diagrams, maps, photoplates etc.) in.tif file format. We send each manuscript to at least two reviewers. Mailing costs being prohibitive, the articles will not be returned to authors. Manuscripts should preferably not exceed ten printed pages or between words. They should be typed double-spaced on quarto paper (21x28 cm) with wide margins. The manuscript should contain a title page, an abstract, the list of references cited, tables, a list of figures and captions. Authors sending their figures on CD should provide each figure separately in tiff format. The letter accompanying the manuscript should contain a statement confirming that neither the whole article nor any substantial portion of it has been published elsewhere. If you have any questions or require more detailed guidelines for authors, jog.suresh2@gmail.com, sureshjog2009@live.com. References cited in the text to be given in alphabetical order as follows: 1. Mosher, S.W. (1983): Broken Earth: The Rural Chinese. New York: Free Press. 2. Smith, K.G. (1959): Standards for Grading Texture of Erosional Topography. Amer. Jour, Sci., Vol. 248: Spellings of Oxford Dictionary are used. Footnotes to be avoided. Authors alone are responsible for the views expressed in their articles and for obtaining permission for copy right material. Advertising: For information and rates, please contact the Editor.

5 Contents ISSN Debendra Kumar Nayak Changing Household Size in India: An Inte-State 01 and Rabi Narayan Behera Comparison Surinder Aggarwal Emerging global urban order and challenges to 19 harmonious urban development Sarfaraz Alam Reorienting Undergraduate Geography Curricula 33 Bendanginla, Surendra Sigh and Hiambok Jones Syiemlieh Vegetation Greenness Parameterisation Using Temporal VGT - NDVI Data and Meteorological Conditions in Upper Dikhu River Catchment of Patkai Hills, Nagaland 45 Kiran Bala and Trends and patterns of seats Won by the BJP in Sachinder Singh Indian Parliamentary Elections ( ): A Geographical Analysis 63 Harekrishna Haloi, Inequalities in Education for All (EFA) Achievements: Jnanashree Borah and The State of Primary Education in selected Lakshyahira Datta Community Development Blocks of Assam 71 Daljit Kaur Sandhu and Ms. Krishna Kaushik Agricultural perspectives and its impact on soil and groundwater A Case Study of Bibipur Village, Yamunanagar, Haryana 83 Sabina Bano and Spatial Variation of Women s Development in Aanad Prasad Mishra Varanasi City 91 Maosanen Longchar Rural-Urban Migration and its Impact on the Urban Environment and Life in Nagaland 101 Nissar A. Kuchay and Analysis and Simulation of urban expansion of M. Sultan Bhat Srinagar City 109 Sutapa Mukhopadhyay Changing Flood Intensity Zone of Dwarka River Basin Surajit Let in Eastern India 123 K. R. Dikshit Book Review 133 Jutta Dikshit Book Review 141 Prof. K. M. Kulkarni Obituary Prof. L. S. Bhat 143 Prof. P. S. Tiwari Obituary Dr. K. V. Sundaram 145

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7 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Changing Household Size in India: An Inter-State Comparison Debendra Kumar Nayak and Rabi Narayan Behera, Shillong, Meghalaya Abstract Based on Census information, this research explores the trend and spatial pattern in the changes of household size in India using state level data. Changes in household size are clear reflections on changes in living arrangements as well as in household composition. The problem acquires nuances of meanings in a country like India which has shown indications towards a tendency to move into a low fertility regime in the years to come. However, aggregate demographic statistics generally mask substantial changes in the size and number of households. As in most indicators of demographic, economic and social changes, household changes are neither uniform in their social and spatial content. The paper examines inter-state variation in this feature of change that is unfolding in India in recent years. The study reveals, demographic parameters, in contrast to non-demographic parameters, have a stronger association with extremes of household size-either very small or very large. Key Words: Multi-generational households, joint families, mean household size, Demographic convergence. Changing Household Size The issue of changes in household size and composition in developing world is attracting scholarly attention only in recent years due largely to significant demographic changes of declining fertility, mortality and urbanisation in most countries and due to sociological changes towards smaller households. Such changes have been quite widespread in economically developed countries. The decline in fertility explains part of this change. The average household has fewer parents, fewer siblings, fewer grandchildren, and fewer other relatives of the household head. The social sciences, including sociology, economics, and anthropology, have a long tradition of scholarly contribution on issues pertaining to families and households and there are extensive corresponding literatures. In contrast, demographers have neglected the quantitative dimensions of the size composition and change in households and their causes and consequences (Bongaarts, 2001). Understandably, family demography is fairly recent and relatively underdeveloped branch of population studies. Intrinsic complexity inherent in demographic understanding of households and families have rendered this interesting area of analysis rather muted. Bongaarts (2001) has an explanation to this unsatisfactory situation. He goes on to add that in conventional demography the unit of analysis is the

8 individual, whose characteristics can be described with a limited number of variables such as age and sex. Widely accepted theories and models have been developed to describe how population distributions of these individual characteristics are determined by vital processes. In contrast, the family demographer has to deal with multi-dimensional families, households, and kin groups...the networks of relationships make families essential socioeconomic units, but they pose formidable problems to the demographer who tries to identify and quantify the key structural dimensions of these interrelated groups of individuals. Nevertheless, studies on household size constitute a significant area of research in countries experiencing declining population growth effected by or leading to significant changes in living arrangements. Understandably sociologists and demographers are not attracted to this area of research in countries with high fertility level. This perhaps explains lack of research in this area in India. A cursory glance at available research in India reveals little or negligible studies conducted in this area. Aiyappan (1972) analysed the census data on households to study changes in family size from 1871 to 1961 in Kerala, particularly drawing interesting conclusions on the basis of data contained in the 1891 Census report. Studies of developing countries have focused on several socio cultural as well as socioeconomic factors associated with fertility and household size: modernization (Levy, 1985); contraceptive use and familyplanning programs (Koenig et al., 1987); and cultural attitudes and values, such as the perceived old-age security value of children (Rani, 1986) or the view of children as risk insurance (Robinson, 1986). Researchers have examined the extent to which fertility and household size may vary depending on individuals family backgrounds, social and psychological characteristics, or economic status. Blake (1986) observed an inverse relationship between social class and household size. More education, higher age-at-marriage, longer interval between marriage and the birth of the first child, and employment status were found associated with smaller families (Wagner et al., 1985). Probability of having an additional child is higher in families with all children of the same sex (Gualtieri and Hicks 1986). More recently, national census 2001 drew attention to falling household size during the last three decades which is becoming an all India phenomenon rather than confined to Kerala. The other agency that has made some contribution to this area is National Family Health Surveys (1993, 1999 and 2006). Both Census and NFHS data provide valuable insights into significant changes in household size and composition as well as in interstate variation beginning since 1991-a fact that has not been adequately researched till date. Based on Census information, this study explores the trend and spatial pattern in the changes of household size in India using state level data. Changes in household size are clear reflections on changes in living arrangements as well as in household composition. The problem acquires nuances of meanings in a country like India which has shown indications towards a tendency to 2 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

9 move into a low fertility regime in the years to come. However, aggregate demographic statistics generally mask substantial changes in the size and number of households. As in most indicators of demographic, economic and social changes, household changes are neither uniform in their social and spatial content. It may be worthwhile to examine inter-state variation in this feature of change that is unfolding in India in recent years. Family and households: Concepts Census of India while collecting data on the households considered it to be basic unit in a society for social, economic, political and socialization purpose. Sociologically, Household is a co-residential socioeconomic unit regardless of kinship ties whereas family is a group- membership in which is mainly based on affinal and consanguinal ties. While both household and families are culturally defined, the former are task-oriented residence units and the latter are conceived of as kinship groupings that need not be localized. But the family is also co-residential, socioeconomic unit in most cases. The type and size of the household in most of the societies are influenced by kinship rules, demographic and socio-economic factors, level of urbanization and industrialization. Therefore to understand the social structure of a society, its cohabitation pattern and congestion at a given point of time, the household level data is a very useful tool. Census in India traditionally collects information on three types of household namely Normal households, Institutional Households and Houseless Households 1. Aggregate Pattern In India as a whole (Table-1), the rate of increase in population was higher than the rate of increase in the number of households till the year The pattern has reversed in the year 1991 and has become more intense in the year The 2011 Census data confirms a further intensification of this process of reversal whereby the increase in households far exceeds the increase in population growth. This is further evident from the decline in mean household size which increased till 1991 but fell sharply in the year The 2001 and 2011Census reveal widespread interstate variation in mean household size and composition across India. It is evident that since 1991, the mean household size is not only declining, the increase in the number households is much faster than the rate at which population is increasing. Significantly, the decade witnessed significant decline in the rate of population growth, but the multiplication of households continued at a greater pace while the mean size of the households registered a substantial decline from 5.3 to 4.9. Demographers attribute this change to a deepening of demographic transition process in India associated with fertility decline. This is also indicative of a rise in nuclear families relative to multigenerational families which till recent times were far more widespread. Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

10 Table-1 : India-Mean Size of Households, Decadal Growth in Households, Regions States/UTs Growth Rate Growth rate in HH in Ppln (%) (%) Mountain/Hill Arunachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh Jammu & Kashmir Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Sikkim Uttarakhand Region N A N A Plateaus Andhra Pradesh Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Tamil Nadu Region N A N A Plains Assam Bihar Chandigarh Chhattisgarh Dadra & Nagar Ha Daman & Diu Delhi Goa Gujarat Haryana Odisha Puducherry Punjab Rajasthan Tripura Uttar Pradesh Differential 4 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

11 West Bengal Region N A N A Islands A & N Island Lakshadweep Region N A N A INDIA Growth in Households: Trends and Patterns Rarely one finds a uniform change in a country like India with so much variation in its physical and social make up. Though this demographic change has its regional nuances, the rate of increase in the number of households, barring a few, is remarkable in all the important regional divisions of India. Number of households increased phenomenally in the plains, followed by the plateau and the mountains and hilly areas. At a very broad level the plateau region and the hills and mountainous regions added around 26 percent to their existing households during decade while the rate of growth of the households was much higher (close to 30%) in the plains during the same period. Within the hilly region, the growth in households was particularly high in Manipur, Jammu and Kashmir and Meghalaya. Significantly, the rate of growth in households was far more uniform in the plateau region except in Kerala which added only 15 percent to its households and Madhya Pradesh adding a high of 38 percent. The range of variation is remarkably high in the plains. The increase in households ranged from a low of 10 percent in Goa to as high as 70 percent in Daman and Diu. Some of the states that witnessed excessive increase in household numbers include Dadra and Nagar Haveli (62%), Pudducherry (40%), Bihar (38%) Chhattisgarh (38%) and Rajasthan (36%). On the other extreme are states/uts which added far fewer numbers to the existing households. These include the highly urbanised Chandigarh (15%) and Delhi (22%). These variations notwithstanding, the increase in the number of households provide valuable insights into the nature of demographic changes when contrasted with the rate of population increase in these very regions/states (see fig.1). Fig.1 : Change in Household and Population, Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

12 have increased. The correlation coefficient is as high as 0.87 between population growth rate and rate of growth in the number of households showing a strong positive association between these two variables. Fig. 2 : Change in Single Member Households, It is remarkable that the rate of increase in the number of households far exceeds the rate at which the households are proliferating. It is even more significant that there is little regional or inter-state variation to this trend. The two outstanding but highly contrasting instances of exception are represented by Arunachal Pradesh and Chandigarh where the population growth rate exceeds the rate at which households However, there is important variation in the differentials as far as different regions and states within these regions are concerned. In the hills and mountainous areas as a whole, the household increase compared to population growth is rather small. The case of Nagaland that shows a phenomenal increase in number of households compared to population growth cannot be taken for granted as the population in 2011 seems to have declined in the state. This must be an enumeration aberration and cannot be reliable. It is only in Manipur that the households have multiplied at a faster rate than the population increase. This unusual differential in the state compared to the remaining states in the region is largely explained by the fact that the state supports a very high proportion of people in the valley. The population has grown faster than the rate of increase in households in Arunachal Pradesh while it is nearly equal in Sikkim. Table-2 : India: Differential Growth in Population and Household Numbers, Regions States/UTs Growth Rate in Households (%) Growth rate in Population (%) Differential Mountain/Hill Arunachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh Jammu & Kashmir Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

13 Sikkim Uttarakhand Plateaus Andhra Pradesh Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Tamil Nadu Plains Assam Bihar Chandigarh Chhattisgarh Dadra & Nagar Ha Daman & Diu Delhi Goa Gujarat Haryana Odisha Puducherry Punjab Rajasthan Tripura Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Islands A & N Island Lakshadweep INDIA The differential is more uniform in the plateau region ranging between percent. Madhya Pradesh has experienced much faster increase in its households (differential being 18 percent) while Jharkhand and Maharashtra represent areas of slower growth in households compared to population growth rate. The plains however display wide variation in differentials ranging from a negative in Chandigarh to 17 per cent in Daman and Diu. Delhi and Goa represent areas of slower increase in households compared to the increase in population. Surprisingly, Haryana, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh and Dadra and Nagar Haveli have Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

14 experienced relatively slower increase in households compared to population growth along with Dehi, Goa and Chandigarh forming a contiguous belt in western part of the vast plains. The remaining states in the plains have differentials ranging between The inevitable conclusion is that households are indeed becoming smaller across regions and states breaking barriers of geographical diversity though the pace may be different. Size of Households While mean size of households has decreased across regions, inter regional variations in the average size are still staggering. The Hilly and mountainous regions continue with much higher household size with Jammu and Kashmir supporting an average of 6.23 persons per household closely followed by Meghalaya (5.51) Manipur (5.37) and Arunachal Pradesh (5.28). The plain areas display wider variation. States like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan continue with very large households of over 6 persons on an average. Punjab (5.6) and Haryana (5.7) too have much higher average size of households. Together, these states including Jammu and Kashmir from the mountainous region constitute a contiguous belt in the North sticking to large households, indicating continuance of multi-generational households and joint families unlike in the south where the mean size of the households is not only small, but continuously declining too. In the plateau region, Tamilnadu, with an average household size of 3.9 persons has the lowest size in the country as a whole. Only Jharkhand in this region has a much higher mean household to join the cross regional contiguous belt of large household size. An outlier of this belt is located in the tribal areas of the North-east. Decreasing household size all across the country is evidenced from an analysis of mean household size. Table-4 reveals this uniform decline in household size irrespective of geographical location and regions. The only three exceptions are rather interesting represented by the mountainous Arunachal Pradesh and the most modern and highly urbanised Delhi as well as the littoral Goa where the mean household size has shown a marginal increase over the decade. In the rest of the country the mean household size has declined in varying degrees. In the Hilly region, the decline in household size is marginal in Meghalaya, Sikkim and Mizoram while Arunachal has indeed shown an increase. Only Manipur in this region shows substantial decline in its mean household size. The case of Nagaland which too shows phenomenal decline in its household size cannot be taken on its face value for reasons cited earlier. The extent of decline in mean size of household in the plateau region is modest ranging from 0.27 member per household in Jharkhand to 0.65 in Madhya Pradesh. With the exception of Madhya Pradesh the decline is lower than the national average (0.39) in all the states included in this region. 8 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

15 Table 3 : India: Mean Size of Households Region States/UTs Change Hilly & Mountain Arunachal Pradesh (AR) Himachal Pradesh (HP) Jammu & Kashmir (JK) Manipur (MN) Meghalaya (ML) Mizoram (MZ) Nagaland (NL) Sikkim (SK) Uttarakhand (UK) Plateaus Andhra Pradesh (AP) Jharkhand (JH) Karnataka (KA) Kerala (KL) Madhya Pradesh (MP) Maharashtra (MH) Tamil Nadu (TN) Plains Assam (AS) Bihar (BR) Chandigarh (CH) Chhattisgarh (CG) Dadra & Nagar Haveli (DN) Daman & Diu (DD) Goa (GA) Gujarat (GJ) Haryana (HR) NCT of Delhi (DL) Odisha (OR) Puducherry (PY) Punjab (PB) Rajasthan (RJ) Tripura (TR) Uttar Pradesh (UP) West Bengal (WB) Islands A& N Islands (AN) Lakshadweep (LD) INDIA Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

16 The plains however display great diversity in the extent of decline in household size. Apart from Delhi and Goa which show an increase in the average size of the household, the decline in mean size of households is all pervasive and ranges from 0.11 in Dadra and Nagar Haveli to 0.56 in Chhatisgarh. Some of the states located in Plain areas that have shown remarkable decline in the mean size of households include Chhatisgarh, Rajasthan, Bihar and Assam as well as Punjab, West Bengal and Tripura- states widely distributed in the region. Conversely, states and union territories which have experienced very small decline in their mean size of the households are Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Chandigarh, Haryana and Gujarat. Together with Delhi and Goa which show an increase in the average size of the household, they form a loosely contiguous belt in the North- Western part of the country representing areas of very slow decline in the mean size of the household. An interesting comparison can be made between single member households (see fig.2) and large households of 6 members or more (see fig.5). Table-5 helps a comparative analysis of changes in the proportion of households in these two categories and across different regions and states of India. It is evident that proportion of one member households during decade registered a general decline in the hilly and mountainous region with the possible exception of Nagaland. The fall in the proportion of such households was precipitous in Mizoram and Sikkim. Simultaneously, the entire region except Arunachal Pradesh experienced decline in the proportion of very large sized households of six members or more. Decline in the proportion of households in two extremes suggest proliferation in medium household size. In contrast to this hill pattern the plateau region displays a situation in which the proportion of one member households has either remained constant or has increased while there is a significant drop in the proportion of very large households. This indicates a strong tendency towards smaller households in the plateau region. Table-4: Regional Variation in one member and over six member households, Region States/UTs 1 member HH Over 6 member HH Hilly & Mountain Arunachal Pradesh (AR) Himachal Pradesh (HP) Jammu & Kashmir (JK) Manipur (MN) Meghalaya (ML) Mizoram (MZ) Nagaland (NL) Sikkim (SK) Uttarakhand (UK) Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

17 Plateaus Andhra Pradesh (AP) Jharkhand (JH) Karnataka (KA) Kerala (KL) Madhya Pradesh (MP) Maharashtra (MH) Tamil Nadu (TN) Plains Assam (AS) Bihar (BR) Chandigarh (CH) Chhattisgarh (CG) Dadra & Nagar Haveli (DN) Daman & Diu (DD) Goa (GA) Gujarat (GJ) Haryana (HR) NCT of Delhi (DL) Odisha (OR) Puducherry (PY) Punjab (PB) Rajasthan (RJ) Tripura (TR) Uttar Pradesh (UP) West Bengal (WB) Islands A& N Islands (AN) Lakshadweep (LD) INDIA In the plains however there is a uniform decline in both one member households and very large households. The fall in the proportion of large size households is however much sharper across regions. It is interesting that the southern states have experienced increase in one member households in sharp contrast to other areas in the backdrop of continuously falling average size of the households. It is evident however that the extent of fall in the large sized households in most regions and states far exceeds the fall or increase in the one member households. While a uniform decline in large households can be easily attributed to a greater nucleation of families, it may be interesting to know the reasons for significant decline in one member households. Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

18 Distribution of Households of Different Size Table-6 clearly shows a decline in the number of states/uts which have more than six percent of their households containing one member each. Interestingly, Jammu and Kashmir and Manipur contain the least number of households with single members. On the other hand Chandigarh, the islands and Daman and Diu have far more numerous households (often above 6 percent of all households) with a single member. Table 5 : Distribution of States/UTs in different percentage categories of one member households No and % of States/UTs Category (%) less than 2 1 (2.8) 2 (5.7) (40.0) 15 (42.9) (37.1) 14 (40.0) Above 6 7 (20.0) 4 (11.4) On the other hand small households/ families, consisting of 2-3 members each, are becoming far more numerous over decade (see fig.3). Table-7 shows that while no state contained more than 30 percent of its households with 2-3 persons in 2001, there are 4 states/uts, two in south, one in Northeast and one in the western part of the country where over 30 percent households contained only 2-3 members each. On the other hand far fewer households (less than 2 percent) were small in Uttar Pradesh showing little changes in its household size of small number. Around percent households contained 2-3 members in 13 states/uts in 2001 which fell sharply to 8 only in 2011 though states like Bihar, Jharkhand and Meghalaya continued to move out of this category. Table 6 : Distribution of States/UTs in different percentage categories of 2-3 member households Category (%) No and % of States/UTs below 15 6 (17.1) 1 (2.8) 15 to (37.2) 8 (22.9) 20 to (31.4) 14 (40.0) 25 to 30 5 (14.3) 8 (22.9) Above 30 0 (0.0) 4 (11.4) Table 7 : Distribution of States/UTs in different percentage categories of 4-5 member households Category (%) No and % of States/UTs to 30 4 (11.4) 1(2.8) 30 to 35 9 (25.7) 6 (17.1) 35 to 40 9 (25.7) 8 (22.9) Above (37.2) 20 (57.1) The trend is similar with respect to relatively larger households of 4-5 members each which too are becoming more numerous in a majority of States/UTs (see fig. 4). It is evident from table-8 that in a majority of the States/UTs, households with 4-5 members account for over 40 percent households cutting across regional differences though far less conspicuous in parts of Hills and mountains and a few states in the plains including UP, Bihar and Rajasthan. The number of states/uts with fewer (less than 30%) households with 4-5 members has come down drastically from 4 to just one (Lakshadweep) 12 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

19 Fig.3 : Change in Two to Three Member Households, Fig. 4 : Change in Four to Five Member Households, Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

20 Fig. 5 : Change in Large Households, The decline in the proportion of very large households is perhaps most revealing of the 2011 census data (table-9). Form just one state/ut containing less than 20 percent of households with six members each in 2001, the number of such states increased to 7. All the south Indian states exhibited a tendency towards fewer households of large size. However, Daman and Diu and Tripura too joined this club. Interestingly many of the other Northeastern states (except Assam), Jammu and Kashmir and states in the plains namely Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Rajasthan and Hayana had over a third (more than 35 percent) of their households containing 6 members or more. The plains and the Hilly areas seem to have changed only marginally as far as the proportion of large households is concerned (see fig. 5). Table 8 : Distribution of States/UTs in different percentage categories of over 6 member households Category (%) No and % of States/UTs less than 20 1 (2.8) 7 (20.0) (14.3) 4 (11.4) (5.7) 5 (14.3) (25.7) 7 (20.0) (8.5) 3 (8.5) Above (42.8) 9 (25.7) It is evident that there are declines in both single member and very large households in many regions cutting across geographical regions suggesting smaller household size as a norm to become a reality in years to come. Does it indicate a convergence of sorts? 14 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

21 It may be interesting to find out broad relationship between household size with a few correlates. A study of the correlation coefficient between proportion of urban population and proportion of single member households show a weak positive association both in 2001 and However urbanization is negatively associated with very large household size. But the coefficients represent only a weak association in both the census years. The inverse relationship between single member and over six member households too is not statistically significant though the inverse association is becoming stronger in 2011 compared to No association could be established between proportion of the Scheduled Caste and proportion of single member as well as six member households. The Scheduled Tribes however showed a positive association with larger households particularly in the year Proportion of Hindus and Muslims in the population showed positive association with larger households though the coefficient of correlation is not strong enough to draw any firm conclusion. Table 9 : Correlation coefficient Correlates year Correlation coefficient 1 member vs. 6+ member households % Urban Population vs. 1 member HH % Urban Population vs. 6 member HH SC Population vs. One member HH SC Population vs. 6 member HH ST population vs. One member HH ST population vs. 6 member HH Hindu vs. one member HH Hindu vs. 6 member HH Muslim vs. one member HH Muslim vs. 6 member HH Christians vs. one member HH Christians vs.6 member HH TFR vs. one member HH TFR vs. 6 member HH CBR vs. one member HH CBR vs. 6 member HH HH: Households SC: Scheduled Castes ST: Scheduled Tribes TFR: Total Fertility Rate, CBR: Crude Birth Rate Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

22 Table - 9 clearly reveals that demographic parameters in contrast to nondemographic parameters reveal a stronger association with single or large (over six member) households. For example, TFR shows a strong positive association with large household size though it has little relationship with single member households. The same is true of crude birth rate and large households of 6 or more. The positive association between fertility/birth rate with very large household size is getting stronger over the decade. Concluding Remarks Family and households hold a prominent place in social life of any population as the most potent socio-economic institution. Any change in the household size or lack of it is a reflection of complex economic, social and demographic process. Likewise, any change in household size has serious social, economic and demographic implication. The study underscores this fact as India is surely moving towards smaller household size if one goes by the macro demographic data available in recently held Censuses. Understandably, this change is not spatially uniform with different regions with their varied social and economic institutions responding differently to this process which however appears to be unfolding irrespective of geographical differences. Only the pace and magnitude of this decline in household size varies from state to state and region to region. This demographic transition which may aptly be described as a sort of convergence is taking place at a time when there is great divergence in most economic indicators of development driven by a liberal economic order adopted since the 1990s. The conclusions of present study however are based on grossly aggregate data and the need is to scrutinise the pattern at lower aggregate levels which may throw up far more interesting regional patterns and more pertinent issues of concern as far as changing household size in India is concerned. Note 1 Census defines different types of households as the following: Household: A household is usually a group of persons who normally live together and take their meals from a common kitchen unless the exigencies of work prevent any of them from doing so. Persons in a household may be related or unrelated or a mix of both. However, if a group of unrelated persons live in a census house but do not take their meals from the common kitchen, then they are not constituent of a common household. Each such person should be treated as a separate household. The important link in finding out whether it is a household or not, is a common kitchen. There may be one member households, two member households or multimember households. In a few situations, it may become difficult to apply the definition of household strictly as given above. For example, a person living alone in a census house whether cooking or not cooking meals is treated as a household. Similarly, if husband and wife or a group of related persons are living together in a census house but not cooking their meals, it also constitutes a normal household. Institutional households- A group of unrelated persons who live in an institution 16 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

23 and take their meals from a common kitchen is called an Institutional Household. Examples of Institutional Households are boarding houses, messes, hostels, hotels, rescue homes, jails, ashrams, orphanages, etc. If in a building which is occupied by an Institutional Household, the families of the warden and the peon are also living in separate census houses and cooking for themselves separately, then each of the family is treated as separate household and the houses occupied by them is treated as separate census houses. In this situation there will be one building, three census houses and three households i.e. one Institutional Household and two Normal Households. If a group of unrelated persons, sharing a common kitchen, is found living in a census house which is not an institution, such a household does not form an Institutional Household but is treated like other Normal household. Houseless households- Households who do not live in buildings or census houses but live in the open on roadside, pavements, in Hume pipes, under flyovers and staircases, or in the open in places of worship, mandaps, railway platforms, etc. are treated as Houseless households. References Niranjan, S., Saritha Nair and T. K. Roy (2005) A Socio-Demographic Analysis of the Size and Structure of the Family in India Journal of Comparative Family Studies Vol. 36, No. 4, autumn pp Aiyappan, A., (1972) Household Size, Extended Families and Changes in Family Structures in Kerala Indian Census Centenary Seminar, New Delhi, Registrar General, India. Blake Judith (1986) Number of Siblings, Family Background and the Process of Educational Attainment Social Biology Vol. 33 pp Bongaarts, John (1983) The Formal Demography of Families and Households: An Overview, IUSSP Newsletter no. 17 pp Bongaarts John, Thomas K. Burch, and Kenneth W. Wachter (eds.) (1987) Family Demography: Methods and their Application, Oxford, Clarendon Press. Bongaarts John (2001) Household Size and Composition in Developing World accessed on Census of India (2001) Data Highlights Data_Highlights/Data_Highlights_link/ data_highlights_hh123.pdf and censusindia.gov.in/data_products/ Data_Highlights/Data_Highlights_link/ Datahighlights_HH567.pdf accessed on Gualtieri, C. Thomas, and Robert E. Hicks (1986) Family Configuration and Family Size Social Biology, Vol.33 pp Koening, Michael A, James A Phillips, Ruth S. Simmons, Mehrab Ali Khan (1987) Trends in family size preferences and contraceptive use in Matlab, Bangladesh Studies in Family Planning, Vol. 18 no.3 pp Levy, Victor (1985) Cropping Pattern, Mechanization, Child Labor and Fertility Behavior in a Farming Economy, Rural Egypt Economic Development and Cultural Change Vol. 33 pp Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

24 National Family and Health Survey-3 (2007) Chapter-2 Household Population and Housing Characteristics, International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai pp Rani, Usha D. (1986) Old Age Security Value of Children and Fertility in Relation to Social Policy Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Sociological Association. Robinson, W. C. (1986) High fertility as Riskinsurance Population Studies, Vol. 40 pp Wagner, Mazie E, Herman J. P. Schubert, and Daniel S. P. Schubert (1985) Family Size Effects: A Review Journal of Genetic Psychology Vol. 146 pp Debendra Kumar Nayak Professor, Rabi Narayan Behera Research Scholar, Department of Geography North-Eastern Hill University Shillong Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

25 Emerging global urban order and challenges to harmonious urban development 1 Surinder Aggarwal, Delhi Abstract Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers More than half of the world s population now lives in urban areas, making urbanization a defining phenomenon of this century. At the centre of this transformation are cities in developing countries and Asia in particular where it is largely characterised by megaurbanization and hyperurbanization. Urbanization today is driven by globalization forces, neo-liberalization tendencies, technology transfer and national policy changes. Push factors that propelled urbanization until the mid-90s are now reversed by pull forces. This paper examines broadly the emerging issues and possible responses and tools to manage contemporay urbanization.urban sprawl linked with megaurbanization is becoming a global phenomenon and is considered one of the most significant characteristic of contemporary urban landscape Further the paper examines in what respects current urbanization is environmentally disturbing and socially discriminatory? Is globalization and neoliberalization going to create/facilitate sustainable and just cities despite the use/transfer of new technologies, capital flows and access to information and communication systems? Towards prescriptions of the prevalent issues we explore new theoretical underpinnings to explain present urban landscape; importance of conservation of urban ecosystems; kind of urban models that need to be developed to address spatial reconfiguration to accommodate the disjointed urban growth, agglomeration economy and informality at different scales and places? Finally we suggest policy responses and planning tools to manage urbanization in the developing countries. Key words : Global urban transition, Asian mega urbanization, urban form, globalization, urban inequities, urban ecosystems. 1 The Context Urbanization, both as a social phenomenon and a physical transformation of landscape, is one of the most powerful, irreversible and visible anthropogenic forces on earth. Of course, modern technology has seemingly made cities physical location less important, still they remain our species of greatest invention (Edward Glaeser 2011), main instruments of economic and social transformation and amelioration of global poverty. Many of the most important and significant changes associated with globalization are taking place in urban 1. The paper is an edited version of the Key- Note address delivered at the International Geographical Congress-2012, Cologne.

26 areas. Conversely, globalization itself is as much an inter-city phenomenon and cities have become major driving force of globalization. In this sense urbanization is a defining phenomenon of this century and the developing countries are at the locus of this transformation. For the first time in human history, more than half of the world s 7 billion population lives in urban areas (Table 1). The demographic shift has happened in the last few decades largely due to rapid urban growth in the developing countries. Of course such rapid urban shift is not for the first time as often proclaimed. Rapid urban change did happen in late 19 th century when countries like Germany, United Kingdom, Canada and the US were industrializing fast. Now it is the huge urban number of 3.6 billion that alarms us. Urbanization has a new face now, and weakly associated with industrialization as was true in early industrializing Europe and elsewhere. Rather, quaternary and tertiary sectors are currently propelling urbanization and linked economic transformation. New forms of advanced capitalism, neo-liberalization and globalization have unleashed the market forces of consumption and resource use to undermine the development of inclusive, just and environmentally sound cities. Table 1 : Urban population and annual rate of change by development groups Urban population Population (billion) Average annual rate of change (%) World More developed regions... Less developed regions Compiled from United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division: World Urbanization Prospects, the 2011 Revision. 2. Emerging urbanization patterns and demographic changes According to 2011 Revision of World Urbanization Prospects there is significant diversity in the urbanization levels reached by different global regions (2012). More developed regions like US and Europe and many countries in Latin America and the Caribbean have reached high levels of urbanization as more than 70% of their total population is urban at present. Asia and Africa are following the same path and will cross 50 % mark by 2020 and 2035 respectively. Developing countries with 73 % share of global urban population and high urban growth rates are henceforth the 20 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

27 new actors of urbanization. By 2030 urban population pressure here will become two times whereas land demand for urban expansion is expected to go by three times. This is supposedly the greatest challange to reckon with. Urban growth is not uniform and megacities, global cities and emerging urban agglomeration dominate towards a rising share and fast urban transitions. Recent trends however indicate that mega or emerging-megacities are slowing down in growth, whereas mid-size cities exhibit greater buoyancy and will absorb most of the future urban population. Voluntary migration that fueled early migration streams is now supplemented and reshaped by recruitment agencies, employment regimes and immigration policies of various countries. Push factors which propelled urbanization until mid 1990s are getting reversed by pull-factors. The demographic structure, exhibits signs of change, with more women migrants and swelling elderly and young population cohorts. Developed countries on the contrary, exhibit a very modest growth of less than 1% ( Table 1) or even negative urban growth which follows their declining fertility levels. Another interesting trend is also noticed in some industrialized countries. Immigrants share in urban growth is rising in comparison to native groups. Such countries apprehend dominance of new immigrants in urban politics and socio-economic spheres and a possible reason for future ethnic conflicts. Spatially, there is a visible counterurbanization trend with more expansion in the rural settings for both working and living environments. Mega urbanization has of course slowed down and urban transitions have matured, except in the transition countries of industrializing Eastern Europe. In Latin America, big countries like Brazil have crossed the fast urban transition and joined the developed countries list with high urban population share. 3 Asia: The major player of 21st century urbanization It is often stated that 21st century urbanization belongs to Asia. Despite a low urbanization level of 45%, Asian region with 75 % of the developing countries urban population and 52 % of the global is expected to remain the major contributor to the future urban growth ( Fig. 1). Imporatnce of Asian urbanization is also recognized by the fact that urban areas contribute close to 84% to their national economies, whereas they contain only 42% of the urban population (Fig.2). Situation across various Asian regions is Fig. 1 Compiled from United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division: World Urbanization Prospects, the 2011 Revision. Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

28 Fig. 2 Compiled from UN-HABITAT, ESCAP, The State of Asian Cities 2010/11 not significantly different. China and India having urban population weight of 700 million, which is close to the population of the U.S. and Europe, shall remain the major players. After Africa it is the second fastest growing region with average annual growth rate of 3.2 %. Despite the projected declining urban growth rate of almost one-third by 2050, Asia will accommodate around half of the global 6.3 billion urban populations. The growth of urban population across various size settlements is not uniform in Asia. The region is characterized by megaurbanization process. Asia contained only one mega-city, that is Tokyo, in 1970, and it s count rose to five out of ten in 1990; 13 out of 23 in 2011; and is projected to reach 22 out of 37 by In 2011, thirteen mega cities of Asia contained around 11 % of the total urban population of the region and their share is expected to rise further. Many of the Asian cities, like Singapore, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur and Dubai, are placed among the global cities due to their specialized functions and global connectivity. They may not be mega-cities but they are global cities. Globalization has made the category of third world city as obsolete in many Asian cities and they are proud to have their own style urban design, models of urban growth and planning governing principles. Peter Rimmer and Howard Dick (2009) claim that Hong Kong, Dubai, Kuala Lumpur, Shanghai, Singapore, Istanbul, Bangalore and Mumbai are third world cities in a limited way. Due to their transnational connectivity, construction of sophisticated information and communication technology infrastructure, they are no more third-world cities in a conservative sense. We may consider to look at Asia or regions of Asia, as a set of cities, rather than a block of countries. Ananya Roy Aihwa Ong ( 2011) from their book on Worlding Cities: Asian Experiments and the Art of Being Global conclude that in the globalizing world, Asian cities like Singapore and Dubai are emerging as centers of global finance while New York and London are struggling the aftermath of the great recession of Likewise, Shanghai and Hong Kong have become share-selling capitals of the world. Asian cities today also map their own path and models of being global cities and not strictly following the master blueprint of the West. Mumbai for example, the financial capital of India, is struggling to catch up Shanghai, as emerging global cities become competitive. So they are now in competition within the region themselves. Today, cities like Bangalore, New York and London exist and known for their ability to innovate. Why did Bangalore out of all Indian cities achieve this status as hub of IT? Skills, and human capital, perhaps not geography, are the source of Bangalore s strength. Companies like Infosys, and a virtuous circle was born wherein smart firms and smart workers flocked to 22 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

29 Bangalore to be near each other. Quite a few other non-capital cities such as Shanghai or Mumbai have substantial international presence despite the dysfunction of their home nations. As in case with modern nation cities, cities in the new industrial economies, China, India, Indonesia, Brazil for example, embody national ambitions of wealth, power, and recognition. Many Asian cities have recently become centers of enormous political investment (Beijing, New Delhi), economic growth (viz., Hongkong, Seoul), tourist destination(viz. Dubai, Singapore) and cultural vitality (Istanbul, Kuala Lumpur) and have thus become sites for global significanc. Referring to a McKinsey Global Institute study on Urban World: cities and rise of the consuming class (2012), emerging 440 cities, including large number of Asian cities, are expected to share close to half of global GDP growth. Likewise such cities will contribute to growth in urban demand for essential services and economic infrastructure. China is noted to lead in such demand globally. For example China s share will contribute to nearly 40 % of floor space and 25% of municipal water demand in global share during 2010 and 2025 period. Chicago Council of Global Affairs on Global Cities Index (2012) featured fifteen Asian cities among the top fifty, demonstrating the stability of Asias relevance on the world stage. According to Saskia Sassen: networks of 20 global cities (many in Asia) will determine world s geopolitical future and not G2 of US and China (2002). The above study also quotes Peter Taylor s relational city thinking analogy that the world today is more about interrelationship of cities than countries. Nations are no longer driving globalization rather cities perform that role now. City like Seoul is more connected with Singapore and Hong Kong than other South Korean cities. Absence or weak interaction with wider network of national/regional cities, of course is a worrisome trend within this globalization led mega-urbanization process in Asia. Urbanization in Asia is not a uniform process and influenced by national or subregional characteristics. It started with slow growth rate and picked rapid speed and turned into hyper mode after 1980 s. Demographically, Asian urbanization process encouraged megaurbanization and developed a new kind of economic and demographic primacy, wherein global capital and export oriented economy played decisive roles in promoting and strengthening capital/mege/global cities. At the same time major Asian global cities (Beijing and Delhi for example) are not doing well on environment and liveability aspects, despite their good economic performance. Lower tier cities and distant hinterlands have not grown as well under the shadow of megaurbanization and seaboard corridor urban development. Asian style urbanization is largely characterized by heavy global capitalism (extension of dependency model), huge land portfolios, encroachment on scarce agricultural land and damages to environmental and ecosystems. The current urbanization process has generated sharp regional, economic and social inequalities. Accerlated rural-urban migration, particularly of the skilled Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

30 workers, has produced exculusionary tenedencies leading to racial and ethinic conflicts (Kundu,2009). Population policies should address such issues with a more humane and inclusive urban growth approach. In Asia, urbanization per se need not to be discouraged as the economic gains and employability/livelihood concerns overwiegh over the manageable environmental and social costs. 4 Why contemporary urbanization is disturbing and discriminatory? 4.1: Environmental and ecological threats Urbanization as a major cause for colossal fossil energy use, urban sprawl, land use/ cover changes exhibits local, regional and extra regional environmental impacts. Such impacts are visible in most cities of the developing countries through inefficient water services, deteriorating water quality, groundwater depletion, air and land pollution. Even though availability and coverage of municipal drinking water supply has significantly improved (90%- 95%) during the last decade in the cities of poor countries, waste water disposal and treatment has not shown commensurate improvement (close to 50%) and is a big health risk to the vulnerable communities and health of the water ecosystems. Cities consume more than two-thirds of total global energy against 50 % share in population, however its health impacts are conspicuous in many large Asian and African cities. Beijing s toxic air pollution has broken records recently and both Beijing and Delhi are infamous for toxic smog related health risks and deaths. Extra regional/global impacts of mega urbanization like loss to ecosystems, climate change, natural and hybrid disasters, and biodiversity loss are getting stronger and drawing greater global attention. Urbanization is inherently not bad for ecosystems as urban areas account for only 2.8% of land area. Many developing countries are already running into ecological deficits, more so in the urban areas. The eco health of many water bodies is seriously threatened and these are unable to provide free ecological services of bathing, performing rituals, livelihood generation etc., especially for the poor. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Report (World Resources Institute 2005) clearly establishes mega urbanization responsible for the biodiversity loss and health of the urban ecosystems. Cities also concentrate vulnerability to natural disasters and to long-term changes in climate. According to World Urbanization Prospects( UN,2012) urban agglomerations of various size already experience potential risks of cyclones and floods, particularly on the Pacific rim and the Eastern US coastal zone. Due to enormous concentration of human life, global lifelines of communication, and valued goods and economic infrastructure, the potential effect of disasters on megacities is enormous. Kraas (2003) addresses mega-cities as global risk areas, which are exposed on the one hand to environmental hazards and on the other hand to man-made hazards. Mega urbanization threaten human and environmental security. The impacts, of-course are not equal on all social and 24 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

31 economic groups as these are influenced by human sensivities, vulnerabilities and thresholds (Aggarwal and Butsch, 2011). Factors like governance, policies, institutional roles and ciitizens involvement also produce differential impacts on the communities. Nevertheless, the vulnerable and marginalized groups suffer most from such environmental impacts as their sensitivities are high and preparedness low. 4.2 : Urban inequities and conflicts In the process of mega-urban development we notice that not only the urban environment is damaged but also it has affected the social and economic fabric and produced landscapes of poverty, informality, inequality and marginality, largely in the developing countries. Urban divides with several formsdigital, income, social, urban services, spatial (core vs periphery)- are becoming more pronounced and sharp. According to Saskia Sassen, (2001) the ascendance of information industries and the growth of global economy, both inextricably linked and located in mega cities, have contributed to a new geography of centrality and marginality. This centralized urban economy has given unparallel power to the already advantaged to produce distinct division of labour and space in urban systems. This is resulting into economic and social conflicts and spatial fragmentation. Contestation on competing social and economic spaces have produced conflicts and disturbed the social harmony of the urban society. On the new trajectory of current urbanization and globalization, phenomenon of local losers and global winnerss is becoming evident. As urbanization forces accompanied with neoliberalization are advancing, inequality and poverty manifests now within societies, particularly key cities and the hinterlands, rather than across them (between rich and poor nations). These inequalities and inequities find manifestation in access to housing, municipal services, quality education and healthcare. WHO Commission on social determinants of health( 2008) identified urbanization as the biggest social determinant of health globally. The Report asserts that much of disease burden and health ineqity in the urban settings ( places of growing, living and working) is avoidable and can be improved with action on social determinants like sex, age, income, ethnicity and location.. A clear manifestation of the urban divide is the presence of slums and prevalence of poverty. Slum dwellers are either clustered in space as in sub-saharan Africa and scattered within the urban fabric, like in India, and can also be found in the decaying urban centres, and at the periphery of the city. The social and spatial divide created by slums is not only the result of income inequalities, but also a by product of inefficient land and housing markets, bad or non-existent policies and poor governance mechanisms that force many non poor/low income families to reside in slum areas for lack of better alternatives. The urban divide is not only about fragmented space and socio-economic differences, it is also about inequalities in opportunity, between social groups, age groups and men and women in access to knowledge, use of technology and employment, among others. UN-Habitat Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

32 and ESCAP (2010/11) report found varying degree of inequalities across many leading cities of Asia. At a more radical level, Harvey ( 2013) argues that urban conflicts will probably be decisive in the wake of Western deindustrialization. He replaces the traditional concept of class struggle with the struggle of all those who produce and reproduce urban life. With surplus global/national capital and sharp division of labour, urban development projects like Commonwealth games (India), Olympics (China), musical concerts, convention canters, soccer world cup, ICT parks and designed residential and commercial complexes are making cities competitive, exclusionary, and giving birth to rising social conflicts and movements for city rights such as Occupy Wall Street in New York. Such movements are justified since public pays for the rising prices (a kind of city rent) to live in this uniquely built iconic city. Symbolic projects led urbanization can solve economic crises, like in China and India during 2008 recession period, with diversion of labour and surplus capital, but more than anything, it is a way to get out of crises and not a sustainable solution for growing exclusionary tendencies. World Urban Forum 5 (2010) also echoed Right to the City concept as a new paradigm for the transformation of cities, although not in radical/legal right form. It has been interpreted as a theoretical, political and conceptual framework that refers to aspects such as enforcement, empowerment, participation, self-realization and determination, and protection of human rights at the city level. David Harvey also appreciates this approach of protest by peaceful movements like Occupy Wall Street in New York. The approach of course gives visibility and voice to the citizens concerns for producing an inclusive city. 4.3 Urban sprawl and/urban expansion One of the most significant characteristic of contemporary urban landscape is the phenomenon of urban sprawl or urban expansion. Different population growth rates and level of development generate different demands for urban space leading to urban expansion. On the contrary, urban sprawl has to be seen as an uneconomical and non-linear form of land consumption which creates needless interaction costs, unjustified resource consumption and social conflicts. Largely driven by profit making interest groups- builders, developers, urban design professionals, architechts, institutional finance - for low density living, and high profile business, urban sprawl has become the most challenging land, social conflict and environmental issue of this century. The auto-centric urban sprawl has attained the most unsustainable urban form and production of urban space in both industrialized and emerging economies. Globally, urban areas are expanding two times faster than urban population. Global forecasts of urban expansion (Seto et al,2012 and World Bank 2005), urban built up area will increase by1.2 million km 2, by 2030,, nearly tripling the global urban land area circa Within the developing countries, during the same period, urban population is expected to double from 2 billion to 26 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

33 4 billion, whereas land demand will rise three times. For the industrialized countries the situation is even worse as population is expected to increase by 20% and land area by 2.5 times. Fifty perent increase in urban expansion is shared by Asia (55% of Asia by India and China alone). Every new resident, on average, converts some 160 square meters of non-urban to urban land. Globally, cities may possibly consume as much as 5 7% of total arable land, which is currently 2% per annum. Urban expansion projections which includes urban sprawl establish that the process is real Developed countries, in particular land abundant US, increasingly display a counterurbanization (rururbanization) trend after experiencing the phases of suburbanization, edge city dewvelopment for both working and living environments. On the contrary European cities are still relatively dense and peripheral development is an emerging and growing phenomenon as rental and land values rise in the central city. At the same time peripheral development in most metropolitan cities of the poor economies is relatively new trend and is largely illegal, unplanned, and disjointed. The disjointed landscape includes supermarkets, malls, office space, urban villages, high-rise residential/commercial complexes, and illegal squatter settlements. The process is threatening the productive agricultural land on the fringe and also damaging natural. Urban sprawl has thus attained infamous metaphor of City Cancer when it weakens communities at the core and destroys natural resources and ecosystems at the edge. 5. What needs to be done to produce and create harmonious urbanization and sustainable cities? By harmonious urban development we mean a symbiosis between man and nature and across individuals and society towards achieving quality of life in the urban settings. Considering the numerous challenges and concerns of present urbanization trends, we present below selected perspectives to create harmonious urban development. 5.1 Shift in theoretical underpinnings of contemporay urban landscape New forces of urbanization have transformed the role, economic base, social relations function, form, range of demands, iconic meaning and regional relationships of the cities across the world. At present cities get their meaning by actors such as architects, developers, urban designers, material experts, planners and proprietors. These producers of social and economic space are situated within class and cultural context. People, cultures, ways of life, city icons normally provide identity to a city. Unfortunately it seems that branding a city to a new building or set of buildings is a kind of new identity for a city. New forms of urbanity (life styles of global milieu) are emerging within the living territories of cities. Cities are becoming sites through which ideologies are projected, cultural values are expressed and power is exercised. They are also becoming places of conflict resulting from division of labour and space. Subsequently, space and time have changed their meaning and context as these become constricted and extraordinary dynamic for the post-modern Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

34 city. Urban expansion and urban sprawl, a product of divergent forces, is making urban form almost shapeless. Apparently, both convergence and divergence forces are operating simultaneously to produce segregated and highly differentiated and fragmented urban landscapes. Past and contemporay urban theories/ models of Chicago school, structuralist theories based on city power relations and more recently of the Los Angeles school provide partial explanation of the present city form and wider relationships. Chicago Shool theories largely explained internal land use dynamics and the agglomeration type industrial economy and its social relations expressed in urban space. Centralized Chicago school models are being challenged now by Los Angeles decentralized city form models (dis-asembling the urban) promoted by Saskia Sassen and others. These polycentric models capture primarily the sprawling landscape as found in cities of the North. European scholars did not promote any specific school of urban theory rooted in land use approach, rather did more theoretical work on understanding the evolution of city morphology (morphogenesis) by utilizing iconographic and desriptive approaches. Understanding the impact of history and culture remained major concern in following the evolving urban form. The compact European city structure is losing ground to sprawling and fragmented cities under the influence of globalization, new technologies of information and communication and the new urban actors. Urban theory/models for the cities in the South that explained the exclusive indigenious and imposed colonial forms are found lacking. Rather, modified Western models and factorial ecology approach to understand the urban form and underlying social and economic structures are often applied with inadequate explanatory power. Combined with neoliberalization and globalization influence, the indigenous characteristics such as informality, socio-economic polarization, poverty, encroachments, fortified urban landscapes are making the urban landscape even more complex and variegated. Informality, typical and ubiquitous characteristic of the city in the South deserves acceptable consideration and realism within urban theory. The challenge for urban geographers is to debate and refine the existing theories to reflect the cosmopolitanism of contemporary global urban diversity, new type of migrants and immigrants, cultural pluralism, social conflicts, informality and competing land demands by new actors and stakeholders. They neeed to integrate the prevailing and future trajectories of urbanization. It is evidently clear that one size shoe models and explanations are not tenable and we need to consider innovative urban theories/ models for the unique features of the city in the North and the city in the South. Probably a meta theory within the context of social theory will be more realistic considering the vast diversity of urban settlements, overwhelming social and environmental issues and the distint process of urbanization. The only uniformity or global convergence appears for megaurbanization, which allows for a considerate thinking for megaurbanization theory or models. 28 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

35 5.2 Conservation of urban ecosystems Cities are basically ecological spaces. With the kind of urban sprawl/expansion and inner city development happening across the world, ecosystems damages (coupled with biodiversity loss) have become equally or even more important than the environmental concerns. Ecosystems conservation helps in producing natural capital by saving on municipal costs( sewage, water, clean air..), securing livelihoods, boosting local economy (business, tourism, and delays the tipping point of environmental degradation. Foremost, it provides almost free ecosystem services and livelihood opportunities to the urban poor. Considering the cost component of capital intensive infrastructure, conservation of urban ecosystems like forests, water bodies and river beds is a formidable alternative to alleviate urban poverty, waste water treatment and protection from natural hazards. Economists are seriously working on assessing economic value of ESS towards poverty reduction, and reducing disease burden within the cities and beyond. Likewise, urban geographers can take a lead among spatial scientists to bridge this research gap by trans-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary collaboration towards applied urban ecology. Henceforth, urban focus should be more on the urban ecology and urban ecosystem approaches to comprehend the processes and linkages with urban poverty, preserving ecosystems health and its manifestations for climate change. We require re-orienting our thinking of environmental issues with urban ecosystems approach for producing harmonious urban development. 5.3 Containing the urban sprawl Among several alternatives (viz. green belt, revitalization of inner city, new urbanism, neo-urbanism) to contain urban sprawl, smart growth/smart city is the one most talked about and a pragmatic solution. It favours collaboration over regulation between state and local authorities. Smart Growth Strategy (based on 3Es - Ecology, Economy and Equity) focuses on creating urban growth boundary that limits outward expansion, and encourages new development in infill-locations in already urbanized areas to accommodate more intense and mixed land use development. The approach preserves open spaces, farm land, critical environmental areas against further urban development and to use space more effectively by using a single comprehensive plan that captures the vision and means for transformation. Primarily, it implies to increase housing density in areas that already have roads, water systems, and transit access in other words, to build upon the built. To achieve these objectives, smart city encourages the use of digital technology (real time governance and control), data base management, surveillance system, strict land use controls, efficient public transit in inner city and pedestrianization of roads and markets. The approach has great relevance for development of all size urban settlements in the developing countries due to its emphasis on energy efficient land uses. For the rich countries, it will strengthen revitalizing the inner cities and encourage Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

36 the use of public transport. The only caveat is to avoid vertical growth in the name of high density land uses and iconic image of the city under liberal urban design paradigm. Many cities across the world are now taking advantage of ICT infrastructure to develop smart transport, home-based business, smart card services. Still the approach has not taken off with wider practice, and needs promotion in the developing countries where the need is equally significant as the cities there are growing very fast and urban sprawl is a critical issue. 1.5 Policy Responses and Tools to Manage Urbanization in the Developing countries Urban policies need to address clearly the emerging issues of megaurbanization, urban sprawl, ecosystem damages, and inefficient resource consumption. Ruralurban migration policies need to be reexamined to promote more democratic and inclusive process of migration that makes it an instrument of growth rather than a deterrent. Sound urban land policy is equally crucial as it influences urban sprawl, environmental degradation and settlement of the poor. Strong and fair land regulations are required that facilitate the inclusive growth and reduces informality. On the moral and ethical grounds, right to city approach deserves attention and may be debated at national and sub-national level for securing social justice and inclusiveness considering fundamental rights of the ordinary citizen. The master plan approach, embedded primarily in land use planning, has not addressed adequately the new challenges of environment degradation and inequity issues. Likewise growth of urban sprawl, damages to the urban ecosystems, informality and slums are among many externalities produced by the archaic urban and regional planning approaches. Lack of effective leadership, governance and participatory planning has further aggravated chaotic urban growth. To correct and ameliorate such planning deficits, the planning profession, as individuals and professional groups, remained unassertive to impress upon the primary decision makers for effective changes in land use based urban planning. To improve the prevailing dismal state of cities, good governance and management practices should become integral part of innovative urban planning process. Urban planners, architects and urban designers need to focus upon holistic solutions with growing relevance for trans disciplinary and interdisciplinary approaches. Smart growth model will be an ideal tool towards harmonious urban development. The developed countries are promoting the main tenets of the concept to suit their need and city planners in the developing countries may also adopt this approach as it is absolutely cost effective, inclusive, environmental friendly and participatory. 6 Concluding remarks The current urban demographic shift has gone in favour of less developed countries and in particular the Asian region. Within transition economies, including Asia, 30 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

37 mega-urbanization dominates the urban transition at present and is projected to shift towards second and third tier cities of less than 5 millions. Further, a new class of influential builders, political establishment and architecture and planning professionals have facilitated to produce a disjointed urban sprawl and alien urban form. Globalization and neo-liberalization processes have also contributed towards mega urbanization and growing inequities, insecurities and conflicts at least in the mega cities of the developing countries. Equity concerns now predominate over inequality issues in access to land and other social and economic infrastructure. However, the moot question remains whether such forces are going to create/facilitate sustainable and just cities in Asia or elsewhere despite the use/transfer of new technologies, capital flows and access to information and communication systems? Considering the complex nature of economic base, urban form, functions and social relations under the new operating forces, the existing urban theories and models of Chicago and even of Los Angeles school are found untenable both within the developing and the devloped countries. In the absence of any substantive urban theory, the current persctives on the dynamics of urban space needs to reflect transnational, postcolonial and moral pohilosiphical underpinnings within a metatheory framework. To address the environmental concerns, conservation of urban ecosystems approach needs preferred attention largely due to urban sprawl issues. Likewise to contain urban sprawl, intensive enrgy use and better land management Smart Cities approach need to be promoted for a viable and sustainable alternative for cities of the future. Certain relevant questions need to be pondered over or answered for future research. In the Asian context, the big questions remain that how to to regulate and manage Asian type mega-urbanization and make choice between competitive or cooperative city models? From the developing countries paerspective, how can we internalize/legitimize informality towards inclusive urban growth? What are new thresholds that maintain sustainability and stability of the urban systems.? How can we regulate the uncontrolled process of fragmented urbanization to save land and ecosystems in the rural-urban interface regions? References Aggarwal, S., Butsch, C. (2011): Environmental and Ecological Threats in Indian Megacities. - In: Richter, M., Weiland, U. (eds.): Applied Urban Ecology. Chichester: Chicago Council of Global Affairs on Global Cities Index (2012). Glaeser Edward (2011). Triumph of the City. The Penguin Press. Harvey, David (2013). Rebel Cities: From the Right to the city to the Urban Revolution. Vero, London. Institute for Urban Strategies (October 2011). Global Power City Index 2011.The Mori Memorial Foundation. Krass F. ( 2003). Megacities as global risk areas. Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen 147(4):6-15. Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

38 Kundu Amitabh (2009). Excusionary Urbanization in Asia: A Macro Overview. Economic & Political Weekly, Vol. XLIV No. 48, November 28, Rimmer Peter and Howard Dick (2009). The City in South East Asia: Patterns, Processes and Policy. Singapore, NUS Press, Roy Ananya and Ong Aihwa (2011). Worlding Cities: Asian Experiments and the Art of Being Global. Wiley Blackwell. Sassen, S. (2001). "The global city: Strategic site/new frontiers." Globalization : a symposium on the challenges of closer global integration. Sassen, S. (2002). Global Networks, Linked Cities, New York: Routledge Seto Karen C., Guneralp Burak and Hutyra Lucy R. (2012). Global forecasts of urban expansion to 2030 and direct impacts on biodiversity and carbon pools. PNAS, Vol. 109, No. 40, October 2, UN-Habitat (2010). Global Urban Forum 5 UN-HABITAT, ESCAP (2010/11). The State of Asian Cities. UN-HABITAT. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division: World Urbanization Prospects, the 2011 Revision, 2012 WHO (2008). Commission on Social Determinants of Health: Closing the Gap in a Generation. WHO,Geneva. WHO (2011). Map Production: Public Health Information and Geographical Information Systems. World Bank (2005). The dynamics of global urban expansion. Washington D.C. The World bank World Resources Institute (2005). Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Ecosystems and Human Wellbeing. Island press, Washington D.C. Surinder Aggarwal Former Professor of Geography University of Delhi 32 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

39 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Reorienting Undergraduate Geography Curricula Sarfaraz Alam, Banaras, Uttar Pradesh Abstract At undergraduate stage geography is opted as an optional subject by both science and arts stream students for B.A. and B.Sc. degrees. However, it has been observed that undergraduate geography departments in India are failing to attract first rate students. Students, who have studied arts and social science subjects at intermediate stage, electing geography as an optional subject at undergraduate stage, are found wanting in the basic vocabulary and grammar of geography (phrases have been taken from Jackson, Peter, 2006: ). On the other hand, students, who have studied science subjects at intermediate stage, electing geography as an optional subject at undergraduate stage, are those who have failed to get admission in other science and technology oriented subjects. These have implications for the teaching transaction and the overall image of the discipline and department. This paper endeavours to diagnose the underlying causes behind these trends. It, then, goes on to argue that the undergraduate geography curriculum modernization could be the single most effective means of dealing with this crisis. The subject could be made intellectually appealing and rewarding for students, teachers and society through curriculum innovation. Though curriculum development is a comprehensive process this paper focuses on few aspects only. Key Words: Geography, Curricula, vocabulary, grammer, curriculam development Introduction There is a growing concern among policy makers and the teaching and research community in India regarding the inability of the undergraduate departments of universities and colleges to attract first grade students. The Prime Minister of India has also voiced his concern: "I share the concern being expressed by many of our scientists that our best minds are not turning to science, and those who do, do not remain in science. I am told that less than 3% of school children want to pursue a career in science. We must find ways of making these disciplines more attractive to children. We have to improve the quality of teaching of science and mathematics at the school level. Countries like China and South Korea are far ahead of us in investing in science and technology. We need to do much more in this vital area if we have to keep pace with the evolving global economy of the future." (Dr. Manmohan Singh, 2006)

40 As a geography teacher, my apprehension is that the discipline of geography is not an exception to this trend. My experience has been that, of late, the lot that come to geography are mostly those who have failed to get admission in technical and professional courses. This concern has been earlier articulated by Lahiri-Dutt (2005: 691): It is well known that the best students go for medical and engineering studies, followed by those who go in for hard sciences like mathematics and physics, then comes the bio-sciences (those who have been lucky ever since environmental science now offers them a place of pride within academia), and finally, there are those intelligent students wanting to study arts who opt for either economics or geography. Students usually opt for those subjects that are either directly rewarding (e.g., professional certificate/diploma/degree courses) or have the potential to fetch them a good career in the long run. From the point of view of career, geography in India has remained largely an unrewarding subject except for in teaching. This failure could partly be linked to the content and method of geography teaching in schools and colleges. Therefore, many geographers in India are now realizing the importance of changing geography curricula at different stages of formal education. This is amply evident by the kind of themes recently undertaken in a series seminars/symposia organized in different universities/institutes located in different parts of India. 1 Concerns raised in these meetings prompted me to share my views through this paper on the need to reorient geography curricula at undergraduate level. This paper starts with two pertinent questions concerning problems of geography at undergraduate level. First, why intermediate passed arts and social science students, electing geography as an optional subject at undergraduate level, are weak in the vocabulary and grammar of geography? Second, why geography departments (those located in science faculties) are failing to attract good quality science students? The article, then, goes on to propose a few suggestions that could possibly enhance the profile of the discipline at undergraduate level. 1. Shri A. M. Khwaja Chair (located in the Department of Geography, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi) organized a two-day National Symposium on Paradigm Shift in Geography (on November 28 and 29, 2011); the Chair once again organized a two day National Seminar on Revisiting Geography as a Sustainable Discipline at Jamia from February 20 to 21, Centre for Earth Science Studies (CESS), Trivandrum, organized a two-day national workshop on Philosophy and Research Methodology of Geography (during December 7 and 8, 2011); CESS again organized a one-day Symposium on the same theme on the occasion of the Indian Geographers Meet and National Conference on Natural Resource Management and Decentralized Planning on December 12, 2012; the Department of Geography, Banaras Hindu University (BHU), Varanasi organized a three-day national seminar on Re-orienting Geography to Meet Present and Future Challenges (from March 14 to March 16, 2012). Another three-day national seminar was organized by the Department of Geography, BHU on the theme of Reorienting Geography Education and Training for Sustainable Development in India from October 29 to October 31, Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

41 Why are the students taking geography at undergraduate of subject? It is being generally observed that students electing geography at undergraduate level in arts/social science faculties come with weak foundations in the vocabulary and grammar of geography. The knowledge and intelligence level of students taking admission in geography departments depends to a certain extent on the nature of geography teaching at the school level. In recent years, qualitative transformations have taken place in the geography curriculum of school of NCERT (for details refer to Alam, Sarfaraz, 2010). First, there is an effort to integrate geography with either social science or environmental studies in the secondary school curricula. In an integrated teaching the focus is not on the discipline of geography per say. Instead, the syllabi are organized around certain themes. These themes are studied through different disciplinary lenses. As a result students do not get opportunities to acquire knowledge of essential facts and understanding of fundamental concepts specific to disciplines including geography. As a result when they enrol in geography departments for undergraduate degree they are often found wanting in their knowledge and understanding of concepts very basic to geography such as latitude, longitude, absolute locations, relative location, site, space, place, distribution, spatial interaction, areal association, region, map and scale. In August 2012, a questionnairebased survey was conducted among newly enrolled B.A./B.Sc. students of the Department of Geography of Banaras Hindu University (Varanasi) to assess their level of understanding of basic geographical concepts. It was found that there is a general lack of understanding of fundamental concepts of geography among them. The result of the survey is presented in Table 1. Table - 1 : Understanding of fundamental concepts of geography Terms Do not Know Incorrect Parialy Correct Latitude Longitude Globe Scale Map Location Region Fully Correct It is needless to emphasize that students taking admission at undergraduate level are expected to know these concepts. Complex concepts of geography are built on these basic concepts. Lack of understanding of these concepts among students hampers the teaching of complex concepts of geography (e.g., spatial pattern, process, organization, association, autocorrelation and change). The second debilitating change in the school curricula is related to the neglect of world regional geography. Previously the study of the world regions was an integral component of school geography syllabus. School children had opportunity to travel in their imagination to different places and regions of the world. This led to development of some kind of mental maps/picture of the world in them. So whenever a teacher used to name a place, region or a geographical feature in his/her lectures, students could mentally as well as visually locate them. Presently world regional geography is not Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

42 taught in schools using textbook published by the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), several State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT) and State Institutes of Educational Research and Training (SIERT) (for details refer to NCFSE, 2000 and NCF, 2005, both reports prepared by the NCERT). As a result students are getting limited opportunities of acquiring knowledge of the world or developing a global perspective. The undergraduate geography departments are now receiving students who lack even the basic knowledge of world geography (i.e. locations of places, regions and peoples, landforms, climate and so on). In the same survey, the newly admitted undergraduate students were asked to write names of one country from different geographical regions of the world. Their knowledge of world geography was found to be awfully deficient. The distribution of their responses is presented in Table 2. Table - 2 : Knowledge of nams of countries by geographical regions Name of Region Correct Incorrect Do not know West Asia South Asia South America West Indies West Europe East Africa North America East Asia Cetral Asia The current state of geographical illiteracy hampers the teaching of physical and human geography and their subbranches. For example, geomorphology teachers teach various kinds of physical features on the earth as well as the underlying processes which create those features. The teachers impart knowledge of patterns of location and distribution of all the processes and the resulting features on the earth to students. Similarly human-created phenomena and processes are unevenly distributed on the earth s surface. A human geography teacher imparts knowledge about the unevenly distributed socio-spatial patterns and processes on the earth s surface. Under these conditions those students who are ignorant of the regional geography of the world find it difficult to properly realize class lectures. It is also worth noting that the study of geography at senior secondary stage is not mandatory for opting geography as an optional subject at undergraduate level. As a result undergraduate geography departments are also receiving a substantial proportion of students who have not studied geography at higher secondary stage. These students have studied geography as a compulsory subject at secondary school level. When they take admission at the undergraduate level, two years have already passed when they had studied geography at secondary school level. In these two years, students generally forget whatever they have studied at school level. Why are geography departments failing to attract good quality students? There is a steady decline in the popularity of geography among school students. There are both extrinsic and intrinsic reasons for this. Extrinsic reasons are related to the nature 36 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

43 of the society in which geography is taught and learnt. The contemporary Indian Society is a swayed by philosophy of neo-liberal regime. The whole purpose of education has undergone complete makeover. The focus of education is to create a pool of competent labour force who can contribute to the growth of corporate economy. Students usually opt for those subjects at intermediate and college stages which have maximum possibilities of developing a suitable career. Therefore, not surprisingly, the most intelligent students often take admission in subject combinations which get them admissions in medical and engineering courses after intermediate. Those who join B. Sc. course give preference to those combinations which have potential to shape their career. They usually give first preference to combinations which have such subjects as mathematics, physics, chemistry, computer science and geology. Geography is usually the last option for science students. The weaker students are forcefully given geography as an option due to their lower ranks in entrance examination or poor marks at intermediate examination. The position of geography is somewhat similar when it comes to choice of subject for honours. Geography is usually not the favourite subject for honours for science stream students. These students, who are ineligible (because of low marks in previous examination) to opt other science subjects from their subject combination, are forced to take geography. The remaining students who intentionally choose geography for honours are those who do not opt for other science subjects for fear of failure. The preferred position of geography as a social science/art subject, however, is comparatively better. Geography has traditionally been a favoured subject for undergraduate and post-graduate degrees in social science and arts faculties. But in recent years, it is facing competition from subjects such as Economics, English, Hindi and Sociology (or Social Work). The prospect of getting a job after obtaining graduation/post graduation degrees in these subjects is brighter. The intrinsic factors are equally to be blamed for the unpopularity of geography among students. These are related to the institutional framework within which geography is practised. Most of the geography departments in India do not revise their undergraduate and postgraduate curricula on a regular basis. Curriculum development should be seen as a continuous process. It should reflect the changing contours of the society and the scholastic tradition. The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) advocates for revision in school curricula after every five years. But a majority of universities and colleges fail to revise their curricula for decades. The content of syllabi is a major concern of undergraduate geography. Undergraduate geography syllabi in many universities are full of obsolete themes with an emphasis on distributional aspects of physical, biotic and socio-cultural phenomena. Students just cram these facts without bothering to learn about the underlying structures and processes which determine their distribution, and social consequences of Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

44 prevailing distribution patterns. There is lack of elements of critical thought. This is possibly one of the most fundamental problems of geography in India. These syllabi present low level of intellectual challenge to both teacher and the learner. Kuntala Lahiri-Dutt (2005: 691) questions the absence of critical thinking in geography syllabi in undergraduate and post graduate stages: I have often wondered in my teaching life why excellent students who are selected to study geography honours due to their very high marks in higher secondary examination turn to unquestioningly accepting memory exercise of repetitive material that has little relevance. What does our syllabus do to them that they never develop a significant measure of critical thinking. The conventional data collection and representation techniques dominate the cartography papers at undergraduate level. Many geography departments are illequipped to incorporate the latest data collection and representation techniques such as remote sensing and geographical information systems. In many departments where these papers have been incorporated in syllabi, poor infrastructure and untrained teachers impede their teaching. Lots of efforts are directed at the sequencing of papers at undergraduate levels in the syllabi development. However, in many geography departments there is a lack of proper sequencing of papers. For example, paper titled regional planning and development is taught in third year (in 5 th or 6 th semesters where semester system is followed) without teaching agricultural and industrial geography, political geography and social geography. There are plenty of examples of repetitions and overlaps of papers and themes at undergraduate level in many geography departments. For example, in a number of universities Economic Geography and Geography of Developed and Developing Countries, Resource Geography are taught as three separate papers in the undergraduate course. A more reasonable idea would be to combine these papers in view of their similarities. There is hardly any undergraduate geography department which offers sufficient number of optional papers in the third year for students to choose from. In universities and colleges where there are provisions of optional papers in the third year (fifth and sixth semesters), but due to insufficient numbers of teachers or their unwillingness to teach, these optional papers are not offered. One of the optional papers becomes de facto compulsory paper as students are not allowed to choose from the list of optional papers. Instead students are given a pre-determined optional paper even though they would have chosen some other optional paper. Perhaps no geography department in India offer specialization in geography at undergraduate level. It is possible that students from natural science stream may be more interested in physical and biotic aspects of the earth. On the other hand, students from arts and social science streams may be more interested in the study of the earth as human habitat. However, both the streams of students are forced to study the same papers. This hinders the development 38 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

45 of interests in specific sub-field of geography among students at undergraduate level. The subject combination of geography with other disciplines does not always follow a rational principle. Though geography is an inclusive subject which could be made to stand as a bridge among subjects of arts, science and social sciences, it is important to create combinations of subjects keeping in view the societal demands. The value of a particular subject keeps on changing owing to changes in the society and academic. Therefore, there is a need to identify disciplines with which geography can have most productive combination at undergraduate level. For example, combination of geography with languages (English, Hindi, Urdu, Persian, Sanskrit, etc.) is no longer a relevant combination only except in exceptional cases where a student wants to pursue literary geography. This is not at all to argue against the students of geography studying languages. But when majority of students are forced to study geography with these subjects then it certainly does not augur well for them. The syllabi and teaching methods of geography are also important issues of concern. A poor and out-dated syllabus and boring and unimaginative teaching kill students interests in the discipline. Similarly, the teaching of socially useless and intellectually unexciting subjects does not inspire the students. This decreases the confidence of students in the discipline. They get disconnected with the subject. As a result students do not opt for geography as an optional or honours subject at undergraduate level. This necessitates innovative ways of changing undergraduate geography curricula. What needs to be done? Given these conditions the only option is to modernize the geography curricula at both school and undergraduate levels. The innovation of geography curricula at school would supply students with good knowledge of geography undergraduate levels. However, it should be noted that change in school geography curricula is not in hands of individual geography departments. It would mean that undergraduate geography departments would continue to get students with poor knowledge and understanding of basic geographical facts, concepts and skills. Therefore, individual geography departments would have to take their own initiatives of modernizing undergraduate geography curriculum. The modernization of undergraduate geography curricula should be based on two criteria. First, the curricula should be so changed to make the discipline more useful and responsive to the present-day needs of the society. Second, interests of students with poor knowledge and understanding of geography should be taken into account. Curriculum development at any level should be seen as a continuing process. It should reflect the changing requirements of the academic world and society. The qualitative and quantitative transformations in the geographies of the world necessitate the development of new theories, models, methods, techniques and technologies to understand these transformations. Geography departments would be required to intellectually and technically equip their students so that they feel updated and relevant in the dynamic world of academia Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

46 and the society. Curriculum modernization could be one of the key elements. Geography curriculum development constitutes many aspects; this paper focuses on reorientation of geography syllabus. Reorienting geography syllabus Syllabus development is a dynamic process. An up-to-date syllabus is critical for the health of not only the discipline of geography but also its teachers and students. It also tells whether the state of the teaching activity in the department is vibrant or stagnant. There is a need to update syllabi regularly keeping in view the changes taking place in nature, society, and polity. This need of changing the syllabi is more demanding than what it was in the past (Singh, Sachinder, 2009: 113). It is not that there is absence of efforts. Attempts have been made at individual departmental level as well at the UGC level. But these efforts have brought only a limited attainment in few university departments. Although many attempts have been made to restructure the geography syllabi at the national level, the results are not up to the mark (Singh, Sachinder, 2009: 113). The reason for limited success is that the syllabus development is a complex and contested exercise. Syllabus development depends on many factors including the current research in the discipline and allied disciplines, the societal contexts, the availability of infrastructure, the focus of the departments, the specialization and competence of teaching staff and the level of understanding/talent of students. Consequently, a syllabus developed without taking into considerations these factors, even an evidently progressive syllabus becomes a burden on students and teachers. It is not an easy task to strike a balance between all these aspects. It is, therefore, proposed that the following principles for curriculum development may be taken into consideration for reorienting undergraduate geography curriculum. 1. An effective curriculum should be able to fill the gap between syllabi of different stages of formal education (i.e. if an essential paper is not taught at higher secondary school level, then it should be taught in the college). 2. A syllabus should be regularly revised to up-to-date its content. The content should be derived preferably from the current research trends in the discipline. 3. The syllabus should be relevant to the contemporary needs of all sections of the society. 4. All papers should be sequentially arranged so as to make their learning process rational. 5. The syllabus should move from general situations to specific cases. For example, physical geography may be offered in third or fourth semester and geomorphology during fifth or sixth semester at undergraduate stage. At PG level any one paper from fluvial, glacial, coastal or desert geomorphology papers may be offered. And at M. Phil./Ph. D. level still more specialised papers such as flood plain geomorphology or deltaic geomorphology paper may be offered. 6. The syllabus should be able to stimulate sufficient interests of students. An 40 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

47 obsolete and fact-based syllabus would not attract students. The focus should not be on the location and distribution of terrestrial phenomena, but on the underlying principles which govern them. This means there is a need to teach them concepts, skills, theories, models and laws of geography and allied disciplines. 7. Equal emphasis should be placed on physical and human aspects of the earth as students from both science and arts (and social science) streams study geography at undergraduate stage. However, the emphasis could be given more on human geography when it is taught to arts and social science students and to physical aspects when it is taught to science students. At the same time, there should be sufficient scope for development of specialization in the third year (fifth and sixth semesters) of undergraduate. In accordance with these principles the following specific suggestions for reorienting geography curriculum are proposed. For the first year (first two semesters) of three year (six semesters) undergraduate degree course, two new papers are proposed. These papers are Fundamental of Geography and World (Regional) Geography. In the paper Fundamentals of Geography, the distinct nature of geography as a scholarly discipline should be focussed. This can be done by teaching them a brief historical evolution of geography, its distinct philosophical foundations, concepts, methodologies, approaches, perspectives, tools and techniques should be taught. The basic idea behind introducing this paper in the very first semester/year is that students opting geography papers at undergraduate level without any background knowledge of geography would be trained in the basics of geography and therefore would develop a good foundation in the discipline. The basic reason for introducing World (Regional) Geography is that students would develop a mental picture of the world patterns and processes. As all geographical patterns and processes are found and operate on the earth s surface and therefore, to understand these patterns and processes, one should have knowledge of places and regions where they are found and operate. These two papers would help students built a solid background in the fundamental ideas of geography as a discipline as well as the empirical knowledge of the world geography. This would make them comfortable with papers to be taught in subsequent semesters. In the second year (third and fourth semesters), two papers Physical Geography and Human Geography should be taught. In these papers also the emphasis should not be on the factual aspects of location, distribution, interactions but on the principles which influence their spatial characteristics. By third year students start thinking of specialization of geography. However, there is no specialization in the third year. Branches of physical, human and cartography are equally emphasized. It is proposed that the number of compulsory papers should be restricted while those of optional papers should be increased. The compulsory papers should be chosen in such a way that it is equally useful to both the Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

48 groups of students i.e., students interested in physical as well as human geography. For example, Geography of India, Environmental Geography and Cartography could be of interests to both groups of students. The optional papers should be oriented to either physical geography or human geography. The following papers are proposed Geomorphology, Climatology, Hydrology, Pedology, Oceanography, Biogeography, Economic Geography, Political Geography, Social Geography, Population Geography and Settlement Geography. An important component of undergraduate syllabus is practical geography, which incorporates many aspects. The emphasis on traditional surveying techniques like chain and tape survey, plane table survey, prismatic compass, dumpy levels should be reduced. On the contrary, new techniques like GPS, RS imageries, schedule and questionnaire-based surveys need to be emphasized. Already the NCERT has incorporated remote sensing and GIS in the geography syllabus of higher secondary school. Therefore, corresponding to the theory papers of geography at the undergraduate stage, the sequencing of geography practical papers/topics should be rationally organized. In the new circumstance there is a pressing need to make new combinations of geography with such disciplines as computer sciences, political science, economics, mathematics, statistics, botany, environmental sciences and education. The sub-branches of geography cannot flourish without knowledge of their related social science disciplines. Teaching and learning of economic geography without basic knowledge of economics, social geography without sociology, and political geography without politics will always remain incomplete (Singh, Sachinder, 2009: ). The inclusion of elements of critical thought in geography syllabi would help students to see the contemporary issues with much better insight. In this context Banerjee-Guha (2004:78) says that: one of the important intellectual tasks in geography in the present day, therefore, is to construct and appropriate language and a theoretical understanding of such contemporary issues of space society convergence. As a result, the new geographer in the making should spend his/her energies not on trivialities but on the significant social problems which can acquire new meaning, if analyzed with the tools of geographical analysis (Ahmed, Aijazuddin, 1997: 368). Conclusion Geography departments in India are facing two important challenges. First, arts and social science students opting for geography as an optional paper at undergraduate stage are found to be wanting in both the vocabulary and grammar of geography. Second, geography departments are unable to attract good quality science students for admission in B. Sc. course. These challenges could be met by reorienting geography curricula at undergraduate stage. The incorporation of relevant and useful themes in syllabi together with their rational sequencing and adoption of innovative teaching techniques could make the subject intellectually appealing and rewarding for students, teachers and society. However, 42 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

49 the process of curricular modernization should take into account the availability of infrastructure, priorities of departments, specialization and competency of teaching staff and the general quality of students. References Ahmad, Aijazuddin (1997): Fifty Years of Indian Geography in Kapur, Anu, ed. (2002). Indian Geography: Voices of Concern. New Delhi, Concept Publishing Company: Alam, Sarfaraz (2010): Recent Trends in School Geography in India, Journal of Geography, 109 (6): Banerjee-Guha, Swapna (2004): Space, Society, and Geography: Investigating the Crisis of Postmodern Urban Space in Banerjee- Guha, Swapna (ed.) Space, Society and Geography. Jaipur/New Delhi: Rawat Publications: Jackson, Peter (2006): Thinking Geographically, Geography, 91 (3): Lahiri-Dutt, Kuntala (2005): Geography as a Marginal Social Science, Economic and Political Weekly, (February 12): NCERT (2000): National Curriculum Framework for School Education. New Delhi: NCERT NCERT (2005): National Curriculum Framework New Delhi: NCERT Press Information Bureau, Government of India (August 28, 2006): PM announces setting up of National Institute of Science Education and Research at Bhubaneswar < nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=20345> accessed on June 2, 2013 Singh, Sachinder (2009): Geography in India: Some Reflections, Transaction Institute of Indian Geographers, 31(2): Sarfaraz Alam Assistant Professor Department of Geography, Faculty of Science Banaras Hindu University Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

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51 Vegetation Greenness Parameterisation Using Temporal VGT- NDVI Data and Meteorological Conditions in Upper Dikhu River Catchment of Patkai Hills, Nagaland Bendanginla, Surendra Singh and Hiambok Jones Syiemlieh Shillong, Meghalaya Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Abstract This paper analyses the effect of forest-meteorological factors on vegetation cover considering spatio-temporal variations in vegetation greenness intensity in the particular environmental conditions of Upper Dikhu River catchment which is located in the Patkai Hills of Nagaland Himalaya. The greenness intensity maps of each and every point of time were prepared at one-metre spatial resolution to analyse the spatial and temporal variations in vegetation greenness cover in the study area. Regression analysis was pursued to prioritize the effects of meteorological factors of the change in vegetal greenness intensity. The distributional patterns of greenness intensity spatially vary because of the variation in topo-features (elevation and slope), while its temporal variations found significant owing to noticeable variability in the meteorological attributes. Polynomial regression was the best-fit mathematical form which captured the maximum degree of temporal variability of mean greenness intensity up to 54.0 percent. It showed a decreasing trend when Heat index, Precipitation and PET increased. However, there was a positive impact of soil moisture which optimized greenness intensity as mm moisture was available in the soil. Such conditions of meteorological phenomena are prevalent in the post-monsoon seasons (October to December) in the study area. Keywords: Greenness intensity, topo-features, heat index, polynomial form, soil moisture storage, mean-ndvi, spatio-temporal variation Introduction Vegetation phenology is an important dimension of biological studies. While reviewing the literature, plant growth characterisation was more concerned with the simulation of physiological processes such as the analysis of photosynthesis, transpiration, respiration, distribution of dry matter among plant organs and water absorption by roots and carbohydrate assimilation in early literature (Dewit et al. 1969, Hunt 1977). Later on, vegetation growth models were developed in order to examine the physiological processes and phenological events, their stages and environmental stress using Potential Evapotranspiration based plant growth

52 index, photosynthetic efficiency index for measurement of reproduction the green leaf biomass (McCall and Bishop-Hurley, 2003) and Thornthwaite-based thermal efficiency index (Singh et al. 2006). Recently, biophysical environment of vegetation and its growth have widely been parameterised by using remotely sensed data with various techniques of predicting green leaf biomass (Asshbindu 1989), ground water potentials (Gupta 1991, Mukherjee and Banerjee 2005), rate of Potential Evapotranspiration (PET), Net Primary Productivity (NPP) and vegetation index (Ricotta 1999). Time series data of Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) are being widely used for spatio-temporal analysis of vegetation cover and greenness intensity. There are numerous Digital Image Processing techniques such as slicing, image reduction and magnification, transects, contrast enhancement, band ratioing and so on (Jensen 1996); out of which NDVI happens to be the most widely used for the purpose of understanding green leaf concentration through calculation of Leaf Area Index (LAI) (Pandya et al. 2007). It is helpful in predicting chlorophyll status in the vegetation for the analysis of phenological as well as bio-technological processes of different types of tree species (Su 2002, Mukherjee and Banerjee 2005). This technique has been widely used for accurate description of vegetation cover and land cover classification for various purposes such as preparation of vegetation index (De Fries et al. 1995), detection of land cover changes using Landsat TM images of different dates (Jomma and Kheir 2005), analysis of phenology of cropping system and also prediction of spatio-temporal variation of runoff generation using SPOT- VEGETATION 10-day composite NDVI data (Panigrahy et al. 2003, Upadhyay et al. 2008, Gupta and Panigrahy 2008). No doubt, multi temporal Remote Sensing data are being widely used for the study of dynamic phenomena (Upadhyay et al. 2008) and gaining importance as an appropriate tool for International Geosphere Biosphere Programme- Data Information System (IGBP-DIS) which runs in cooperation with many worldwide agencies. Under this program, a time series of AVRR-NDVI monthly maximum value at spatial resolution of 1*1 sq km data have been provided for the earth surface (Eidenshink and Faundeen 1994). It is used for preparation of vegetation index (Ricotta et al. 1999). An effort is, therefore, made here (a) to use 10-day time-series composite NDVI data for parameterisaton of vegetation greenness intensity to show spatial features of vegetation type based on its leaf shade density and (b) to compare this time-series vegetation greenness intensity with the meteorological data of same points of time to examine the causes of changes in vegetal cover. The main features of the present research are the analysis of spatiotemporal patterning of vegetation greenness intensity and prioritisation of its impact of forest-meteorology factors (Temperature, Rainfall, Potential Evapotranspiration and Soil Moisture) in the humid Patkai hills of Nagaland Himalaya considering Upper Dikhu River catchment as a meso- areal domain of the present study. 46 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

53 Study Area Study area includes the Upper Dikhu River catchment that lies between 26 0 N to N latitudes and E to E longitudes with an areal extent of about 3,047 sq. km. It is situated on the western slopes of Patkai hills in Nagaland (Fig.1) (see page 59 for the fig. 1). The upper ridges of the catchments are elevated about 2,200 m a.s.l. while its mouth, i.e., the foothill part of river catchment ends at 150 m a.s.l. (Fig.-2A). It is important to note that more than 50 percent of the cultivated area of the entire state of Nagaland is concentrated only within and around the Upper Dikhu River catchment (Jha 1976). As such, the lower part of the river valleys and gentle slopes are under some kind of cultivation, whether settled or jhum, while remaining areas are dominated by forests. The river Dikhu is one of the major tributaries of river Brahmaputra and receives water through numerous small tributaries from the hills through which it flows. It originates near Surmi at an elevation of 1,897 m. After traversing a tortuous northerly course of km through dense forests in hilly terrain of Nagaland, it enters the plains of Assam and thereafter traverses an approximate distance of 80 km to join the river Brahmaputra. The banks of the Dikhu River vary in width from 40 m to 100 m associated with slopes varying from moderate to strong (8-16%). However, most of the areas of the upper reaches of the catchment have strongly steep to cliff- like slopes (more than 32% gradient) (Fig.-2B) (see page 59 for the fig. 2A and 2B). Average temperature is recorded 17 C in January (moderately cold) and 28 C in July (Hot). Rainfall is sometimes sufficiently high in pre-monsoon period (April) but July is the peak of monsoon when it precipitates up to 600 mm. Postmonsoon showers which occur from October onwards are helpful for soil recharge and vegetation growth. Due to thick fertile soils (1.2 m to 1.8 m) having 200 mm of water retention capacity and high nutrient contents promote vegetal growth (NBSS & LUP 2004). Moderate slopes along the river valleys and balanced topographic features (almost equal areas under valley slopes and high hills) and good drainage conditions of the river catchment create congenial ecological conditions for dense vegetal cover and greenness intensity. As a result, more than % of land is under dense forests which includes other forest areas like reserved forests (0.77%), protected forests (0.1%), proposed forests (4.17%) and the village forests (48.90%) (Statistical Hand book of Nagaland 2004). Material and Methods There are two main dimensions of the present analysis to characterise the spatiotemporal pattern of vegetal cover based on its greenness intensity and to describe the main causes of change in these patterns. As land attributes of the area (elevation, slope, drainage as well as soils) are static in its nature over a period of time, the temporal changes in vegetal cover might be the result of variable meteorological phenomena. However, many studies conclude that spatial patterns of vegetation cover are controlled implicitly by two elements of topography: the elevation and the slope Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

54 (Thapa 2004). Spatio-temporal analysis of vegetal cover was pursued by using Multi Spectral 10-day time series composite NDVI data which are being provided at 1*1 sq km spatial resolution using SPOT images under Vegetation for Africa Program (VGT Extract, see VEGTExtract.do). The data of vegetation cover for an interval of three months were downloaded from the website of above cited program ( to characterize the seasonality effects of changes in vegetal cover taking into account five years downloaded data (January 2004 to December 2008). The months of January (moderately cold but dry), April (moderately cold and moderately dry), July (warm and wet) and October (moderately cold and moderately wet) for each year were considered to analyse the regular features of spatial distribution of vegetation greenness intensity. The variations in these four seasons are with the attributes concerned to forest meteorology to show their effects. It is to note that this website provides 10- days average raw data sets. First 10-days average data of each required month were used to make the spatio-temporal analysis in order. After downloading the concerned data from website, a standard procedure was adopted to make data of NDVI through the use of software downloaded from the given website. Raw physical DN values of each pixel were converted to obtain NDVI by applying the following formula as given in the Manual of the Program (Bartholome 2006: 100) see also website devococast.eu/vgtextract.do. PV= (Scale*DN) + Offset, (1) where PV= Physical Value as output for NDVI value, DN= the Digital Number stored in the input data file, scale (constant) = and offset (constant) = -0.1 for NDVI. Pixel-wise statistics of NDVI were generated by using ILWIS (Integrated Land and Water Information System) and its distributional patterns were analysed considering its spatial resolution of 1*1 sq meter size. In fact, NDVI values vary ranging from +1 to -1. In order to analyse the intensity of greenness of vegetal cover to show its spatial variability for which a given classification in which five classes of vegetation greenness types was followed (Bartholome 2006). They are: Non-Vegetation cover (NDVI value below 0.0), Stressed Vegetation ( ), Normal Vegetation ( ), Dense Vegetation ( ), Very Dense Vegetation Cover ( ). This classification must provide the main features of the distribution of each point of time in order to highlight the greenness- based spatio-temporal characteristics of vegetal cover. Statistical analysis of greenness intensity distribution was pursued on the basis of its main parameters like maximum, minimum, mean, variance and growth rate values that vary over time. After collecting monthly statistics of Temperature (T) and Precipitation (P) for all defined periods of time (January 2004 to December 2008) from centrally located meteorological station of the study area - Mokokchung (Nagaland), the statistics of four main attributes of forest-meteorology, namely, Heat Index (HI), Potential- Evapotranspiration (PET), Precipitation 48 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

55 (P) and Soil Moisture Storage (ST) were generated using T-M procedure that is based on thermal efficiency criteria of vegetation growth and is dependent on general water budget equation {P- (PET+ ΔST+ RO)= 0} (Thornthwaite and Mather 1957). HI is directly converted from Temperature as it establishes the relationship following base variable and power constant equation: HI= (Tm/5) 1.514, (2) where Tm = mean monthly temperature ( o C); Tm= {(T max - T mini )/2}. The attribute Precipitation is directly used from given raw data, while other attributes like PET and ST were calculated with a specific given T-M procedure (Singh et al. 2010). Mean- NDVI for each point of time is considered as dependent variable and these attributes of forest-meteorology as independent variables to establish the best- fit line in each distribution for which five mathematical functions, namely, linear, polynomial, logarithmic, power and exponential, were used. The main analysis of the distribution and discussions are mainly based on the best- fit statistics for prioritizing the vegetation factors Results and Discussion (A) Statistical Analysis The mean-ndvi values in the temporal distribution of 20 points of time (January 2004 to October 2008) appear to be very high (0.62 to 0.68) in the month of January; in the case of January 2004, it was It implies interestingly that greenness intensity and its growth rate are higher in moderately cold (15 C to 20 C) weather conditions. Moderate growth rate (10-12 %) is observed during the post Monsoon season (October to January) especially when it is associated with moderate monthly rainfall of mm even in the month of January at the time of less soil moisture storage (Table-1). There are general inferences drawn from numerous studies that warm humid conditions are suitable for optimal intensity and growth of vegetal cover (Champion and Seth 1968). In the present study, the evidences of NDVI based greenness intensity of vegetation and its growth as found in Table -1, are deviating from the general findings but they are interesting. Vegetal growth starts increasing with increasing greenness intensity from post-monsoon time of October. It is argued that the growth of the vegetation at foothills in Assam Valley may continue until a secondary peak of growth is realized in postmonsoon season sometime in November due to abundance of soil moisture and high temperature (Uma Shankar 1991, Uma Shankar et al. 1993). Similar results are also drawn from the present analysis that post-monsoon season is ideal for maximum growth of vegetation intensity. On the other hand, the growth is recorded negative, for instance in April 2004, up to percent during the spring season (January to April) when soil is dry and evaporative demand is not filled by the precipitation. The causes of such variability may be the most variable phenomenon of soil moisture storage as it was recorded to the maximum of 200 mm in the month of April and July 2004, October 2005, July and October 2006, April, July and October 2007 and July The lowest soil storage was recorded in the year of April 2008 with a storage capacity of only 42 mm. Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

56 Table- 1: Distributional Characteristics of Vegetal Cover and Meteorological Parameters (January October 2008) Period Max NDVI Min NDVI Mean NDVI NDVI Characteristics 3-months growth Rate (%) Standard Deviation Coefficient of Variation (C.V %) Heat Index Meteorological Parameters Kurtosis Skewness Precipitation (mm) PET (mm) ST (mm) January April July October January April July October January April July October January April July October January April July October Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

57 Secondly, the coefficients of spatial variation of mean-ndvi are moderate (24.23 to 28.58%) in almost all points of time considered for present study except for April 2004 when it was recorded very high. During this time the meteorological conditions were found more wet with exceptionally high precipitation (385 mm) that might have fully saturated the field capacity of soils. As a result, some areas with steep slopes might have released much more sub-surface water and created flood conditions in valley floors in the lower parts of Dikhu River catchment. Consequently, this made spatial variability of mean-ndvi very high (127.60%) and the negative vegetal growth (-44.64%) during three-month of dry season (January to April 2004) was experienced. Thirdly, each and every distribution of greenness intensity follows platykurtic curve (more flat than normal) indicating a trend towards uniform pattern of greenness intensity in the study area. It means that, in spite of significant temporal variations in greenness intensity (mean-ndvi values) and seasonal growth, the spatial features of growth do not vary much temporally. If percent coefficient of spatial variability is contributed by topographic Fig. 3 : Temporal Variation in Mean NDVI with its Forest- Meteorological Attributes Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

58 factors in the study area as it is minimum in the temporal distribution, then its temporal fluctuation of about 4 to 6 percent (varying from to 30.0 %) may be the result of variable meteorological factors contributing to the vegetal growth processes. Fourthly, greenness intensity does not correspond to forest-meteorological attributes in its temporal trend. Mean-NDVI value has inverse trends with almost all factors attributing to greenness intensity. So the relationship of mean-ndvi with its contributing factors becomes negative (Fig.3), which may be elaborated in detail in the coming discussion. (B) Analysis of Spatial Variation It is described earlier that spatial variation in greenness intensity (mean-ndvi value) was minimum (CV=24.23%) in the month of January 2004 when the value of meteorological attributes were recorded very low. If this time period (January 2004) is considered as base point of time and spatial constant to analyse its temporal trends that occurred due to changes in meteorological attributes of greenness intensity, then two dimensions of this analysis may provide clues to justify the impact assessment of meteorological attributes. First, the need to understand the causes of spatial variations at base point of time, assuming spatial features of greenness intensity as constant (January 2004 conditions) which can be compared with topo-features for causality description and secondly to interpret the changes in spatial variation of greenness intensity over time in respect to changes in the meteorological parameters that can be used for soil salanity management (Aldakheel 2011). Comparing topo-features (elevation and slope) with areal extent of the variations in greenness intensity at base point of time, it is evident that the areas of moderate to strong and gentle slopes (0-8%) of open valley floors have dense intensity of greenness of vegetation cover (mean-ndvi varies from 0.7 to 0.9), while the remaining areas of high elevation except few patches of jhum occupy normal vegetal greenness cover ( mean-ndvi). The upper reaches of Dikhu River and its tributaries which are topographically classed as high-elevated relief features show normal greenness intensity (see page 60 for the fig. 4). Table-2: Area and Percentage coverage of Various Vegetation classes for Different Periods Period Non-Vegetation Cover Area (sq km) % Stressed Vegetation Cover Area (sq km) % Normal Vegetation Cover Area (sq km) % Dense Vegetation Cover Area (sq km) % Very Dense Vegetation Cover Area (sq km) % January 2004 Neg Neg Neg Neg April 2004 Neg Neg Neg Neg July2004 Neg Neg Neg Neg October 2004 Neg Neg Neg Neg January 2005 Neg Neg Neg Neg April 2005 Neg Neg Neg Neg 52 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

59 July2005 Neg Neg Neg Neg October 2005 Neg Neg January 2006 Neg Neg Neg Neg April 2006 Neg Neg Neg Neg July2006 Neg Neg Neg Neg October 2006 Neg Neg Neg Neg January 2007 Neg Neg Neg Neg April 2007 Neg Neg Neg Neg July2007 Neg Neg Neg Neg October 2007 Neg Neg January 2008 Neg Neg Neg Neg April 2008 Neg Neg Neg Neg July2008 Neg Neg Neg Neg October 2008 Neg Neg Neg Neg N.B,.: Bold figures show very high percentage shares, neg= negligible Secondly, most of the areas of valley of Dikhu River system which have normal greenness intensity of vegetation in winters become stressed patches (mean NDVI ) and the areas of dense vegetation become normal. It can be said that in general, overall greenness intensity increases in valley slopes and valley flats of gentle slopes during post-monsoon season and it diminishes during pre-monsoon season (Fig-4). For example, the months of October and January have the maximum area (more than two-third) under the class of dense vegetation (mean-ndvi 0.7 to 0.9) which shrinks to one-third or even much lesser sometimes during the dry season of premonsoon (till April) (Table-2). In this time soil recharge and the level of moisture storage becomes lower than 100 mm. Greenness intensity becomes very low as mean- NDVI below 0.4 resulting to stressed vegetation (Fig-4). As stated earlier, the temporal trend of vegetation greenness intensity does not match with forest-meteorological attributes. It appears that greenness intensity is higher during low Heat Index (below 9.50), low amount of monthly rainfall (150 mm) and moderate level of soil moisture storage (about100 mm) as appeared in Table-1. In such situations of intensive greenness of vegetal cover especially during post-monsoon season, all parameters of meteorology have negative relationship, it is to be stated that intensity of greenness diminishes as temperature, precipitation and PET increases. However, these variables determine the priority of factorial impact; the concerned analysis may be extended to make the exercise of best-fit regression for each and every distribution. (C) Regression Results Applying five mathematical functions for Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

60 distribution of mean-ndvi subject to each forest-meteorological attribute, it is found that coefficient of correlation is negative and weak in many cases, that is why degree of determinant is very low (Fig-5). However, there are a few important inferences form regression analysis. Polynomial is found the best-fit form because it captures the maximum degree of variability in the distribution of mean-ndvi with all considered meteorological attributes like heat index (R 2 = 45.1%), precipitation (R 2 =53.5%), PET (R 2 =53.5%) and soil moisture storage (R 2 =48.5%), (Table-3). It implies that variability in greenness intensity follow a curvilinear pattern of polynomial type rather than linear ones. Undoubtedly, in case of mean-ndvi with soil moisture storage, the degree of curve linearity is seen to be convex. It shows that increasing soil moisture storage increases greenness intensity up to a certain extent, after that greenness intensity diminishes sharply (Fig- 5, see inset 2D). However, the polynomial coefficient X 2 of greenness intensity with soil moisture storage is calculated in minus terms (though its value is extremely low as ) and another coefficient X is positive (as ) that have combined positive effects during the initial stage of leaf development especially after few showers of rain. But when X reached to its (soil moisture storage) optimal level of mm during rainy season, a negative condition appears Fig.-5: Best-Fit of Mean NDVI with its Forest-Meteorological Attributes for different mathematical functions: 1=Linear, 2= Polynomial, 3=Logarithmic, 4= Power and 5= Exponential 54 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

61 and consequently, diminishes greenness intensity. On the other hand, the concave nature of greenness intensity (decreasing with decreasing rate) has been found with heat index. This is indicative of thermal efficiency and precipitation as priority factors of normal vegetal growth. The above factors also control soil moisture which plays an important role in plant growth. Optimization of such polynomial functions with the help of their first order differentials to make it zero dy/dx= 0 (the first order differential of any polynomial is dy/dx = 2aX +b= 0 if equation is written as Y= ax 2 +bx + c ) must provide the solution as X= (b/2a) (see Table-3 for optimal levels of greenness intensity as well as its factors). It is found that Heat Index at 13.0 (that is indicative of 24 C temperature), 250 mm of rainfall, 100 mm of PET and mm of soil moisture storage are ideal conditions for optimal greenness intensity for vegetal cover (Table-3). Such conditions are prevalent in the post- monsoon seasons in the study area. It implies that soil moisture storage has a direct impact on greenness intensity of vegetation in the Upper Dikhu River catchment. Table-3: Best Fit Mathematical Functions of Mean NDVI (Dependent) with respect to Meteorological Parameters (independent Variables) Mathematical Function Form of NDVI w. r. t. Degree of Determinant (R 2 ) Heat Index (HI, Unitless) Linear Y= X Optimal Level of Attributes Optimal Level of Greenness Intensity (mean-ndvi) Polynomial Y= 0.003X X (Normal) Logarithm Y= -0.17ln(X) Power Y= 1.067X Exponential Y= 0.748e -0.03X 0.32 Precipitation (P, mm) Linear Y= X Polynomial Y= 2E-06X X (Normal) Logarithm Y= ln(x) Power Y= 0.585X Exponential Y= 0.580e X 0.35 Potential Evapotranspiration (PET, mm) Linear Y= X Polynomial Y= 2E-04X X (Normal) Logarithm Y= -0.09ln(X) Power Y= 1.134X Exponential Y= 0.654e -0.00x 0.33 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

62 Soil Moisture Storage (ST, mm) Linear Y= X Polynomial Y= -2E-05X X Logarithm Y= -0.08ln(X) Power Y= 1.169X Exponential Y= e -0.00X (Dense) N.B.: N= 20 for present case as 20 occurrences are considered for temporal analysis Conclusions The greenness intensity of vegetal cover found normal (0.62 to 0.68 mean-ndvi value) with its low coefficient of spatial variation (CV varies from 24 to 28%) during the winters of moderate meteorological conditions. Such variations in the vegetal cover are due to the elevation and slope gradient of land surface features in the Patkai Hills. However, relationships of greenness intensity with the meteorological factors are calculated negative in all the cases except available soil moisture storage which is most influential factor for the growth of greenness of vegetal cover especially during the postmonsoon season when there is occurrence of soil moisture recharge with its fairly high storage to feed water during winter growth of vegetation greenness. In particular, the following inferences are drawn from the present study: (a) In spite of variable topo-features of land surface, the spatial variability of greenness intensity does not vary significantly. Consequently, spatial pattern of greenness intensity are not much diversified as coefficient of spatial variation ranges from 24.6 to 29.0 percent. Its distribution follows platykurtic nature (more flat) that is indicative of less spatial variation in vegetation greenness. (b) Temporal variations of mean-ndvi do not match significantly with the forestmeteorological attributes. However, these attributes have variable effects on greenness intensity. (c) Polynomial regression is the best fit form of the distribution of mean greenness intensity of vegetal cover. Soil moisture storage is the most influential factor of meteorology which optimizes vegetal greenness growth at its ideal availability of mm which is available in the post-monsoon seasons of high growth and dense-vegetal cover. Acknowledgement We are thankful to Professor Uma Shankar, Department of Botany, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong for his fruitful suggestions at the final draft of the manuscript and also to the University Grant Commission, New Delhi for providing financial assistance under Rajiv Gandhi National Scholarship for pursuing Ph.D. Program to the first author. 56 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

63 References Aldakheel Y. Y. ( 2011): Assessing NDVI spatial pattern as related to irrigation and soil salinity management in Al-Hassa Oasis, Saudi Arabia, The Journal of Indian Society of Remote Sensing, 39(2): ; DOI /s z Ashbindhu S. (1989): Digital change detection techniques using remotely sensed data. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 10(6): Bartholome E. (2006, Ed): VGT4Africa User Manual (I Edn), No. EUR EN. Prepared by Joint Research Centre and Institute for Environment and Sustainability, European Commission, Italy: (for ready reference, see europa.eu.int) Champion H. G. and Seth S. K. (1968): A Revised Survey of Forest Types of India. Manager of Publications, Government of India, Nasik De Fries R., Hansen M. and Townshend J. (1995): Global Discrimination of land cover types from matrices derived from AVHRR pathfinder data. Remote Sensing Environment, 54: Dewit C. T., Browner R. and Vries F. W. T. P. (1969): the simulation of Photosynthesis systems:i-models and methods, Proceedings, IPB/PP technical Meeting, Pudoc, Wageningen Eidenshink J. C. and Faundeen J. L. (1994): the 1-Km AVHRR global land data set- first stage in implementation. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 15 (17): Gupta P. K. and Panigrahy S. (2008): Predicting the spatio-temporal variation of runoff generation in India using remotely sensed input and soil conservation service-curve number model. Current Science, 95 (11): Gupta R. P. (1991): Remote Sensing Geology, I Edn, Springer-Verlag, Newyork Hunt, W. F. (1977): A Simulation model for decomposition in grassland. Ecology, 58: Jensen J. R. (1996): Introductory Digital Image Processing: A Remote Sensing Perspective. Prentice Hall, New Jersey: 179 and 316 Jomaa I. and Kheir R. B. C. (2005): Multitemporal unsupervised classification and NDVI to monitor land cover change in Lebannon, Options Mediterraneennesseries B(No 46), Environment Monitoring in the South-East Mediterranean Region Using RS/GIS techniques. Downloaded from b46/ pdf, on Mc Call D. G. and Bishop-Hurley G. J. (2003): A pasture growth model for use in a whole farming dairy production model. Agriculture Systems, 76(3): Mukherjee A. P. and Banerjee D. M. (2005): Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) Analysis-Use of vegetation Health as Ground water Indicator, the Vision RI Viewpoint website, asp?articlied=53downloaded on NBSS & LUP (2004): Soil Series of Nagaland, Technical Bulletin, NBSS Publication-109, National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, Nagpur Pandya M.M., Singh R. P., Chaudhari K.N., Murali K. R. and Kirankumar A. S. (2007): Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

64 Spectral Characteristics of sensors onboard IRS-1D and P6 satellites: Estimation and their influence on surface reflectance and NDVI, The Journal of Indian Society of Remote Sensing, 35(4): Panigrahy S. Ray S.S., Sood A. P., Sharma P. K. and Parihar J. S.(2003): Cropping System Analysis of Punjab State Using Remote Sensing and GIS- Scientific Note. RSAM/ SAC/CS/SN04/2003, Space Application Centre, Ahmedabad Ricotta C. Avena G. and Palma A. De (1999): Mapping and monitoring net primary productivity with AVHRR- NDVI time series: Statistical equivalence of cumulative vegetation Indices. ISPRS, Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 54: Singh S. Sharma B. and Dey P. P. (2006): Predicting simmer rice yield based on biological and technological parameters of monsoon lands of Brahmaputra valley, India, International Agricultural Engineering Journal, 15 (2-3): Singh. S., Starkel L. and Syiemlieh H.J. ( 2010): Land Degradation and Ecorestoration in the Extremely Wet Monsoon Environment of Cherrapunji Area, India, Bookwell Publications, New Delhi: Statistical Handbook of Nagaland (2004): Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of Nagaland, Kohima Su Z. (2000): Remote Sensing of Land Use and Vegetation for Meso-scale Hydrological studies, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 21(2): Thapa P. (2004): Land Resource Evaluation for Land Use Planning of Mawkynrew C. &R.D. Block, East Khasi Hills Meghalaya. Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis, Department of Geography, North Eastern Hill University, Shillong: Upadhyay G. Ray S. S. And Panigrahy S. (2008): Derivation of crop phonological parameters using multi-date SPOT-VGT-NDVI data a case study for Punjab, The Journal of Indian Society of Remote Sensing, 36(1): Uma Shankar (1991). Nutrient cycling in degraded ecosystems (grasslands) of Meghalaya. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong. Uma Shankar, Pandey, H. N. and Tripathi, R. S. (1993). Phytomass dynamics and primary productivity in humid grasslands along altitudinal and rainfall gradients. Acta Oecologica 14(2): Bendanginla, Surendra Singh* Hiambok Jones Syiemlieh Department of Geography North- Eastern Hill University Shillong Corresponding Author 58 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

65 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers 1=Areas above 1600 m a.s.l., 2= Areas of 900 to 1600 m a.s.l., 3= Study Area Fig.-1: Dikhu River Catchment in its Regional Surroundings (See page 47 for text) A B Fig-2A: Elevation Map: 1= m, 2= m, 3= m, 4= m, and 5= m Fig-2B: Slope Map: 1- Very gentle and gentle slope (0-8%), 2- Moderate and Moderately Strong (8-16%), 3- Strong and Very Strong (16-24%), 4- Highly Strong (24-32%) and 5- Steep Slopes and Cliffs (above 32%) (See page 47 for text) Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

66 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Fig.4: Greeness Cover distribution: Non-Vegetation Cover (<0), Stressed Vegetation ( ), Normal Vegetation greeness Cover ( ), Dense vegetation ( ), Very Dense Vegetative Cover of high intensity of its greeness ( ) (See page 52 for text) 60 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

67 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Fig.2 : Consistency in the seats won by the BJP: (See page 66 for text) Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

68 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Fig.3 : Consistency in the seats won (in number of time) by the BJP: (See page 66 for text) 62 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

69 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Trends and patterns of seats Won by the BJP in Indian Parliamentary Elections ( ): A Geographical Analysis Kiran Bala and Sachinder Singh, Rohtak Haryana Abstract The paper analyses the trends and patterns of seats won by the BJP in Indian parliamentary elections ( ) which examines the geographical spread of the party. The constituency-wise analysis of the seats won by the BJP reveals that the main supporting area of the party was North India in general and Hindi Speaking States in particular. Outside this region, the state of Gujarat has emerged the key state for the party. The party performed appreciably well in the states of Maharashtra and Karnataka. Recently the party also has shown its presence in North-Eastern States and in Orissa. Key Words: 'Indian Parliamentary elections', BJP, Hindu Nationalism, Secular Nationalism Introduction Among the many Indian political parties claiming to uphold Hindu nationalism, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) is the most significant one in the contemporary political scene. As a concept, Hindu nationalism has been defined as a feeling of pride in the ancient glory of the Hindu culture and tradition. Although as a concept, Hindu nationalism is centuries old but the scale at which it has been aligned with politics is a new phenomenon in Indian politics. At present the BJP is the main articulator of this conception. Over the period of time, this party has become one of the largest political parties in the country, challenging the Indian National Congress which uphold a form of secular nationalism and held sway over the Indian politics for a long period. The controversy over the dual membership of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh members as members of the party and that of the R.S.S. (Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh) in the Janata 2 regime was the deciding factor behind the establishment of BJP as an independent party. With its new incarnation as Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) from Bharatiya Jana Sangh, entered into the mainstream of Indian politics and is continuing up till now. Taking the whole span of period (1984 to 2004), it would not be wrong to say that its electoral gains were highly considerable. Methodology The detailed constituency level analysis of seats won for the BJP has been carried out for seven parliamentary elections, spanning over 20 years of Indian politics 1984, 1989, 1991, 1996, 1998, 1999 and The spatial patterns of seats won by the party are examined at the unit of parliamentary

70 constituency with the help of tables and maps for the selected seven parliamentary elections. Wherever required such patterns are also examined at the unit of state and region for testing the regional character of the party. Among the cartographic techniques, choropleth method is used to show the patterns of the party's seats won. Bar diagram and histogram are also used to show the trends in seats won by the party. For all the elections under study, the source of data remained the election reports as published by the Election Commission of India. Trends and patterns of seats won For a political party which could win only two seats in 1984, the period that followed was quite astounding (Fig.1). In the next election it won 85 seats and this upward trend continued in the elections of 1991 (120 seats), 1996 (161 seats) and 1998 (182 seats). In 1999, the party seats tally was similar to that of 1998 election (i.e. 182 seats). However, in 2004, the party had experienced a loss of 44 seats. In terms of seats won, the party was last in the ladder of seven national political parties in The BJP's electoral debacle in the 1984 parliamentary polls was indeed tragic. The party blamed the ruling party for making clever use of the situation resulting from operation Blue-Star, the ghastly assassination of Indira Gandhi and bloody riots following the assassination (Puri, Geeta, 1992). However, in the next election, its position was raised to third place (85 seats) after the Congress (197 seats) and the Janata Dal (143 seats). The 1989 elections allowed the BJP to improve its representation throughout North India and in Maharashtra, where its association Fig.1 : Seats won by the BJP in Parliamentry elections: Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

71 with the Shiv Sena helped it to obtain 23.7% of the vote. The situation was evidently much more favourable in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, where it won respectively 12 seats out of 12, 13 out of 25, 3 out of 4 and 27 out of 40 (Jaffrelot, C., 1996). Further in 1991, with 120 seats it became the second ranking party, after the Congress (232 seats). The BJP's growing strength over the geographical space was quite noticeable in this election. Barring Himachal Pradesh, its gain was in the entire Hindi-Heartland. There was hardly any doubt that this gain was largely on account of the Ram Temple agitation and the tirade against the so-called minorityism (Ghosh, Partha S., 1999). It became the largest party in 1996 (161 seats) and pushed the Congress to the second spot (140 seats). During this election, in the absence of any wave in favour of the BJP, two factors were mainly responsible for its impressive seat gains. First, was the ability of the party to forge pre-election alliances with other parties, i.e., the Samata Party in Bihar, Haryana Vikas Party in Haryana and Shiv Sena in Maharashtra. Secondly, the party also succeeded in consolidating its support among the upper castes while fracturing the votes of the OBCs (Kantha, Parmod K., 1997). The party maintained its status of being the largest political party in 1998 (182 seats) and 1999 (182 seats) also. The seat adjustments during 1998 elections provided the BJP with crucial seats from its allies in regions where it formerly had no base. The party's pre and post-election coalition alliances enabled it to achieve a majority in the Lok Sabha. The party enjoyed 21, 30 and 6 seats from its pre-poll allies. Following the elections, the BJP gained the support of the Telegu Desam Party (TDP) in Andhra Pradesh led by Chandra Babu Naidu- formerly a strong constituent of the UF- and a few Independents, which added 22 seats and a slender majority in the parliament to the BJP-led coalition (Pai, Sudha, 2001). The BJP's repeated performance in 1999 elections by winning an identical number of seats was a proof of renewal of the mandate for the Vajpayee government. Studies have shown that the BJP has become a formidable national party within a short period. It stepped into the mantle of the Congress by trying to become an umbrella organization by accommodating diverse cleavages and at the same time binding them with its distinctive ideological cement (Appiah, P., 2004). In 2004, however, the BJP was shifted to the second place (138 seats) by the Congress (145 seats). Despite the decline in 2004, the overall trend clearly indicates that the BJP with the passage of time has managed to create its place among the national political parties in the country. Consistency in the seats won by the BJP The analysis on the consistency of seats won by the BJP indicates that out of the total 543 constituencies there were 248 (249 from 1984 to 2004) constituencies never won by the party from This indicates that the party victories were basically restricted to rest of the 295 constituencies. The detailed analysis Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

72 of these 295 constituencies reveals that there were only 100 constituencies won by the party 4 or more times and in 195 constituencies its victories were either 3 times or less (Fig.2) (see page 61 for fig 2). The generalized map shows that the constituencies where the party had won 4 or more times are from Madhya Pradesh (27), Uttar Pradesh (22), Gujarat (17), Rajasthan (9), Bihar (9), Maharashtra (6), Karnataka (4), Delhi (4), and Himachal Pradesh (2). In terms of regions, there were only 4 such constituencies from South India. On the other hand, there were 73 such constituencies from the Hindi Speaking States. The 100 constituencies won by the party 4 or more time include 20 constituencies won by the party 6 (out of 6) times. There were 32 constituencies won by the party 5 (out of 6) times and the remaining 48 constituencies were won by the party 4 times (Fig.3) (see page 62 for fig 3). The 20 constituencies won by the party in all the elections ( ) include nine constituencies from Madhya Pradesh (Bhind, Damoh, Hoshangabad, Bhopal, Vidisha, Shajapur, Indore, Ujjain, and Mandsaur), six constituencies from Gujarat (Rajkot, Dhandhuka, Ahmednagar, Gandhinagar, Broach, and Surat), three constituencies from Rajasthan (Jaipur, Bayana, and Jhalawar) and one constituency each from Uttar Pradesh (Bareilly) and Delhi (South Delhi). In majority of the cases, constituencies won by the party five and four times were adjacent to the constituencies won six times. Fig.4 : Region-wise distribution of seats won by the BJP in Parliamentry elections: Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

73 Regional Analysis of the seats won by the BJP The regional analysis of the seats won by the BJP was important to test the opinion people hold that the BJP is a party of North India in general and Hindi-Speaking States in particular. The analysis of time series data in terms of seats won by the party has revealed that the results are not in contravention to the general feeling of the people (Fig.4). Barring the 1984 election when the party could win 2 seats only, the share of North India in total seats won by the party remained more than 85 percent. It was 100 percent in 1989 and more than 95 percent in 1991 and In the later elections, however, a decline was recorded in the share of this region. The share of this region was percent in In contrast to North India, the share of South India has shown an increasing trend. From 1989, when the party could win a single seat in South India, the share of this region in 2004 was percent (18 seats). 6 The analysis has shown that in the North India, the main supporting area for the party was the Hindi Speaking States. The share of this region was about 75 percent in It remained more than 70 percent in 1991 and 1996, thereafter, it recorded a continuous decline. It was percent in 1998, percent in 1999 and percent in 2004 (Fig.4). This decline in the performance of the party in the Hindi Speaking region was basically associated with capturing of the electoral space by other political parties in Uttar Pradesh the largest constituent among the Hindi-Speaking States. In 1998, out of the total 85 seats in Uttar Pradesh, the party wise distribution of seats won was as follows: BJP (57 seats), SP (21), BSP (4) and others (3). In 2004, for comparison, it was BJP 13 seats (-44 from 1998), SP 36 (+15), BSP 19 (+15), Others 7 (+4) and the Congress 10 (+10). Outside the Hindi Speaking States, the party has shown its signs of presence in North Eastern States (nil in 1989 to 4 seats in 2004). The party performed consistently well in Western States (22 seats in 1989 to 27 seats in 2004). Among the Western States, the state of Gujarat has emerged as a secure area for the party. The state of Orissa has also shown its inclination towards the BJP. Conclusion On the basis of various criteria used for analyzing the consistency in the seats won by the BJP, the following points can be summed up: 1. In terms of seats won, the party was at seventh spot in 1984 which rose to third place in 1989, second place in It became the largest political party in 1996 and maintained its status in 1998 and 1999 also. In 2004, however, it was relegated to the second spot by the Congress; 2. In the country about 46 percent constituencies (249) were never won by the party. Of the region's total number of constituencies, the share of such constituencies for the party was percent in North India, percent in South India. It was percent in the Hindi Speaking States and percent in North-Eastern States; Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

74 3. Of the 295 constituencies won by the party at different times, there were 100 constituencies won 4 or more times. These include 27 constituencies from Madhya Pradesh, 22 from Uttar Pradesh, 17 from Gujarat, 9 each from Rajasthan and Bihar, 6 from Maharashtra, 4 each from Karnataka and Delhi, and 2 from Himachal Pradesh; 4. There were 20 constituencies won by the party in all the six elections held from These include nine constituencies from Madhya Pradesh (Bhind, Damoh, Hoshangabad, Bhopal, Vidisha, Shajapur, Indore, Ujjain, and Mandsaur), six constituencies from Gujarat (Rajkot, Dhandhuka, Ahmednagar, Gandhinagar, Broach, and Surat), three constituencies from Rajasthan (Jaipur, Bayana, and Jhalawar) and one constituency each from Uttar Pradesh (Bareilly) and Delhi (South Delhi); 5. In terms of seats won at regional level, the party was at its best in North India in general and Hindi Speaking States in particular. The share of North India in the total number of seats won by the party remained more than 85 percent. The party performance has, however, improved in South India also. From one seat in 1989, the party won 18 seats in 2004 in South India; 6. Outside the Hindi-Speaking States, the party performed appreciably well in Gujarat and shown its presence recently in North-Eastern States and in Orissa; 7. The spatial analysis of the BJP candidates as runner-up candidates indicates that whereas in 1984 when the party could win only two seats, there were 102 seats where its candidates were runner-up. Of these 97 were from North India (75 from Hindi Speaking States) and the remaining 5 from South India. The number of runner-up candidates was maximum in 2004 (i.e. 132) when the party had experienced a loss of 44 seats from 1999 elections. Majority of the runnerup candidates for the party were from North India and more specifically the Hindi-Speaking States. The state wise analysis of runner-up candidates reveals that in addition to the Hindi Speaking States and Western India, the party is giving stiff competition in the state of Karnataka. The party is also in the process of creating its own space in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Assam. In nutshell this can be summarized that by all means undertaken for analyzing the electoral performance of the BJP, it was found that the party's core area of strength was the Hindi-Speaking heartland. From this region, the core states for the party were Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar (Jharkhand area) and Delhi. Keeping in view the party's past record in the region it can be generalized that the party will continue to receive support from this region in near future also. However, it is difficult to draw the same prediction for the party in the case of Uttar Pradesh. The reason 68 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

75 being that the political space of the state is sharply divided between the Congress, the BJP, the Samajwadi Party and the BSP. With the latter two parties having their strong electoral bases around certain caste and religious groups, and the Congress seriously searching for its lost electoral ground, the space for the BJP is certainly not going to be easy to maintain and extend in the state. The study, however, has also revealed that through organizing various yatras, agitations, making flash changes in its policies (putting various controversial agendas at the back), working with different regional parties, the party certainly has created space for itself beyond the Hindi Speaking States. The party has emerged as a strong electoral force in the states of Gujarat and Karnataka. In certain states its performance largely depends on the working of its alliance with regional parties viz. Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab and Haryana. The party is also working seriously for gaining some space in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and North-Eastern States. Refrences Appaiah, P., (2003): Hindutva: Ideology and Politics, Deep & Deep publications, New Delhi, pp Ghosh, Partha S. (2003): The Congress and the BJP: Struggle for the Heartland, in Mehra, Ajay K., et. al. (eds.), Political Parties and Party Systems, Sage Publications, New Delhi, pp Jaffrelot, C., (1996): The Hindu Nationalist Movement and Indian Politics, Penguin Books India Ltd, New Delhi, p.404. Kantha, Parmod K., (1997): General Elections, 1996-BJP Politics: Looking beyond the Impasse, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XXXII, No. 48, p Pai, Sudha, (2001): State Politics: New Dimensions, Shipra Publications, Delhi, p.41. Puri, Geeta (1992): An Exhiliarating Electoral Experience: The BJP Overcomes Its Identity Crisis in Singh, M. P. (ed.), Lok Sabha Elections 1989: Indian Politics in 1990s, Kalinga Publications, Delhi, p.138. Kiran Bala and Sachinder Singh Department of Geography, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

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77 Inequalities in Education For All (EFA) Achievements: Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers The state of Primary Education in selected Community Development Blocks of Assam Harekrishna Haloi, Jnanashree Borah and Lakshyahira Datta. Guwahati, Assam Abstract The Education For All (EFA) is a worldwide novel mission of UNESCO which is centered around six goals. While each of the six EFA goals is individually important, it is also useful to have a means of indicating progress towards EFA as a whole. The EFA Development Index (EDI), a composite of relevant indicators, provides one way of doing so at least for the four most easily quantifiable EFA goals. The present study is an attempt to examine three components of Education For All Development Index namely Universal Primary Education (UPE), Quality of Education and Gender Parity and Equality and finally to assess Primary Education EDI of four Community Development Blocks of Assam identified to represent four socio-economically backward communities namely Tea Garden Labour community, Char community, Scheduled Tribe community and Scheduled Caste community respectively. The study is based on secondary data which have been analyzed and discussed with necessary statistical techniques and inferences are drawn based on them. The EDI of the selected blocks are far below the countries average which may be related to literacy status. The situation demands a systematic approach for attaining the goal of Universal Primary Education by the socio-economically backward communities of Assam. Key Words: Education for All, Quality of education, Gender Parity and equality, C.D. Blocks, survival rates Introduction: Primary education is the foundation on which the development of every citizen and the nation as a whole builts on. Widespread education not only helps growth through productivity effects, but also crucial to distribution of the gains from growth. Growth in a society in which most people have a basic education is most likely more pro-poor than growth in a society in which the educated are the elite few (Becker and Tomes, 1986). So, education is a powerful tool for reducing poverty, unemployment, and inequality, improving health and nutrition and promoting sustained human development led growth (World Bank-2004) One of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) agreed in September, 2000 at a UN Summit of world leaders held at Dakar is the achievement of universal primary school attendance for boys and girls; this of course, implies a complete closing of gender gap. It also requires a hundred per cent primary school completion rate, that is, that all students entering grade I are retained until grade

78 5. The movement was launched in 1990 at the World Conference on Education for All (EFA) in Jomtein, Thailand. From this conference, the World Declaration on Education for All was adopted, which stressed that education is a fundamental human right and pushed countries to strengthened their efforts to improve education. The MDG couched in these terms reflects recognition of the importance of basic (primary) education (Bhalotra and Zamora, 2006). Education For all Development goals: The Education for all (EFA) is a worldwide novel mission of UNESCO which is centered around six goals as mentioned below: 1. Expand early childhood care, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children. 2. Provide free and compulsory primary education for all. 3. Ensuring learning and life-skills for young people and adults. 4. Achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, specially for women. 5. Achieving gender parity by 2005, gender equality by Improve the quality of education. While each of the six EFA goals is individually important, it is also useful to have a means of indicating progress towards EFA as a whole. The EFA Development Index (EDI), a composite of relevant indicator, provides one way of doing so, at least for the four most easily quantifiable EFA goals e.g. Universal Primary Education is meant for goal 2, Adult Literacy for goal 4, Gender Parity and equality for goal 5 and Quality of Education ( EFA Global Monitoring Report,2010). Out of these four indicators, the Adult Literacy Rate which is used as a proxy to measure progress towards first part of goal 4 has to be avoided because of its limitations. First, the adult Literacy Indicator being a statement about the stock of human capital is slow to change, and thus it could be argued that it is not a good leading indicator of year by year progress. Second, the existing data on adult literacy are not entirely satisfactory In order to evaluate each country s progress with regards to the EFA goals set in the Dakar Framework for action, UNESCO has developed the Education For All Development Index (EFA-DI). The EDI measures four of the six EFA goals, selected on the basis of data availability. Each of four goals is evaluated using a specific indicator, and each component is then assigned an equal weight in the overall index. The EDI value for a given country is thus the arithmetic mean of the four indicators. Since they are all expressed as percentages, the EDI value can vary from 0 to 100% or, when expressed as a ratio, from 0 to 1. The higher the EDI value, the closure the country is to achieving Education For All (EFA) as a whole. In India primary education has historically been neglected by the State, with educational expenditure being concentrated on the tertiary sector (Dreze & Sen. 1995). Successive policy statements have pledged to initiate special measures to rectify the historically inherited inequalities in 72 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

79 education that have hindered the progress of some social groups such as scheduled Castes, scheduled Tribes and minority communities As a result, there are vast inequalities in educational attainment in India, a remarkable degree of illiteracy coexisting with frontier research in science and technology. It calls for serious selfreflection not only by the State but also by professional groups and civil society organizations. It is a constitutional obligation of the State to ensure free and compulsory primary education for all in India. The constitution of free India that came into force in 1950, proposed to achieve the target of universalization within a period of ten years. The goal, which was expected to be achieved by 1960, has remained elusive even now. Several programmes have been initiated for universalisation of primary education such as Non Formal Education (NFE), District Primary Education Programme (DPEP), Total Literacy Campaign (TLC), Mid-day Meal Scheme and Sarva Siksha Abhiyan (SSA) to name a few. Assam, the most populous state of the North East India is showing her literacy rate at per cent, a little below the national average of per cent with a malefemale gap of per cent in It has increased to 73.18% in 2011 which is also at a slight below of national level literacy rate74.04%. The male being the 78.81% and female % with a gender gap of 11.54% (Census 2011). The improvement in both the literacy and gender gap in a decade is not at satisfactory level. The Present Study: Keeping these perspectives in view, the present study attempts to examine the inequalities in EFA along the specific problem groups in Assam viz. Tea labour community, Char community, Scheduled Tribe and Scheduled Caste. The rationale behind delimiting the study among specific social groups menlined above is due to the fact that a good number of studies have already identified the aforesaid social groups as problem areas which have special implications with regard to enrollment and dropout in primary education (Borah, 2002 ). Tea-garden labourers are those who work in tea gardens, the large revenue generating industry in Assam. Char community are those habitant in few districts of Lower Assam live particularly in riverine sandbars and mostly includes immigrants from nearby countries. Scheduled Tribe means the tribes which are recognized in the Indian Constitution living both in hills and plains. Scheduled Caste is socio-economically backward community recognized in the Indian Constitution living scattered in Assam. Objectives: The prime objectives of the study are to examine three components of Education For All Development Index namely Universal Primary Education, Quality of Education and Gender parity and equality and finally to assess the EDI of the selected CD blocks Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

80 Study Area: The study area comprises of four Community Development Blocks of Assam. These are Behali, Chenga, Kachugaon and Mayong which have been selected to represent four socio-economically backward communities namely Tea Garden Labourer, Char community, Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Caste respectively. The Behali C.D.Block is situated in the eastern part of the Sonitpur district of Assam. Total population of the block is 79,890 inhabiting in 109 villages with a density of 360 person per sq. km and 40.96% literacy rate (Census 2001). The area is mostly covered by tea gardens and hence, it is primarily dominated by the Tea Garden labour community. Despite the fact that the Tea Labour community is socioeconomically backward, they are not yet included in scheduled social group in the state. (Kar, 2007) The Chenga C.D. block is situated in the South eastern corner of Barpeta district of Assam. The total population of the block is 76,079, inhabiting in 56 villages having a density of 461 persons per sq. km and 35.62% literacy rate (Census 2001). The area has a dominance of minority Muslim community. The Char community is regarded as non-scheduled social group (Kar, 2007) in Assam though they are socioeconomically very backward. The Kachugaon C.D.Block is situated in the western most part of Kokrajhar district of Assam. The total population of the block 74 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

81 is 2, 16,622 inhabiting in 237 villages with a density of 435 person per sq. km and literacy rate of mere 32.23% ( Census 2001). The area is predominantly inhabited by the Scheduled Tribe People. The Scheduled Tribe people comprises of per cent of the total population in the block which is far above the state average of 12.41%. Mayong C.D. block is situated in the western part of Morigaon district of middle Assam. The total population of the block is 2, 42,147 (Census 2001) inhabiting in 244 villages having a density of435 persons per sq. km and % literacy rate. Among the social groups Scheduled Caste is the most prominent group in the block comprising of per cent of the total population which exceeds the average scheduled caste population of the state with 6.85%. Methodology The study is based on secondary data. The Census of India 2001, Population Census Village Directory 2001, and Educational Management and Information System (EMIS) 2007 of Sarva Siksha Abhiyan (SSA), Assam have been used. Selection of four Community Development Blocks, one from each district of Sonitpur, Barpeta, Kokrajhar and Morigaon is done that are based on the highest concentration of the respective social groups, calculated on the basis of Census report Data have been analysed and discussed with necessary statistical techniques and inferences are drawn based on them. Discussion: The analysis of the data and information are discussed below: Universal Primary Education: The UPE goal implies both universal access to and universal completion of Primary Education. The indicator selected to measure Universal Primary Education achievement in the EDI is the total primary Net Enrolment Ratio (NER). Net Enrollment Ratio: Net Enrollment Ratio is the ratio of the number of children of official school age who are enrolled in primary school to the total population of children of official school age. This reflects the percentage of primary school age children who are enrolled in primary school and each value varies from 0 to 100% or ratio of 0 to 1. In order to calculate Net Enrollment Ratio (NER), population from age group 5-9 years have been taken from Population Census Although the relevant age group of primary school from class I to IV coincides with the age group of 6-10 years the non availability of data compels investigator to confine to age group of 5-9 years. Again based on the percentage share of 5-9 age group of the total population of the concerned district the Block wise population in the age group is calculated (Table 1). Data on enrolment have been collected from the Education Management and Information System (EMIS) of SSA, Assam. As the enrolment data refers to 2007, the village level population data have to be estimated for 2007 by employing the decadal population growth rate. In order to maintain balance between the selected age group and standard of primary education the enrolment of class I to class III have been considered. The NER thus found is expressed in ratio. Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

82 Table 1: Net Enrollment Ratio (NER) in different C.D.Blocks. Block Population (2001) Population 2007 (Estimated) Population 2007(estimated) 5-9 yrs age group Behali *13.2 Chenga *14.92 Kachugaon *14.84 Mayong *14.96 Data Source: Census of India 2001, EMIS-2007 SSA, Assam *District Percentage of population of 5-9 yrs age group. It reveals that (Table-1) the 5-9 years age group constitutes 13.2%, 14.92%, 14.84% and 14.96% of total population of Behali, Chenga, Kachugaon and Mayong Block respectively. Based on the aforesaid percentage shares populations in the age group of 5-9 years for the year of 2007 have been found out. The enrollment from class I to class III have been recorded and NER has been calculated in terms of ratio. The NER Table 2 : Literacy level in the different C.D. Blocks. C.D.Block No. of village Low Below 15% Below Average 15% - 30% Enrollment (2007) Class I-III (in P.C) NER (in Ratio) in Chenga and Mayong Blocks are found to be the highest with the value of 0.68 each followed by Behali and Kachugaon with 0.62 and 0.59 respectively. An observation at a glance gave an understanding that enrollment is linked to literacy level. With highest literacy level (Table 2) Mayong shows highest NER. Kachugaon with poor literacy level shows the lowest NER. Level of Literacy Average 30% - 45% Above Average 45% - 60% High Above 60% Behali % 26.61% 32.11% 21.10% 12.84% Chenga % 30.36% 19.64% 26.79% 5.36% Kachugaon % % 29.11% 12.24% Mayong Data source: Census Report of India, % 16.39% 27.05% 23.36% 25.82% 76 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

83 Quite interestingly Chenga C.D. Block seems to displays an opposite situation. Despite the poor literacy level the area shows a high NER. It may be due to implementation of Govt. special programmes for Char area development in addition to normal developmental programmes. Gender Parity and Equality: Measuring and monitoring the broader aspects of gender parity and equality in education is difficult (EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2007). No such measures are available on an internationally comparable basis. Gender, the fourth EDI component is measured by a composite index, the gender specific EFA index (GEI). Ideally, the GEI should reflect the whole Gender related EFA goal, which calls for eliminating gender disparity in primary and secondary education by 2005 and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls full and equal access to and achievement in primary education of good quality. There are thus two sub goals namely gender parity (achieving equal participation of girls and boys in primary and secondary education) and gender equality (ensuring that educational equality exists between boys and girls). The Gender Parity Index (GPI), when expressed as the ratio of females to males in enrolment ratio or the literacy rate, can exceed unity when more girl/women are enrolled or are literate than boys/men. For the purposes of the index, the F/M formula is inverted to M/F (transformed) in cases where the GPI is higher than 1. To find out GEI, the primary GPI and transformed GPI are calculated by using the aforesaid model. In the present study the GPI for enrollment in class I-IV has been calculated using EMIS data 2007, SSA, Assam. The literacy GPI has been worked out from population Census, 2001(Table 3). Thus, GEI= 1/3 (primary GPI) + 1/3 (transformed GPI) +1/3 (literacy GPI) Table 3: Gender specific Index (GEI) in different C.D. Blocks. Enrollment Literacy C.D. Block Primary GPI Transformed GPI GPI Behali 0.69 * * *109 Chenga 0.70 * * *56 Kachugaon 0.64 * * *237 Mayong 0.72 * * *244 Source: EMIS 2007, SSA, Assam. Census of India, *No. of villages The Gender Parity Index based on enrollment and literacy has been worked out for the villages in the respective Blocks as follows: GEI of Behali: 1/3(0.69) +1/3(0.66) +1/3(0.62) =0.65 GEI of Chenga: 1/3(0.70) +1/3(0.64) +1/3(0.54) =0.62 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

84 GEI of Kachugaon: 1/3(0.64)+1/3(0.49)+1/3(0.60)= 0.57 GEI of Mayong: 1/3(0.72)+1/3(0.68)+1/3(0.66)= 0.68 As seen in table 3, the GPI in enrollment stands at highest in Mayong C.D.Block followed by Behali, Chenga and Kachugaon with the ratio of 0.68, 0.65, 0.62 and 0.57 respectively. It is clearly indicated in the table that although GPI in literacy is the lowest in the Chenga C.D Block the GPI in enrollment shows a good picture next to the Mayong. In case of Mayong the higher literacy may influence the higher GPI. But the situation in Chenga signifies that literacy is not playing significant role in the relatively better status of GPI in enrollment (Table 2). Here also, implementation of Government special programmes for Char area development seems to play a positive role. Quality of Education: Among the feasible proxy indicators available for a large number of countries, the survival rate to grade 5 was selected as being the best available for the quality of education component of the EDI (EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2010). Survival Rate: The grade specific enrollment over a period of five years are considered in estimating the retention or survival rate at the primary level and it gives a fairly good information about retaining capacity of the education system. In this study Apparent Survival Rate (ASR) has been used. The Apparent Survival Rate worked out here presents the share of enrolment in Class-II and subsequent Classes in relation to the enrolment in Class-I in a year. The rate is considered crude as it is based upon the enrolment data of only one year. It, however, reveals interesting and useful information about retaining capacity of the system (DISE, 2007). In the context of the present study, a variation is seen with regard to class and gender among the selected Blocks. It is revealed (Table 4) that the mean enrolment decreases with the increase of class level; but the rate of decrease is more pronounced in case of girls. As shown in the table-4 the survival rate from class-i to class III stands at 0.68, 0.55, 0.61 and 0.75 for Behali, Chenga, Kachugaon and Mayong C.D. Block respectively. With a ratio of 0.75 Mayong shows the highest survival rate among the selected blocks followed by Behali with a value of 0.68 in class III.. In case of girls enrollment both Mayong and Behali displayed a satisfactory level of survival rate compared to the other blocks. Chenga C.D.Block representing the Char community shows the worst survival rate being the 0.55 in both girls and boys enrollment. Kachugaon C.D.Block with 0.61 shows a little high of survival rate than the Chenga. While calculating the Class IV enrolment with that of Class I it is found that the former occupies 61.01%, 53.11%, 57.96% and 71.12% of the later for Behali, Chenga, Kachugao, Mayong blocks respectively. The picture with regard to Chenga C.D.Block is in fact a grey one where Class-IV occupies relatively a lesser percentage share of Class I i.e %. The enrolment stands at a mean of in class I of Behali Block, decreases to a mean of 14.38, 12.16, and10.7 at class II, III, & IV respectively. In case of Chenga Block the enrolment stands at a mean of 78 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

85 33.17 in class I and Culminates at in class IV. Likewise the mean enrolment of class I of Kachugaon and Mayong Blocks starts at and and ends in class IV at and The rate of decrease is more pronounced in Chenga followed by Behali. The situation of Kachugaon and Mayong are also very disappointing. It is apprehended that the decreasing record of enrolment by increase of class level, which led to a low retention of students at the end of the primary schooling may incorporate the dropout. However, further study in this area covering wider dimension is of paramount importance. Table 4 also shows the percentage of the class IV enrolment compared to the enrolment of class I. Accordingly the rates are 61.11% for Behali, 53.09% for Chenga, 58.02% for Kachugaon and 74.12% for Mayong. Education For All Development Index: By summing up the three components of EDI namely Net Enrollment Rate, Gender Specific index and Survival Rate in terms of ratio the EDI for the selected C.D. Blocks have been found out as follows: EDI= 1/3(total Primary NER) +1/3(GEI) +1/3(Survival rate to grade III) EDI Behali 1/3(0.62) +1/3(0.65) +1/3(0.68) = 0.65 EDI Chenga: 1/3(0.68) +1/3(0.62) +1/3(0.55) = 0.62 EDI Kachugaon: 1/3(0.59) +1/3(0.57) +1/3(0.61) = 0.59 EDI Mayong: 1/3(0.68) +1/3(0.68) +1/3(0.75) = 0.70 Table 5: EDI in the sampled blocks C.D. Block Total Primary NER Gender specific Survival Rate to EDI EFA Index (GEI) grade III Behali Chenga Kachugaon Mayong Data sources: Census of India 2001, EMIS 2007, SSA (Assam) It is revealed (table-5) that the EDI is found to be the highest in Mayong CD block with a value of 0.70 representing Scheduled Caste Population where all the three components of EDI namely Net Enrollment Rate (NER), Gender specific index (GEI) and survival rate are found to be highest compared to the other C.D.Blocks. Behali shows somehow a good EDI due to its Improved GEI and Survival rate. The Scheduled Tribes dominated Kachugaon CD Block shows the poorest level of EDI with an index of 0.59 followed by Char community dominated block Chenga with Here if we look in to the literacy scene (Table 2), the Mayong block has claimed Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

86 comparatively satisfactory level in literacy. On the contrary the Kachugaon and Chenga blocks displayed a dismal picture with large number of villages fall in the range of 30%-45% and15%-30% literacy rates respectively. In case of Chenga due to the poorest survival rate the EDI remains only at While comparing the present findings at the national context it is seen that all these four C.D. blocks are placed far behind the country s EDI which stands at 0.77 (in 2007) as calculated by UNESCO (EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2010). As stated in the Report, India lags far behind in the global context occupying 105th rank in EDI among 125 countries in the world which falls under the category of Low EDI country. However, as against four parameters adopted in the UNESCO s report, the present exercise could consider only three of the selected parameters which stands as a limitation of the study. Fig 2: Education For All Development Index in different C.D. blocks. Conclusion From the above analysis inferences can be drawn that literacy have a positive role in achieving Education For All. However, in the Char areas represented by Chenga C.D.Block, shows a different picture where literacy is not the determining factor for EDI. Implementation of special developmental programmes for Char areas development may be cited as determining factor for relatively improved NER scenario. Quite interestingly, the EDI stands at a relatively better state with 0.62 in Chenga due to the high NER and GEI. But the survival rate which is the another important criteria for assessing the achievement of Universal Primary Education is far below than that of the other C.D.Blocks. That is why the positive impact of developmental programmes is acutely challenged by the poor survival rate and literacy. 80 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

87 Keeping aside the special situation of the Char area, the literacy rate being the governing factor for achieving Universal Primary Education goal must be improved irrespective of any social groups. In such a situation it is imperative that the identified social groups need a systematic approach to attain the goal of Universal Primary Education. Bibliography Annual Report of DPEP , District Primary Education Programme, Guwahati, Assam, pp Assam at a glance, 2001 Published by Directorate of Census Operations, Assam. Bhalotra.S. and Z.Bernarda (2006)., Primary Education in India, Research Paper No.2006/80, UNO-WIDER.pp 1-11 Borah. J., (2002): A Comparative Study Level of Students of Different Communities using same tools for all and to identify the major causes of difference in Achievement, irrespective of Different Communities, A DPEP Project Report. Census of India, Dreze. J and.sen. (1995) India: Development and participation, Oxford University Press, Delhi Education For All Global Monitoring Report, (2007) UNESCO pp Education For All Global Monitoring Report, (2010) UNESCO pp Educational Management and Information Systems (EMIS) 2007, Sarva Siksha Abhiyan, Assam, Guwahat and EMIS data from District Mission Co ordinators of Morigaon, Sonitpur, Barpeta and Kokrajhar districts of Assam. Enrollment-Based Indicators Part IV, Elementary Education in India: Analytical Report, Part V, DISE 2007.pp Elementary Education in India: Progress towards UEE: DISE Flash Statistics; Educational Development Index, Elementary Education in India: Analytical Report- Part V ( ) pp 170. DISE Gohain. M and Borah. J. (2004) Girl Child, Primary Education and Women Empowerment: A Case Study on Tea Garden Community. Education for the Survival of Human Race, Vol. 2 ed.bhagabati.n. and Talesra.H.: Authors Press, Laxmi Nagar,Delhi pp G.Becker and N.Tomes (1986), Human Capital and the rise and fall of families, Journal of Labor Economics, 4, S1-S39. J.C.Aggarwal, (2008) Educational Reforms in India (for the 21 st Century), Third Revised Edition,2008,Published by Shipra Publications, Dehli.pp Jayashree Nanda,( 2007) Education for All, A. P. H. Publishing Corporation, New Dehli. pp Kar.B.K.(2007), Population,Geography of Assam, Rajesh Publications. New Delhi. pp Lynden. Biloris., and De. Utpal Kumar, ed., (2004). Education in North East India-Challenge and Experience, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi. Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

88 Statistical Hand Book of Assam 2011, Published by Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Govt. of Assam. World Bank (2004), Attaining the Millenium Development Goals in India: Role of Public Policy and Service Delivery: Human Development Unit, South Asia Region, June. Harekrishna Haloi Associate Professor, Department of Geography, Pub Kamrup College, Baihata Chariali, Kamrup (Assam). Dr. Jnanashree Borah Associate Professor, Department of Geography, Arya Vidyapeeth College, Guwahati-16 Dr. Lakshyahira Datta Professor (Retd.) Department of Gegraphy, Gauhati University, Guwahati Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

89 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Agricultural perspectives and its impact on soil and groundwater A Case study of Bibipur Village, Yamunanagar, Haryana Daljit Kaur Sandhu and Ms. Krishna Kaushik, Yamunanagar, Haryana Abstract Over the last 20 years, major changes have occurred in agricultural activities - cropping patterns, crop combination and land use in Bibipur village of Yamunanagar district. Due to expansion of ply board industries in the region the area under wheat and rice has been replaced by new crop named Poplar (tree). The crop combination of the village i.e.sugarcane-wheatrice in has been replaced by sugarcane-wheat-poplar in Increasing cropping intensity has experienced a change in accordance with decline in waterlogged area. In fact, sugarcane is water demanding crop but the groundwater has not depleted due to the location of village along Yamuna River. In this village shallow water is not suitable for drinking purpose from last few years due to the excess use of chemical fertilizers and insecticides in the agricultural field and the leaching of contaminated water of Yamunanagar city and industrial waste in Yamuna River. In shallow ground water conductivity and TDS is high and turbidity and DO is low from the normal values. The village has sandy and silty loam soil with low organic carbon, phosphors, sulpher and medium potash contents. Key Words: Crop pattern, crop combination, crop intensity, soil, ground water. Introduction Bibipur village is located at north latitude and east longitudes with an area of 255 hectares in Jagadhari block of Yamunanagar district in Haryana. It is approximately 10 kilometers from Jagadhari towards east. Bibipur village is dominated by Muslim population. Agricultural development is an interlinked process of agro climatic condition, implementation of modern inputs in farming related to high yielding varities of seeds, chemical fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides, pesticides and irrigation. The scope for expanding the net sown area having already reached a saturation level in study area and the potential for raising the yield nearly exhausted in many crops and regions, stepping up of the incidence of multiple cropping will be necessary to augment agricultural production (Hayami et al, 1971). Both human and environmental factors contributed to the intensification process and changing cropping patterns remain central to it (Ali, 1987). Expansion of new crops will change the existing cropping patterns and increase total agricultural output although productivity per agricultural worker may tend to decline as more and more family labourers would engage in farming (Brush and Turner, 1987; Grigg 1982).

90 Objectives 1. To examine the change in land use and cropping pattern in the village since and To analyze the spatial pattern of crop combination in and in Kharif and Rabi season. 3. To study the physical and chemical properties of the soil in Bibipur village in Yamunanagar district. 4. To analyze the quality and depth of ground water (shallow and deep water) of Bibipur village in Yamunanagar district. Data Base and Methodology The study is based on primary and secondary data. The secondary data has been taken from khasra girdawari and The primary data is collected by personal contact with the farmers. Soil test result has been taken from soil testing lab of Agriculture Department, Yamunanagar. The results of Groundwater qualities (ph, Conductivity, TDS (Total Dissolve Solution), Turbidity and D.O (Dissolve Oxygen) are self-tested by the researcher in the college department lab with the help of Deluxe Water and Soil Analysis Kit Model 172. Doi s technique is used for crop combination. Land use of Bibipur village Spatial pattern of land use in Bibipur village, net sown area since to has been increased by 24 per cent by declining water logged area in the study area. The waterlogged area has decreased by per cent over the period of to Area sown more than once has increased by 31 hectares from to Land not available for cultivation is also increased by per cent during to Fallow land has enhanced by 0.39 per cent since to Table 1.1 LandUse of Study Area(Hectares) and (Percentages are given in bracket) Years Geographical Area Land not available for cultivation Water Logged area Fallow land Net sown area Area sown more than Once Total cropped area (30.58) 84 (32.9) 0.5 (0.19) 92.5 (36.27) (45.88) 20 (7.84) 1.5 (0.58) (45.68) Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

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92 Changing Cropping pattern and cropcombination during Sugarcane-wheat-Rice was crop combination designated in the study area by Doi s techniques. Sugarcane was main crop in and covered percentage of the total cropped area in (Table no 1.2). Wheat was next highest crop in and covered percentage of total cropped area, and followed by rice in (16.72 percent). Next it was fodder crop. Pulses, vegetable (methi), oilseeds, garlic and potatoes were the other minor crops and covered the percentage of the total arable land (fig.1 and 2). Changing Cropping pattern and cropcombination during In three crop combination i.e. sugarcane-wheat- poplar is designated in the study area. Rice crop is replaced by poplar trees. Sugarcane is major dominant crop and covered percentage of the area (Table No 1.2). The area under Wheat crop decreased from to per cent in to respectively. In the area under rice crop has decreased by 10.8 per cent and it is not included in crop combination. Therefore, in poplar trees is considered as a dominant crop and covered per cent of the total cropped area, it is also grown with the combination of wheat - poplar, haldi-poplar and fodder- poplar. Pulses, garlic, oilseeds are the other minor crops. These crops cover 1.36 per cent of the area. An arable land increased by 9.41 per cent in from (fig.3 and 4). Cropping Intensity Cropping intensity of the study area has been increased by to per cent from to respectively. It is increased by 9.02 per cent. It is due to increasing in the cultivated land and declining in the waterlogged area in the study area. Single cropped area was in and double cropped area is per cent per cent in (fig. 5). There is decrease in single cropped area by 1.16 per cent in and double cropped area is increased by 0.91 per cent in (fig 6). Results of soil and Ground water In the study area ph and EC are (Normal), OC, Sulpher and Phosphorous are (Low) and Potash is medium in soil. The results of deep ground water have been recorded that is ph 7.89 ph (normal), conductivity 0.49 ms (0.8 ms normal), TDS (Total dissolved solvent) 0.31ppt (0.20ppt normal), turbidity zero ntu (0-2 ntu normal) and DO (Dissolve oxygen) 5 ppm (5-8 ppm normal). In the ground wa ter TDS is high. The deep water is fine for drinking and agricultural purposes. The results of shallow ground water have been recorded i.e. ph 7.21 conductivity 1.16 ms, TDS 0.74 ppt, turbidity zero ntu and DO 4.8ppm. Only ph is normal in shallow water, conductivity and TDS are high, DO low and turbidity is normal. Thus the shallow water is not good for drinking. It is usable for irrigation and washing purposes. 86 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

93 Table 1.2 Cropland occupancy as percentage of Total Cropped Area Crops Change from to Kharif Rice Sugarcane Fodder Haldi Poplar Rabi Wheat Wheat- Poplar Pulses Fodder Potato Haldi Vegetables Oilseeds Garlic Poplar Volume of change in cropping pattern ± Table 1.3 Distribution of Land Holding Size Size of Holdings (Acres) Percentage Marginal size of holding Below Small size of holding Medium size of holding Large size of holding More than Nil Land size In sample village per cent area is cultivated by marginal farmers, per cent by small farmers and 9.52 per cent area is cultivated by medium farmers. Large size of holding is absent in the study area (table 1.3). Cropping pattern according to size of holding In marginal size of holding, farmers have sown all type of crops rather than in small and medium size of holding (Table 1.4). Pulses is absent in small and medium size of holding. Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

94 Table1.4 Distribution of crops in Different size of Holding Crops Marginal size of holding Small size of holding Medium size of holding Sugarcane Wheat Rice Fodder Pulses Poplar Values in percentage Conclusion Over the last 20 years, major changes have occurred in agricultural activities - cropping patterns, crop combination and land use in Bibipur village in Yamunanagar district. Expansion of new crop (poplar tree) has changed the existing cropping pattern. Poplar trees are also grown with the combination of rabi crops. Due to its ecofriendly nature with other crops, they shelter their leaves in winter season as a result rabi crops (wheat etc.) will receive good sunshine for the growth of plants. The soil will also get enriched by the decomposition of the leaves. Poplar trees will help in storing the irrigated water due to the spreading of fallen leaves on the agricultural field. Moreover, poplar trees will mature within 4-5 years. The wood of poplar will be ready for plyboard industries in the region. Farmers attain more profit and 88 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

95 feel comfort with the cultivation of poplar trees. Cropping intensity has increased. Single cropped area has decreased whereas double cropped area has increased therefore multiple cropping system is popular in the village. Net cropped area has increased steadily with the corresponding decline in waterlogged area. Reference Ali, Abu Muhammad Shajaat (2002): An Ecological Explanation of Recent Changes in Cropping Patterns in Bangladesh, National Geographical Journal of India, Vol. 48, pp Basu, Swapna (1984): Impact of D. V. C. Irrigation in Changing the Landuse and Cropping Pattern of the Lower Damoder Valley, Geographical Review of India, Vol.46, No. 1, pp Carlyle, William J (2002): Cropping patterns in the Canadian Prairies: thirty years of change, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 168, No. 2, pp De Lisle, D. de G. (1982) : Effects of Distance on Cropping Patterns Internal to the Farm, Annals of the association of American Geographers, Vol. 72, No. 1, pp Jana, M.M. (1987): Cropping Patterns in West Bengal, Geographical Review of India, Vol.49, No. 3, pp Sharma, T.C. (1997): Trend in Cropping Intensity in Karnataka: A Regional Profile, Transactions of the Institute of Indian Geographers, Vol.19, No. 1, pp Singh, Jasbir and Dhillon, S. S. (2004): Agricultural Geography, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi. Singh, Jasbir and Kaur, D. (1990) : Fluctuations in ground water table and its impact on crop intensity/ cropping pattern in Jagadhri Tehsil (Ambala District), Unpublished M.Phil.. Dissertation. Sharma, Vijay Kumar and Kaur, D. (2007): Groundwater and Agricultural Development in North Eastern Haryana ( ), UnpublishedPh.D. thesis. Dr. Daljit Kaur Sandhu (Associate professor) Ms. Krishna Kaushik (Research fellow) Guru Nanak Khalsa College, Yamunanagar, Haryana Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

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97 Spatial Variation of Women s Development in Varanasi city Sabina Bano and Aanad Prasad Mishra; Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh Abstract Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Development is a human centered process. People are both the ends and the means in the process. Human resource development applies equally to both women and men. Women play an equal role even in sustainability of development throughout the world. But the fruits of development are distributed unequally among males and females. The process of their (women) marginalization is evolved through excluding them from certain functions, by confining their roles and responsibilities in certain spheres and by not recognizing their works. This gender discrimination severely limits the expansion and utilization of women s capabilities. This has critical implications for the development process, the society, half of which are women. Even the fruit of development is unevenly distributed among women according to region. This paper is an attempt to measure the spatial variation of women s development in Varanasi city. Key words : Women Development Index (WDI), Female literacy, Standard of living, Health and Nutritional status Introduction Women constitute about half of the world s total population, but still equality of women is not fully recognized. Their position and status have been inferior to male members of the society. India is a region of striking socio-economic and cultural diversity with wide variations. Due to the development of patriarchal society women have become a weaker section, her functions have been neglected to more procreation and attending to household chores. She has become a target of social and economic exploitation. This gender discrimination severely limits the expansion and utilization of human capabilities in women and it has been critical implication for development. Although the principle of equality of men and women was recognized as early as 1945 in the UN charter, and in the UN declaration of Human Rights of 1948, several researchers have pointed out that development planners worked on the assumption that what would benefit one section of society (especially man) would trickle down to other (women) and that they did not need to fully address women s position in the process of development. This orientation in policy framework ignores about the specific benefit of women population. Early writings in the 1970, were informed by liberal feminism, their goal was to make women visible in the development process.

98 One of the early books which broke the silence about women was Easter Boserup s (1970) Women's Role in Economic Development pointed out that early development models not only overlooked women s contributions but also devised projects that were frequently harmful to women. Boserup s work has been criticized for ignoring women s reproductive role as well as hierarchal gender relations that uphold women s subordination more generally in parts of the world (Beneria and Sen, 1986). Her initiation succeeded in making women visible and stimulated calls for women to be integrated into the development process. In 1984, a cooperative of feminist scholars- practitioners in the Women and Geography Study Group of the Institute of British Geographers published "Geography and Gender" (Women and Geography Study Group 1984). This followed surveys on research on women in geography (Monk and Hanson 1982; Zelinsky, Monk, and Hanson 1982). According to Women and Study Group (1997). The group advocated change not simply by adding women to geography, but by developing an entirely different approach to geography as a whole. Looking back at the modernization approach, Parpart (1993) finds that, if Third World women were considered at all, they were typically regarded as an impediment to modernity and development. Neocolonial discourse represented Third World women as exotic specimens, as oppressed victims, as sex objects, or as the most ignorant and backward members of backward societies. Discussion about the impact of development policies on women sees them as objects, rather than agents of change. Until quite recently, it was generally believed that economic growth and development was a sufficient condition for an improvement in women s social position. Such an approach, which is derived from Mydral s trickle down theory of development, denies the unequal power relationships which exist between people of different caste, races, and classes and between men and women. Even Human Resource Development (UNDP- HDR-2001) talks about energies, skills, talent and knowledge of peoples, which are or should be applied to the production of goods or in rendering of useful services come under the assessment of human resources then what about those women who are engaged in household chores throughout their life. Where will they stand in respect of such definition? The 20th century, probably, is one which has experienced the most trouble in defining the role of a person as male/female. Judith Butler (1990) has completely changed the direction of women s studies, through her most influential work, which published as book entitled, Gender Trouble (1990). Early only scholars confined to think of differences between men and women as being innate and immutable. Raju and Bagchi (1994) contributed significantly in the emerging field of gender study. They integrate different scales of analysis and combines economic explanations with local dimensions such as religion, culture, and societal constraints on gender roles in South Asian countries. In another study done by Mei-Po Kwan (1999) 92 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

99 conceptualizes individual (male/female) accessibility as space-time feasibility and provides formulations of accessibility measures based on the space-time prism construct. Hapke (2000) demonstrates that how particular ideologies of gender and work associated with different caste/ religion influence the strategies individual household adopts. Productive and reproductive age group of women in urban area not only support her family even contribute in various aspects to make them stand. Treas and Drobnaic (2010) leading international scholars tried to investigate how culture and country specific social features influence our household and personal lives. Keeping such feedbacks this paper is an attempt to discuss the regional variation of development among women living in Varanasi city. Study Area Varanasi The Sacred City has acquired great importance at national and global level. The extent of the city touches Banaras Hindu University in south and its western and north western part mostly surrounded by villages and agricultural land. Varanasi as it is now officially known is a major trade centre of Purvanchal (Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Western Bihar). In the process of growth, the city metropolitan due to its residing people mostly from different corner of international boundary. Recently, many cultural events Fig. 1 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

100 have been revived, which attracts tourists in various ways and justified the multiculturism in Indian society. Actually, Varanasi reported as a cultural capital of India, and its significance is quite visible among the tourists, scholars and philosophers. City is located along the left crescent shaped bank of the Ganga River. It extends between to N latitudes and to E longitudes, covering an area of 74.3 sq.km (according to MCA). The city lies between the Varuna river in the north and Assi river (now converted into Nala) in the south. (fig.1) The city is situated in the middle Ganga plain having sub humid climate with scorching hot summers and dry winters. Varanasi enjoys moderate climate with normal temperature ranging between 32º C and 46º C. Average rainfall is 1114 mm which occurs mostly in the months of July, August and September. Because of cultural aesthetic it happens to be the first choice of residence in and around city. According to 2001 census, the population of the city is 10, 91, 918 persons including 48 per cent of female population. It consists of 90 municipal wards. The average female population density is more than 6000 females per sq. km. Sex ratio is 876 which is far behind the national average i.e. 933 in Objectives The present study has been undertaken with the following major objectives to measure the spatial development of women across sample wards to assess the factors responsible for the substantial variation in development of women. Data and Methodology Present work is an outcome of intensive field work. This study has tried to cover three variables which indicate the index of development of women. The first one is literacy of women, second one is dealing with standard of living of women assessed by their working status, decision making capacity, material possession and monthly per capita income. The last and third one talks about their health and nutritional status under various headings such as age at marriage, age at the birth of first child, number of children, delivery place of the last child, Body Mass Index, intake of Kcal, protein, calcium, and iron. These variables generated through questionnaire based survey of 600 respondents. These respondents were taken from 18 wards of Varanasi city considering the level of gender disparity on the basis of male- female differential in literacy, workforce, main workers, as well as overall and child sexratio based on purposive sampling. Index value has been calculated across the wards for individual variable and finally composite index is developed to measure the spatial variation in development. Women Development Index (WDI) WDI (Women Development Index) is computed with the help of three basic dimensions of women development. However, the data for the prescribed indicators in UNDP s methodology was not available at ward level. Hence, substitutes of those indices are used to develop the variables of WDI and substitutes are- 94 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

101 1. A long healthy life as measured by health and nutritional status of women across sample wards 2. Knowledge as female literacy across sample wards and 3. A decent standard of living, as measured by availability of assets to enhance the women comfort in household and allied functions However, the data for the prescribed indicators in UNDP s methodology was not available at ward wise level. Hence authors have used substitutes of those indicators. For example, data on income or expenditure was not available therefore status of women including their comfort level at household level is able to meet the minimum needs as monthly per capita income of household, occupation status of women, educational status of women, participation in decision making and material possession which reduce women workload and support her task comfortably. Similarly, data on life expectancy was not available at the ward level, is substituted by their health and nutritional status which reflects the utilization of basic health services and health awareness among women and lastly enrollment and dropout rate is also not available at the ward level so female literacy is considered as an indicator. To drive the composite index of women development, the first step is to compute indices. The indicators are made scale free unit (between 0 and 1) by applying following formula. Iij=Xij-min Xij/ max Xij-minXij where, Iij is the factor score for the jth ward with respect to ith variable. Xij is the actual value for selected indicator for the Jth ward and Min Xij and Max Xij are the minimum and maximum goal posts/ values selected for the indicator. There is however, danger in the choice of maximum and minimum goal posts as they can be subjective and change over time. Hence, these goal posts are selected on the basis of the levels that can be achievable or has been achieved elsewhere and have universal validity. However, the goal posts for some variables are minimum and/or maximum values in the data series. In the second and final stage, the overall women development index (Ij for Jth ward) has been worked out by aggregating the component indices and dividing it by total number of indices. Ij = Σⁿ i=1 Iij j Σⁿ i=1 Where Iij is summation of component indices and ⁿ is the total number of indices. Further the processed statistics has been displayed in the tabular form. Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

102 Table: 1. Women Development in Varanasi city Sl No. Wards Name & No. Female literacy Index of FL Standard of living Index of SLI Health and nutritional status Index of HN Total 1 Lahartara L 2 Tarna L 3 Pahariya M 4 Alaipur VL 5 Madanpura 16 Index M 6 Sikraul VL 7 Mewaiya L 8 Jaitpura M 9 Sarnath M 10 Baloapir VL 11 Khojwa M 12 Durgakund 13 Bangalitola 14 Sunderpur H WDI VH H 15 Karaundi M 16 Sigra VH 17 Bhelupur H 18 Kamachha 85 Source: Census and Personal Survey H FL- Female Literacy, SLI-Standard of living, H&N-Health and Nutritional status and WDI- Women Development Index a. Limitations of the study Since the concept of women development is much broader, complex and dynamic than what can be captured in the Women Development Index or any other composite indices such as Gender Development Index (GDI), GEM (Gender Empowerment Measurement), etc. Among all these indices, the primary one and socially most relevant is the WDI. However the WDI and other composite indices can only present a broad proxy on some of the key issues of the women development. For the fuller and comprehensive picture of women development in any region will require analysis of other various women development indicators. The unavailability of data for the prescribed indicators is also one major constraint especially at ward level study. 96 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

103 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

104 b. Spatial variation of women s development The women development index has been worked out for selected wards as shown in fig no. 3 and it has been classified into the following five categories on the basis of Mean±S.D namely very high (>0.78), high ( ), moderate ( ) low ( ), and very low (<0.30) human development (table 1). i) Very high level of women development (>0.78) There are two wards belonging to this category, namely Bangalitola (0.97) and Sigra (0.85). It is due to the high development in educational, economic and health awareness among women. Importantly women of such wards are quite progressive regarding awareness of their health and nutritional status as well as these women impart a major role in decision making not only on day to day social life even in reproductive and economic decisions. ii) High level of women development ( ) There are four wards belonging to this category whose women development index is ranging between values 0.66 to These wards have a high position regarding all dimensions of women well beings. It covers the wards of Sunderpur, Bhelupur, and Kamachha. Women of these wards are having comparatively better material possession for their comfort level as well as educational status is also showing better image with respect to others. iii) Moderate level of women development ( ) Under this category wards are Pahariya (0.44), Jaitpura (0.44), Madanpura (0.55), Khojwa (0.55), Karaundi (0.56), and Sarnath (0.63). These six wards have attended low to moderate positions in literacy that s why over all women development has influenced. That s why education has been considered as an important instrument to bring about the social and economic change. It is very essential to bring up the status and position of women. To make a society cultured and progressive, it is very essential to provide proper education to women at per with men. iv) Low level of women development ( ) Lahartara (0.41), Tarna (0.38), and Mewaiya (0.33) are belonging to this category. Due to lack of literacy and decision making of women in various aspects are comparatively low are the responsible factors to influence the level. v) Very low level of women development (<0.30) Alaipura, Sikraul, and Baloapir are such wards which come under the very low level of women development. Due to very low level of literacy (in general, poor parents 98 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

105 Conclusion actively seek education for their male children as the best means of improving their income-earning options, but overburdened mothers may be forced to take daughters out of school to assist with childcare and household chores), economic condition, negligible participation in decision making and low level of comfort level development of women is very low. The forgoing analysis reveals that, there are spatial variations in levels of WDI within the selected wards of Varanasi city. The six wards Durgakund, Sunderpur, Bhelupur, Kamachha, Sigra and Bangalitola identified with high to very high WDI due to better economic condition, high literacy rate, well facilities with medical utilization and awareness towards nutritional status. However, wards like Lahartara, Tarna, Mewaiya, Sikraul, Baloapir, and Alaipura the underlying factors are responsible for the low or very low WDI such as low literacy rate, high gender disparity, poor economic condition, low participation in decision making, inadequate utilization of health facilities, and lack of awareness of health and nutrition care. To raise the status of women, government and people should establish and develop sufficient educational facilities and a number of schemes for the purpose must be introduced mainly for women. Sufficient girls schools should be opened with assured and secured transport facilities. It is essential to reserve the seat for girls in vocational and technical institutions. The traditional mentality of the parents and cultural, economic bias of the society must be redressed. Self dependency can help to raise their status in development course. For the proper development of the status of women there is need breaking of the traditional barriers, widening the frame work of employment opportunities of women, modifying the social attitude towards female workers and non-workers, developing the vocational guidance and counseling adoption and completing the structure of social protection with housing facilities of women workers. In the last but most significant is the role of women themselves to realize their importance and equality in the society. Self help group and self consciousness of women folk may bring the lost prestige and status if government and voluntary organizations become effective and operative in a planned way. Let the women realize their significant role at par with men the required result will be achieved. References Beneria, L. and G, Sen (1982) Class and Gender Inequalities and Women s Role in Economic Development. Feminist Studies, vol. I: , Spring. Boserup, E. (1970) Women s Role in Economic Development. New York, St. Martin Press. Butler, J. (1990) Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge, London. Hapke Holly, M. (2001) Gender, Work, and Household Survival in South Indian Fishing Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

106 Communities: A Preliminary Analysis. Professional Geographer, vol. 53 (3): Momsen, Janet H. (2004) Gender and Development. Routledge Publication, Landon. Kwan Mei-Po (1999) Gender and Individual Access to Urban Opportunities: A Study Using Space Time Measures. Professional Geographers, vol. 51 (2): Momsen, J. H and Townsend J.G ed Geography of Gender in the Third World. Hutchinson, New York Press. Monk, J. and Hanson, S. (1982) On not excluding half of the human in human geography, Professional Geographer, 34, Parpart, J. (1993) Who is the other? A post modern feminist critique of women, Development theory and practice, Development and Change, 24, Raju, S. and Bagchi, D. (ed.) (1994) Women and Work in South Asia: Regional Patterns and Perspectives, Routledge Publication, London and New York. Treas, J. and Drobnic, S. (ed.) (2010) Dividing the Domestic Men, Women, and Household work in Cross National Perspective, Standford University Press. UNDP, Human Development Report, 2001, Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Women and Geography Study Group (1984) Geography and Gender: An Introduction to Feminist Geography. Hutchinson, Landon. Women and Geography Study Group (1997) Feminist Geographies: Explorations in Diversity and Difference. Longman, Harlow. Zelinsky, W., Monk, J., and Hanson, S. (1982) Women and geography: a review and prospectus, Progress in Human Geography, Vol. 6 (3), Sabina Bano Research Scholar (SRF), sabina.dhn@rediffmail.com, Dr. A.P. Mishra Associate Professor, adeepayan@gmail.com, Department of Geography, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

107 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Rural-Urban Migration and its Impact on the Urban Environment and Life in Nagaland Maosanen Longchar, Lumami, Nagaland Abstract The phenomenon of population movement has been a part of human history since time immemorial, and man is restlessly migrating from one place to another as part of a process of adaptation to his social, economic, cultural and ecological environment. In the most primitive society migration is the first mode of existence of the man. He used to migrate from one place to another in search of food, livelihood and security. And since then he has been able to have a stationary and stable life which is much more secured and developed when compared to the life in the primitive society. In modern times, migration from the rural to urban areas is accelerating, making internal and international migration potentially one of the most important development and policy issues of the 21st century. Nestled among the gorgeous ranges of the Northeast India, the State of Nagaland with a total population of about 19,80,602 persons (Census, 2011) covers a geographical area of 16, 527 sq.km (approx). Migration is an important factor in changing the size and structure of the population. As elsewhere, even in Nagaland, the phenomenon of migration from the rural areas has contributed largely to the rapid growth of urban population. However, now the explosive character of population growth in the urban centers has become a matter of grave concern. In 1981, the urban population of the state was 1.2 lakhs, which increased to 3.5 lakhs in Besides all other factors, migration from rural areas to the urban centres has been the driving force behind the explosive population growth rate which has created serious impact on the environment in these urban centers besides causing strain on the limited urban services and infrastructure and increase in urban poverty and unemployment levels. Therefore, the present study is an attempt to evaluate the ongoing process of rural-urban migration and its impact on the urban environment and quality of life in the urban centres of Nagaland. Keywords: Migration, Nagaland, Rural to Urban migration, Urban environment The term migration has been understood in various ways by different scholars. Literally, it means the settlement or shifting of individual or a group of people from one place to another, more or less permanently. Defined as a permanent and semi-permanent shift of residence across boundaries of administrative and settlements units, migration is one of the most important correlates of modernization. It is an instrument of cultural diffusion and social interaction, and is a necessary

108 element of population redistribution. The study of migration is of special interest to geographers as it is closely related to the spatial distribution of population. A large number of studies have been conducted by various social scientists regarding migration in India. However, geographers have not made their due in this connection to the part of the country which is under study. The Reasons for this Phenomenon Migration processes have been existent throughout all times and in all regions of the world. The original triggering of migration in former times had been primarily the search for more favorable conditions. Patterns of migration over the years have undergone many changes particularly since the age of industrialization. Towns and cities attract the surplus labour from nearby or far-off villages; thereby they become the pivotal centres of attraction. In rural areas the burgeoning poverty, meager employment opportunities, low and uncertain/irregular wages, lack of education and health facilities act as push factors and induce people to migrate to the urban places. The migration process affects the areas to which migrants have moved in and areas from which they have moved out. The fact that the decadal growth rate of population in Nagaland during is 0.47% indicates that the growth is largely due to migrant population. This trend of continuous out-migration is related to conditions in the rural areas where the life is not that comfortable. In Nagaland, since its statehood in 1963, the small administrative blocks and headquarters have been steadily growing in population as more and more people migrate from the surrounding villages in search of jobs, education, health care and various other lifestyles that are not available in the villages. Subsequently, the small townships and hamlets have been expanding and growing in complexity, congenial to the growth of population. Judging by the number of people living in rural areas constituting 71.03% of Nagaland s population in 2011, as against 82% in 2001, it can be inferred that it is an indication of rural to urban migration in the state. The decadal rural to urban migration has been steadily increasing over the decades. Among the four urban areas from where the sample was drawn, Kohima as the State capital and Dimapur as the commercial hub of the State appear to have the highest and most sustained pull over the rural population to migrate. Impact on Urban Areas In Nagaland, except for Dimapur, all urban areas are located in the hill districts. Whereas, the topography and the geology of the hilly nature of the state present a limitation to the expansion and development of the urban areas, the influx of migrants particularly from the rural areas is seen to have been contributing to the growing urban population. This heavily takes toll on the existing infrastructural facilities and the amenities as well. The majority of the migrant population in Nagaland is drawn from the rural areas, and the phenomenon of continued out-migration essentially tells upon the conditions in the rural areas, making the life increasingly 102 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

109 difficult. More than 80 per cent of the rural population is dependent on agriculture. But the low rate of investment in agriculture, inequalities in the distribution of land and other productive assets, institutional mechanisms which discriminate in favour of the owners of wealth (e.g. In provision of credit and government schemes), coupled with natural calamities lead to increasing unemployment and poverty of the rural population. In fact, the unemployment and poverty of the rural population are the main causes of out migration to the urban centres of the state and to other states as well. Unemployment pushes migrants towards areas with greater employment opportunities where they engage themselves in petty business activities such as vegetable vendors, grocery stores, petty shops like pan shops, hotels and tea stalls etc. Consequences Though agriculture still remains the main occupational activity in rural Nagaland, agricultural production is mostly for domestic consumption. Due to lack of infrastructural facilities such as connectivity, market linkages, facilities for storing and value addition for the agro products, the creation of opportunity for sustained employment and income generation is insufficient. Problems are also cropping up as a result of out-migration in the place of origin, and in the place of destination. Some of the emerging problems are closely related to environment, apart from others such as infrastructural strain and poverty. Environmental Implications No doubt, the growth of population has a number of positive impacts on the environment and human well-being, i.e. higher population densities mean lower per capita costs of providing energy, health care, infrastructure and services. Also, urbanization has historically been associated with declining birth rates, which reduces population pressure on land and natural resources. Despite all these positive impacts, almost all major towns of the region are increasingly plagued by environmental problems. Some major aspects are as follows: a) As a direct result of urbanization, great threat to health and safety in the towns comes from water and air pollution, especially at the households and community levels. Waterborne diseases are found most commonly in low-income neighborhoods as a result of inadequate sanitation, drainage and solid waste collection services. Health risks, especially to the poor, are also posed by pesticides and industrial effluents. b) The productivity of many cities is adversely affected by traffic congestion and air pollution. The loss in productivity includes the total productive time wasted in traffic and the associated increase in the costs of operating and maintaining vehicles such as wear and tear as a result of idling in traffic and frequent acceleration and braking. For example, delays, which may result in late arrival for employment, meetings, and education, Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

110 result in lost business. Furthermore, Fuel wastage owing to increased idling, acceleration and braking increases air pollution and carbon dioxide emissions. c) Uncollected and improperly handled solid waste can have serious health consequences. They block drainage systems and contaminate groundwater at landfill sites. Most urban centres in the state are also unable to manage the increasing amounts of hazardous wastes generated by hospitals and the rapid growth of industries. Besides this, Most towns do not have underground piped or sewerage system and even if they do exist; the total length of proper drains is short of crude drains, which therefore means that there is no proper cement (RCC) coverage for most drainage systems. Further none of the towns in Nagaland has a functional sewerage treatment system. d) Conversion of agricultural land and forest, as well as reclaiming of wetlands, for urban uses and infrastructure, is associated with widespread removal of vegetation to support urban ecosystem and put additional pressure on nearby areas that may be even more ecologically sensitive. Major urban centres such as Dimapur, Kohima and Mokokchung are the most affected and environmentally fragile areas which are triggered by rapid expansion of human settlement and infrastructural development. Urbanization does not have only local environmental impacts but also large so-called ecological footprints beyond their immediate vicinity. Intensive and extensive exploitation of natural resources to support urban economy includes excessive extraction of energy resources (including fuel wood), quarrying and excavation of sand, gravel and building materials at large scales, and over-extraction of water. Other effects can be felt further such as pollution of waterways, long-range air pollution that impact on human health as well as on vegetation and soils at a considerable distance. Infrastructural Strain and Poverty The growth of large cities, particularly in developing countries, has been accompanied by an increase in urban strains resulting from unemployment and infrastructural inadequacies leading to increase in urban poverty in general. In many cities and towns, urban services are commonly inadequate to meet even the basic needs of the inhabitants. A thematic report on rural-urban migration in Nagaland has been brought out recently which draws attention to issues pertaining to facilities, opportunities and livelihood options. The report indicates that it is vital to concentrate on urban regeneration in Nagaland especially as most of the towns are in the hills which naturally have very limited carrying capacity, penned lead author and coordinator of thematic studies Prof. Manoj Pant. Infrastructure is about delivering the essential services that people need to maintain basic standard of living. The essential services include water supply, sanitation, electricity, roads, transport and telecommunications, health care, education, 104 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

111 market and financial institutions. These in turn lead to improvements in health, access to education, economic opportunities and more. The water supply requirement of most towns in Nagaland is met through natural sources such as rivers, streams, springs and ground water reserves. While there is some supply by the Public Health Engineering Department in some pockets of some of the towns, the remaining urban population either resorts to getting their water requirements met through the above mentioned sources or end up digging up wells and using community springs. In the field of sanitation, the urban centres have not been able to do much either. The towns have their respective municipal councils to look after the sanitation and public amenities of the urban residents; however, these councils are mostly inefficient as well as inadequate to take prompt actions in meeting the requirements of the ever-increasing urban population. The transport sector, too, has seen a substantial growth in the last decade, particularly with an increase in personal transport. The average growth rate of the vehicle population of Nagaland has been in the region of 5-7% in the last decade. In terms of district and town wise vehicle population, the districts and towns of Dimapur and Kohima have the highest vehicle population. This phenomenon has made traffic congestion and snarls a common feature in the urban centres of Nagaland. The pressure of urban population on public amenities and infrastructure is no doubt an important reason for underdevelopment and poverty. However, given the fact that urban settlements in Nagaland, except for Dimapur are situated either on hill slopes or rugged terrain the prospect of all round development becomes practically unfeasible. Measures to Remedy Since the statehood of Nagaland in 1963, the small administrative blocks and headquarters have steadily grown in population as people migrated to these places for education, health care and livelihood prospects. Accommodation of population from the rural areas in the ever complex expansion of the townships is going on unabated. Whereas growth and development are positive movement, in regard to urban living such growth almost always is accompanied by multiple problems and issues associated with the movement of people and materials in a larger scale than the land can hold. The need to address the growing infrastructural and social needs of the increasing urban population on one hand and the problems of land acquisition, issues of public safety and environmental protection on the other are the crucial areas requiring judicious urban planning and development. To achieve an enduring solution to the problems of migration and urbanization measures should be adopted to do away with the conditions which generate such problems. The Gandhian approach seems to be relevant in this regard. Urban development is desirable but it should not be at the cost of the rural people. And since about 71% of Nagaland s population dwells in the rural areas so a rural solution is the only solution to rural and urban problems. Providence of Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

112 social amenities and the development of the rural areas in all spheres of life will definitely be an answer to the overwhelming outflow of rural population to the urban centres. However, Scholars differ in their opinions on the rationale of urban growth as an essential element of the process of development. Some argue that the rapid growth of urban centers has been the result of migration of ill-equipped and unskilled poor peasants from the villages causing over-population in cities and towns, rise of unhealthy slums and choking of civic amenities. There are others who consider urbanization as an opportunity and a challenge. They argue that for most part, urban migrants are energetic and ambitious and that the urban poor make significant contributions to urban economics. A balanced view may be taken in this regard as asserted by Gopal Krishan: While rural development is the most desirable objective in itself, it is doubtful if it will make a dent on rural-urban migration One may possibly arrive at a conclusion that the basic question is not of containing of the growth of dynamic cities but of managing them better. In conclusion, the present scenario of migration from the rural areas to the urban centres is taking place at a rapid pace in Nagaland. Whereas such phenomenon of growth and development are positive movement for the urban centres, in regard to urban living such growth almost is always accompanied by multiple problems and issues associated with the movement of people and materials in a larger scale than the land can hold. As such, there is an urgent need to address the growing infrastructural and social needs of the increasing urban population, problems relating to land acquisition, issues of public safety and environmental protection. These are crucial areas requiring judicious urban planning and development. Besides, an important measure would be to provide urban amenities in the rural areas so that rural based activities would take place in the urban areas and the urban oriented activities would also take place in the rural settlements. The recognition of such rural-urban interface should be taken into perspective for the all round development of the State. References Aier, A. and Kithan, T. (2011): Rural-Urban Migration: A Thematic Report 2009, Department of Planning and Coordination, Government of Nagaland. Chan, K.W. (1994): Urbanization and Rural- Urban Migration in China Since 1982: A New Baseline, Modern China, Vol. 20 No. 3, July , Sage Publications Inc. [Access date: ] Goldstein, S. (1990): Urbanization in China, : Effects of migrationa and reclassification, Population and Development Rev. 16, 4: Guangming ribao. Beijing. Harris, J.R. and Todaro, M.P. (1970): Migration, Unemployment and Development: A Two SectorAnalysis, The American Economic Review. Vol. LX, No [Access date: ] 106 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

113 Ichimura, M. (2003): Urbanization, Urban Environment and Land Use: Challenges and opportunities, An Issue Paper, Asia-Pacific Forum for Environment and Development Expert Meeting, 10 January 2003, Guilin, People s Republic of China,APFED3/ EM/03/Doc.5. Kaur, G. (1996): Migration Geography, Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Krishan, G. (1989): New Themes in Population Research, Demography India, Vol.18 Migration in India , NSS Report No. 533: Migration in India: July, June, 2008, National Sample Survey Office, Ministry of Statistics & Programme Implementation, Government of India, June 2010 Mitra, A and Murayama, M. (2008): Rural to Urban Migration: A District Level Analysis for India, IDE Discussion Paper No. 137, Institute of Developing Economies (IDE), Jetro, Japan. ARRIDE_Discussion_No.137_mitra.pdf [Access date: ] Nagaland Action Plan on Climate Change, Draft Copy, March 2012, Government of Nagaland. Sinha, B.R.K. (2005): Human Migration- Concepts and Approaches, mtafki.hu/konyvtar/kiadv/fe2005/ FE _ pdf [Access date: ] Vero, C. Thematic Report on Rural-Urban Migration Perspective/69550.html (Access date ) Maosanen Longchar Department of Geograph, Nagaland University Laumami, Nagaland Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

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115 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Analysis and Simulation of urban expansion of Srinagar City Nissar A. Kuchay and M. Sultan Bhat, Srinagar, Jammu Kashmir Abstract The process of urban expansion is a dominant phenomenon in the Himalayan regions which has been accelerated by increasing levels of urbanization facilitated by marked developments in transportation, tourism and industrialization. The other determinants of sprawl include high population growth on account of migration and the establishment of growing network of public utilities. Unlike plains the vertical expansion of cities in these areas is constrained due to geo-structural sensitivity of the region, the cities in such areas mainly grow outwards along their peripheries and major transport corridors encroaching into productive agricultural land, wetlands and forest areas which in turn negatively influence the food security and environmental status of these regions. Srinagar city is the largest urban centre across whole Himalayan region and is experiencing considerably high rates of population growth and areal expansion. The city has recently been ranked as one among the first hundred fastest growing urban centers throughout the world. Therefore in present study an attempt has been made to analyse and simulate the trends and patterns of population growth and spatial expansion of this fast growing Himalayan urban centre Keywords: Urban sprawl, mountainous, Himalayan, wetlands, agriculture, transport corridors. Introduction In the present day scenario, cities are becoming hub of almost all human activities. This has resulted in ever-growing size of cities, squeezing open spaces available within the city and has started exerting pressure on civic amenities. This extraordinary growth of population resultant areal expansion and pressure on amenities are the most dramatic phenomenon associated with urbanization. This is also a fact that the pressure of the continuously growing city centre gradually changes the structure of surrounding neighbourhoods. Further, extension of urban areas and merging of fringe areas into main city seems to be a continuous process, a phenomenon called urban sprawl. Generally speaking, growth of population is the fundamental factor in human ecological system and its relationship to the natural resources, environment and technology (Rajeshwari, 2006). In India, unprecedented population growth coupled with unplanned developmental activities has resulted in rapid but skewed urbanization. This has

116 posed serious implications on the resource base, access to infrastructure and the development of the region. The urbanization takes place either in radial direction around a well-established city or linearly along the highways (Jain, 2007). Some of the causes of the sprawl include- population growth, economy and proximity to resources and basic amenities. In the course of urban spread, valuable land is being converted for building, industry, transport facilities etc. The direct implication of such urban sprawl is the change in land use and land cover of the region. The ability to serve and develop land heavily influences the economic and environmental quality of life in towns (Turkstra, 1996; Xiao et al, 2006). Haphazard and unplanned expansion of urban centers is a typical character of the Himalayan region, the urban scene in most of the mountain valleys is dominated by urban primacy of a single central urban center. An absence of any land use planning may lead to land degradation. Un-planned decisions may result into misery for large segment of the local population and destruction of valuable eco-system. Techniques for the planning and management of land resources specifically integrated and holistic will check long term quality of the land for human use, their prevention or resolution of social conflicts related to land use and the conversion of ecosystem (Bhatt et al., 2007). Identification and analyses of the patterns of sprawl in advance would help in effective infrastructure planning in urban area. The spatial patterns of urban sprawl over different time periods can be systematically mapped, monitored and accurately assessed from satellite data along with conventional ground data (Lata, et al., 2001). Sprawl has a considerable impact on ecosystems and other environmental resources which provide societal and environmental benefits simply by existing and functioning. These essential biological and physical systems include wetlands that provide flood control and waste water renovation; atmosphere, forests, and grasslands that provide climate regulation; biodiversity factors that contribute to healthy, well-functioning ecosystems (Barnes, 2003; He et al, 2011). Moreover, urbanization is radically transforming rural landscapes, shifting the economic base away from agriculture towards other uses and changing the aesthetic characters of these landscapes. Study Area Srinagar city is not only the largest urban centre in the state of Jammu & Kashmir but in the whole Himalayan region. The city has been growing at an alarming pace therefore indicating considerable changes. The city lies 74º 43-74º 52 E longitude & 34º 0-34º 14 N latitude. It is about 5200 feet above mean sea level. The location map of the study area is shown in fig.1. (see page 119 for fig.1) The city has a unique physiographic setup with steep hills in the East and North East, low lying paddy fields falling in the flood plain of Jhelum in the South and West, the karewas of Budgam in the extreme South and towards the North are located the uplands with 110 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

117 moderate slopes. The famous Dal Lake is situated in the heart of the city. There are two conspicuous physical features in the shape of Kohimaran and Kohisuleiman hillocks. The city of Srinagar experiences a Mediterranean type of climate and receives most of its precipitation during the winter season in the form of rain and snow. Location Map of Study Area The city has a rich heritage of flora and fauna and is unique in the sense that the forests are very close to it. These forest areas are home to varied mammalian species like black bear, leopard and world famous Hangul the only red dear found in India. The main floral species of the city are Chinar, Popolar, Willow, Kikar, Han, Bren etc. Objectives The study has been carried out with a focus to achieve the following objectives; I. To analyze the population growth and urban expansion (spatiotemporal growth) from 1901 to 2011 II. III. To identify and analyze the forms of urban sprawl from 1901 to 2011 To project the future scenario of population growth and areal expansion of Srinagar city. Materials and Methods Flow Chart of Methodology Decadal census of India SoI toposheets & Time series analysis Georeferencing and digitization Growth trends Temporal Land use maps Regression modeling Spatial overlay analysis Future growth scenarios The projected rates of population growth were simulated through the following equation; Y= A.B x The log form of the above equation is as; log Y= log A+ x log B Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

118 Results and Discussions Srinagar city is experiencing the phenomenon of accelerated urbanization induced by large scale development in transport and tourism, growing network of urban amenities and infrastructure developmental. All these factors have resulted in burgeoning population growth especially during the last fifty years or so. Srinagar- the primate city of the region has enjoyed its primacy throughout the ages. The city was found by king Ashoka in 272B.C and is one of the oldest urban centers of the region. The city has achieved the status of metropolitan urban centre in the year 2008 and is currently experiencing higher rates of urban growth as compared to other cities of the country. The city has experienced almost no vertical expansion due to fragile geophysical setup of the region which in turn has resulted in accelerated horizontal sprawl of the city. Population Growth High population growth rate is a common problem of most of the urban centers throughout the developing world. The figures regarding population of Srinagar city are relatively reliable only since enumeration of 1901 A.D. Therefore it may be taken as a base for analysis of growth trends and decadal variations in the population of the city. The Table I.I presents the pattern of population growth and percentage of variation during different decades. From perusal of the Table I.I, it is evident that the population of Srinagar city during the last century ( ) has grown phenomenally. It increased from 122,618 persons in 1901 A.D. to 122,5837 persons in 2011 A.D. indicating nearly tenfold increase amounting to 900 percent growth with a net increase of 110,3219 persons. The pattern of decadal growth however, has not been uniform. In the early decades from A.D, the growth has been slow due to the low growth rates which has declined from percent in 1931 A.D. to percent in 1961 A.D. This decline in the growth rate could be attributed to the political unrest and partition of the subcontinent in 1947 A.D. which led to a large scale migration of people. It was after 1961 A.D. that a new phase of growth of population commenced. The population of the city increased from 285,257 persons in 1961 A.D. to 606,002 persons in 1981 A.D. recording a net addition of 320,745 persons with alarming growth rates of and percent respectively. The main factors responsible for this accelerated population growth during this period have been in migration, increase in birth rates and fall in death rates. Besides this, the merger of 62 villages in municipal limit in 1971 A.D. and the introduction of urban agglomeration concept which brought a number of rural areas under the jurisdiction of Srinagar city are indeed the other factors contributing to the rapid growth of the city population. Subsequently from 1981 to 2011 A.D. the population increased to 971,357 persons in 2001, registering a net growth of 365,355 persons in two decades with a decadal growth rate of percent and 122,5837 persons in 2011 recording a net addition of 254,480 persons during the last ten years. The dynamic trend in the population growth of Srinagar city suggests an 112 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

119 accelerated rate of growth in city s population in future which is revealed from the fact that the city has achieved the metropolitan status in the year This anticipated rapid change in the demographic dimension of the city is bound to create an impact on the socio-economic structure of the city and may accentuate the problems of housing scarcity, land speculations and urban blight and slums. Table I.I: Srinagar City- Population Growth and Areal Expansion ( ) Year Population Absolute Variation Decadal Growth Rate Area (Km 2 ) Absolute Variation Km 2 Decadal Growth Rate Km 2 Density Per Km N.A N.A N.A N.A N.A N.A Source: Census of India, , Srinagar Municipal Corporation. NA (Not Available) No Census was conducted in Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

120 5.2 Areal Expansion During past century ( ) increasing population due to high natural growth rate and in migration for better livelihood opportunities have paved way for rapid expansion of this urban centre. The Table I.I shows the pattern of increase in the area of the city during last hundred years. It is clear from these figures that there has been a slow expansion of the city during first fifty years and a very fast expansion after 1970 s as the total area of the city has increased from 12 Km 2 in 1911A.D. to 82 Km 2 in 1971A.D., Km 2 in 2001A.D. and 416 Km 2 in 2011A.D. The analysis of the spatial expansion of the city reveals that growth of the city has been an exponential one as reflected in Fig. 3b. The sprawl of the city between 1901 and 2011 has been reflected in Fig.4. (see page 120 fig. 4) 5.3 Spatial Forms of Sprawl Sprawl development consists of three basic spatial forms: low-density continuous sprawl, ribbon sprawl, and leapfrog development sprawl. Low density sprawl is the highly consumptive use of land for urban purposes along the margins of existing metropolitan areas. This type of sprawl is supported by piecemeal extensions of basic urban infrastructures such as water, sewer, power, and roads. Ribbon sprawl is development that follows major transportation arteries outward from urban cores. Lands adjacent to corridors are developed, but those without direct access remain in rural uses/ covers (Muller et al, 2010). Over time, these nearby raw lands may be converted to urban uses as land values increase and infrastructure is extended perpendicularly from the major roads and lines. Leapfrog development sprawl is a discontinuous pattern of urbanization with patches of developed lands that are widely separated from each other and from the boundaries, albeit blurred in some cases, of recognized urbanized areas (Harvey and Clark, 1971). The interpretation of Fig.4 highlights the changing spatial form of Srinagar city. The areal sprawl during the period prior to 1971A.D. indicates that the city has grown roughly in a circular form. However after 1971A.D. the city has experienced tremendous sprawl and has been transformed from a circular to a star shaped urban centre. This change in the spatial form of the city during last forty 114 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

121 years could mainly be attributed to its fragile and challenging geo-ecological setup. As visualized in the Fig.4, there has been practically no spatial expansion of city limits in the east and the north west of the city due to the presence of Zabarwan hills and Anchar wetland respectively. This shows the control of natural environment in shaping the spatial form of the city. The urbanization in Srinagar city has taken place either in the form of ribbon sprawl, in a linear direction along the highway and other major transport corridors (district roads) of the city or in the form of leapfrog, occupying certain suitable patches as per the accessibility and proximity. This has in turn resulted in large scale fragmentation and encroachment of productive agricultural and horticulture land. The wetlands and lakes of the city that have been at service both economically as well as ecologically, since times immemorial have not been spared. The presence of these physical and ecological features has played a leading role in shaping the overall form of the city. 5.4 Impacts of Sprawl The problems created by the haphazard and unrestricted growth of Srinagar city have aggravated irregular and chaotic development of residential, industrial and commercial areas resulting in fragmentation and loss of productive agriculture and horticulture land, spatial and ecological destruction of life supporting wetlands, world famous lakes, traffic bottle necks, slums, polluted environment and others all known and felt by the residents of the city. Suburbs of the city have attracted people from both sides i.e. migrants from rural areas in search of better jobs and access to urban amenities and from the core city in search of better environmental conditions and living quality. This has led to redistribution of land by the complementary tendencies of concentration and dispersion of population. The environmental impact of sprawl spans local, regional, and global geographical scales. At a more regional scale the sprawl of Srinagar city has been mainly at the cost of agriculture and horticulture land. The expansion of the city in the north and the east has mainly been at the cost of precious horticulture land while in the south and the west it has been at the cost of productive agriculture and wetland area. The fast sprawl of the city has heavily encroached on the wetlands like Littorals of Dal, Anchar, Hokrasar, and Narkara. All these wetlands have suffered a substantial loss in their spatial extant (Bhat, 2008). The ecological studies carried out during the last thirty years have shown increasing pollution levels in the water bodies of the city especially the Dal lake and the Jhelum river. These changes in the spatial and ecological status of water bodies are mainly the response to the unplanned and unregulated urban activities especially after 1970 s. Another important observation in response to the sprawl of Srinagar city is human-wildlife conflicts As the residential land uses intrude into more agricultural and wildlife habitats areas, human-wildlife conflicts are on the rise. The expansion of the city towards the upper areas of Zabarwan hills, especially in Dachigam catchment has results in an alarming increase in humanwildlife conflicts. Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

122 Despite traffic congestion and long hours to commutes the work places, the suburbs continue to remain a preferred residential location with better quality of life for many city residents. On the other hand migrants from rural areas also prefer to settle in suburbs due to the availability of affordable land and connectivity to their native rural areas. Society faces the challenge of striking a balance between curtailing urban growth beyond developed areas and providing housing opportunities for inner-city residents who struggle to improve their quality of life. 5.5 Future Growth of Srinagar City (Fig.6) The analysis of population growth and areal expansion of Srinagar city during past hundred years show an exponential growth pattern as reflected in Fig. 2b and 3b respectively. This phenomenon of burgeoning population growth and fast areal expansion together with current growth rates being very high, suggest an unmanageable growth of the urban centre in near future. The analysis of the past patterns (during last hundred years) of growth and future trends through regression analysis (exponential), the city is projected to cross 1.7 million persons in terms of its population size and sprawl over more than 750 Km 2 in terms of its spatial extant by the year 2031 as reflected in Fig. 5a and 5b respectively. The immediate areas of development would be the areas in the vicinity of major transport corridors. Presently this land forms a part of productive agriculture land of the city and most of the perishable items to the city come from these areas. This phenomenon of unregulated expansion of the city in turn will put enormous pressure on the already stressed and strained urban amenity structure of the city resulting in backlogs in vital sectors and may lead to a scenario of unmanageable urban system. Conclusion The city of Srinagar being the largest urban centre among all Himalayan urban centers is facing the phenomenon of accelerated urbanization and resultant environmental degradation It has a very complex geoecological setup with precipitous hills standing guard in the East to prevent city s further expansion on this side, besides 116 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

123 there are a number of urban lakes like Dal, Anchar, Nigeen, Babdemb and khushalsar that have played a dominant role in shaping the spatial form of the city. These physical and ecological features have played a determining role in shaping the overall spatial form of the city. The city has grown in a circular form during the first half of 20 th century and has been now transformed into a star shaped urban centre growing mainly along the major transport corridors in the form of ribbon development. The land along the roads with easy accessibility has been developed leaving behind fragmented interiors. Another form of sprawl found in Srinagar city is Leapfrog sprawl caused by rugged terrain, wetlands and water bodies. All these factors have precluded the continuous development or made it prohibitively expensive. During the latter half of past century the magnitude of population growth and resultant spatial expansion and land use change in Srinagar city has increasingly assumed from significant to threatening proportions. The city has grown tenfold in terms of population and more than twentyfold in terms of area between 1901 and 2011AD. This escalating urban growth, in a sensitive geo-ecological setup has resulted in large scale encroachment and degradation of productive agriculture/ horticulture land, life supporting wetlands, green spaces and forest areas. Past patterns of urban expansion of the city both in terms of population size and spatial dimensions coupled with current high rates of sprawl, suggest higher growth rates and fast urban expansion of the city in near future as well. (see page 121 for Fig. 6) The population size of the city is projected to cross 1.7 million mark and the area of the urban centre is projected to reach 750 km 2 by the year The analysis brings to light the process and pattern of rapid urbanization in this mountainous area and calls for an immediate attention of planners to devise comprehensive a land use plan for the sustainable and balanced urban development in the region. Otherwise the city may turn into an unmanageable metropolitan complex with serious ecological and social consequences. Acknowledgement The authors are highly thankful to the University of Kashmir for providing the space and support to conduct this research work. Thanks are also due to the University Grants Commission for providing satellite data through a sponsored research project. References Almas, A., Amjed S., Rahim, A., Butt, B., Tayyab, I. and Shah, C. (2007): Metropolitan growth monitoring and land use classification using geospatial techniques, ISPRS Workshop on Service and Application of Spatial Data Infrastructure, XXXVI(4/W6), Hangzhou, China Barnes, J. ( 2003), Natural History of the Albany Pine Bush : Albany and Schenectady Counties. NYS Museum Bulletin, New York, NY, 502. Bella, K. P. and Irwin, E. G. (2002): Spatially explicit micro level modeling of land use change at the rural-urban interface, Agricultural Economics, 27: Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

124 Berling, W. and Wu, J. (2004): Modeling urban landscape dynamics: a case study in Phoenix, USA Urban ecosystems, 7: Bhat, M. S. (2008) Urban System in Himalayas- A study of Srinagar City Region, Dilpreet Publishing Co. New Delhi. Bhatt, B., Gupta, A. K., Gunin, G. (2007): Application of Remote Sensing and GIS for Detecting Land Use Changes: A Case Study of Vadodara gisdevelopment.net/application/urban/ sprawl/remotesensing_ab.htm Harvey, R. O. and Clark, W. A. V. (1971): The nature and economics of urban sprawl, In Bourne L. S. (eds.) Internal Structure of the City Oxford University Press He, C., Tian, J., Shi, P. and Hu, D. (2011): Simulation of the spatial stress due to urban expansion on the wetlands in Beijing, China using a GISbased assessment model, Landscape and Urban Planning, 101: Lata, K. M., Sankar Rao, C. H., Krishna, P. V., Badrinath, K. V. and Raghavaswamy. S. (2001): Measuring urban sprawl: a case study of Hyderabad, GIS Development, 5, 12: Muller, K., Steinmeier, C. and Kuchler, M. (2010): Urban growth along motorways in Switzerland, Landscape and Urban Planning, 98:3-12 Mundia, C. N. and Aniya, M. (2005): Analysis of land use/cover changes and urban expansion of Nairobi city using remote sensing and GIS, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 26: Rajeshwari, (2006): Management of the Urban Environment Using Remote Sensing and Geographical Information Systems, J. Hum. Ecol., 20, 4: Sanat, K. G. and Abhik, D. (2009): Spatiality and zoning of urban functions in the North- Eastern parts of Kolkata Metropolitan Area, Transections institute of Indian geographers, 31, 2. Taubenbock, H., Wegmann, M., Roth, A., Mehl, H. and Dech, S. (2009): Urbanization in India: spatiotemporal analysis using remote sensing data, Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 33, 3: Turkstra, J. (1996): Urban Growth and Land Use Options for Lower-Income Groups A Case Study of Villavicencio, Columbia, ITC Journal 1: UN Habitat, (2009): Global Report on Human Settlements 2009 Planing Sustainable Cities: Policy Direction, United nations human Settlements Programmee/ Earthscan, London, UK. Wu, Q., Li, H., Wang, R., Paulussen, J., He, Y., Wang, M., Wang. B. and Wang, Z. (2006): Monitoring and predicting land use change in Beijing using remote sensing and GIS, Landscape and Urban Planning, 78: Xiao, J., Shen, Y., Ge, J., Tateishi, R., Tang,C., Liang, Y. and Huang, Z. (2006): Evaluating urban expansion and land use change in Shijiazhuang, China, by using GIS and remote sensing, Landscape and Urban Planning, 75: Nissar A. Kuchay Ph. D Scholar, Department of Geography & Regional Development, University of Kashmir, Srinagar M. Sultan Bhat Professor and Head, Department of Geography & Regional Development, University of Kashmir, Srinagar Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

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128 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers 2014, XLIII p. 127 illus., 65 illus. in color ISBN Price 199 (15000/- Rs approximately) CONTENTS Introduction.- Part I: Historical Outline.- North-eastern India through the Ages.- Part II: The Land.- North-East India Structural Framework.- Physical Setting of Northeast India.- The Drainage System of Northeast India.- Weather and Climate of the North- East.- Natural Hazards in the Northeast Region.- The Resource Endowment of the North-Eastern Region.- Forest and Grasslands of the North-East Region.- Part III: The People.- Early Colonisation of Northeast India.- People of the North-East.- Population of the North-eastern States.- Migration and its Impact on the Society and the Economy of the North-East.- Human Habitat in the North-East India.-Urbanisation and Urban Landscape in North-East India.- Part IV: The Economy.- Agriculture: Past and Present.- Industries and Associated Economic Activities.- Transport and Trade in Northeast India.- Socio-Economic Development of the North-East: An Assessment.- Part V: The Future.- Epilogue. THE AUTHORS Prof. Dr. K.R. Dikshit is a former Professor of Geography of the University of Pune, India (now retired). He has written several books, such as Geography of Gujarat (1970), Contributions to Indian Geography: Geomorphology (1983), Maharashtra in Maps (1986) and Environment, Forest Ecology and Man in the Western Ghats: The Case of Mahabaleshwar Plateau (1993) as well as many research papers. Jutta K. Dikshit has been teaching geography at the Department of Geography, University of Pune, Pune. She studied geography and German language and literature at the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz (Germany), and obtained her doctoral degree from the Sorbonne, Paris. Before coming to India, she worked as a lecturer at the University of Saarbrücken for a number of years. Her research papers are mainly in the field of physical geography. She is the editor of the book The Urban Fringe of Indian Cities (2011). 122 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

129 Changing Flood Intensity Zone of Dwarka River Basin in Eastern India Sutapa Mukhopadhyay, Surajit Let, Santiniketan, West Bengal Abstract Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Flood is intrinsic components of the natural climate system and climate variability. Dwarka river basin has experienced 37 memorable meso to macro level floods between 1900 to Among them more than 75% floods phenomena have occurred after About 14 devastating floods have been recorded since Among these extreme flood events, 21.42% occurred before 1952 and rest 78.58% have agitated after According to the perception study and recorded secondary data, it is clear that the discrete and cumulative flood frequency have been progressively increasing over time. From the flood trend analysis due to the desperate intervention of human being in the basin area through various anthropogenic activities such as construction of barrage across river, embankment along river banks, khadan construction on the upper catchment area etc. to draw immediate profit from river and river command area, river has changed its character in diversified ways. The intensity of flood in terms of flood frequency, flood height and flood stagnation period has been increased many times. So it may be said natural forces alone do not cause floods today; rather, floods is a byproduct of the interaction between natural events and human activities. For that some scientific and creative measures are essential not only to abate flood intensity but also to make creative adjustment with flood. Keywords: Flood intensity, Flood Frequency, Retention capacity, Hydrological density, Flood vector. Introduction: Long time before the flood was considered to be beneficial for human civilization when fertile soil carried by the river and flood was rhythmic in manner. But now the intensity of flood has increased many times due to extreme human interferences with river through construction of dam, embankment along river to draw huge profit at a time and flood is considered as terrifying occurrence as it carries huge amount of sand instead of fertile soil. Flood is defined as a state of high water level along the river channel or on coast that leads to inundation of land which normally submerged ( Khullar, 2000). In other words flood is simply defined as spilling of water body over normal level of discharge. In West Bengal the northern and central parts are flooded by rivers like Mahananda, Bhagirathi, Ajoy, Mayurakshi, Dwarka, Damador, etc. due to inadequate capacity of river channel, absence of embankment, high rate of sand deposition, construction of

130 dam etc. ( Majumdar, 1941). Due to loss of carrying capacity of Dwarka river the flood height and flood frequency have increased many times and even today normal flow of river is bringing high flood. In this situation some creative and scientific measures are essential not only to reduce flood intensity but also to make adjustment with flood. Location: Dwarka River is well known name in the river scenario of Bengal. Taking start from Chhotonagpur the river flows toward extra moribund deltaic region. The whole basin of Dwarka river lies between and north latitude and E and E longitude covering an area of sq.km. The study area includes two districts of Jharkhand (Pakur and Dumka) and two districts of West Bengal namely Birbhum and Murshidabad. This broad basin covers 12 CD Blocks. The total length of Dwarka river is 156.5km. Fig Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

131 Physical Background of the Study Area: The Dwarka river originates from Chhotonagpur plateau and merges with Mayurakshi river in Murshidabad District. The upper part of this basin is located in Chhotonagpur plateau region having undulating plateau surface with large number of isolated hills. Maximum relief of this part is about 502 m. and middle part belongs to Rarh Bengal. The lower segment of this basin is plain area with numerous rivers, gullies, segments, bils swamps, levees, chars etc. The general slope of the entire region is about 1:3.54 The Dwarka river is extremely sinuous in nature and having large number of tributaries. In upper part number of tributaries is more and non perennial in character. But in lower part most of the tributaries are perennial in nature and bring huge amount of water during Monsoon period. Some important tributaries are Mor, Brahmani, Banki, Gomvira etc. Climate of Dwarka basin is characterized by hot summer, high humidity as well as monsoonal annual rainfall. The average annual rainfall of this basin is about cm, where 80% of the rainfall is received from June to September. As a result flood is a normal event in this period. Maximum temperature during summer rises up to 38 C and comes down to about 12 C during winter. Database The present paper has been prepared after the compilation of the secondary as well as primary data. The data about flood height, flood water stagnation period and flood affected area have been collected from Irrigation and Water ways Department of Government of West Bengal, Disaster Management cell of West Bengal Govt. and the perception study of the flood victims through scheduled questionnaires. Methodical Frame Entire basin has been subdivided into 67 equal size grids (64 sq.km of each) and flood frequency, flood height, flood water stagnation etc. data have been collected on the basis of each and every individual grid. Fig. 2 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

132 In this paper average condition of flood frequency, flood water height, flood water stagnation of some seven major floods since 1978 to 2010 have calculated and plotted on map. Flood frequency has been initially calculated in the way that 1flood/5years or 1flood/2year or like. But for the convenience of discussion, all flood frequency data have been converted in respect to 1 year. For example, 1flood/1year indicates the value as 1; 1flood/2years indicates 0.5 or like (Mukhopadhyay et al 2011). Three individual flood intensity zoning maps have been prepared for the year of 1978, 2000 and 2007 as these are prominent flood years of the basin. For year wise flood intensity zoning two parameters have been selected namely a) Flood water level height and b) Flood stagnation period. Weighted composite score method has been employed to integrate the flood data for each affected mouza (small administrative land unit). Integrated flood map is prepared using three parameters namely flood level height, flood frequency and flood stagnation period. The standard scores have been calculated using weighted score method for removing their variations in basic unit expressions. Weighted score = n M 100 Where M = Maximum value of column; N = variable Weighted score values are added together to show the composite weighted score. On the basis of composite weighted score, the entire basin area has been divided into four broad flood zones namely (i) intensive flood zone (>240) (ii) moderate flood zone (80-240) (iii) low flood zone (<80) (iv) no flood zone (0). Flood Parameters Flood Affected Area Table 1 clearly shows that flood affected areas have been increasing over time. In last century 1978 flood year was the greatest as per flood extension and damage records. But flood year 2000 has washed out all the previous records and accounted the most extensive flood character. Figure 9 shows the status of most intensive flood extended areas. It is noticed that flood 2000 not only submerged the lower basin but also inundated extensive part of upper basin area. Table 1: Distribution of Flood Affected Area Flood zone Area (km 2 ) % Area (km 2 ) % Area (km 2 ) % Intensive flood zone Moderate flood zone Low flood zone No flood zone Three devastating flood years of these have been selected according to their devastating effects. 126 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

133 Flood during 1978 Memorable flood has been reported in 1978 in the lower area of Dwarka river basin. The inadequate capacity of river, extreme curvature of the river, convergence of large number of tributaries and huge downpour at a time was responsible for occurrence of flood during The lower portion of the Dwarka river basin is fertile and suitable for cultivation. So, the huge areal coverage in lower portion means loss of crop land. About 538 mouzas were affected by flood which is about 46.93% of the total basin area. Intense flood was recorded in the eastern part of Birbhum and Murshidabad districts. But extreme upper part of this river basin was not affected by the flood in Fig. 3 Flood during 2000 During 2000 the most devastating flood has been recorded in Dwarka River basin. The main causes for such intense flood in 2000 were huge amount of downpour (654mm.) Table 2: Number of Flood Affected Mouzas during 1978 FLOOD EVENTS Flood Zone Intensive zone Moderate zone Low zone Weighted Score Districts affected No. of Blocks affected No. of Mouzas affected No. of Blocks affected No. of Mouzas affected No. of Blocks affected <20 Murshiidabad Bibhum Murshiidabad Bibhum >100 Murshiidabad Bibhum No. of Mouzas affected Fig. 4 Fig. 5 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

134 within very short span of time, discharge of large amount of water (more than cusec) from dams all on a sudden, bringing of huge amount of water by tributaries to the main river, poor drainage condition etc. About 555 mouzas were affected by the flood which is about 63.0% of the total basin area. Gross record of loss including lives and properties was maximum during flood year Flood during 2007 In the year 2007, large part of Dwarka River basin (middle and lower catchment area) was beaten by a severe flood due to large quantity of water release from Deucha dam and cyclonic rainfall (518mm). The areal coverage of flood was relatively low than previous two floods. About 537 mouzas were fully or partially affected by the flood during this year which is about 46.28% of the total Dwarka River basin. Flood Frequency Flood frequency means how many floods occur per unit period of time. Flood frequency depends on the frequency of downpour in basin area, uncontrolled discharge of water from dam or barrage etc. Fig. 6 Fig. 7 In Dwarka river basin the frequency of flood varies from river confluence area to upper catchment. In lower catchment the flood occurrence is very frequent, almost one flood is experienced in every year. In 2007 three meso to macro level floods were experienced by the lower catchment dwellers. In middle catchment the frequency is comparatively lesser and in upper catchment there is no significant occurrence of flood. Table 3: Distribution of Flood Frequency Area Range of flood frequency/year Area in km 2 % of area to total > < Flood Height Flood height is the function of volume of discharge, topographical character, period 128 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

135 of water accumulation etc. The region where the height of flood is more, possibility of flood devastation is also high. The flood height also varies from lower to upper catchments like that of the flood frequency. In Dwarka River basin the maximum flood height is noticed at the confluence area where flood height is more than 1.6 m. Depressed land, long water stagnation period etc. are influential factors for such greater flood height. In the upper catchment area flood height is nil because there is no sign of flood. Table 4: Distribution of Flood Height Area Range of flood height(m.) Area in km 2 % of area to total > Nil Flood Stagnation Period Flood stagnation indicates how long flood water stagnates in a particular area.this period may vary according to the rate of movement of water through spill way, presence of topographical depressed land, slope of the land, number of tributaries etc. Table 5: Flood Water Stagnated Zones Range of flood stagnation (in days) Area in sq.km % of area to total > < Nil In lower catchment area of Dwarka river basin the period of flood stagnation is sometime more than 15 days. The tendency of stagnation is relatively greater in the right hand sector of the lower catchment where the flood height is also maximum. In upper catchment area due to the presence of significant slope and draining out ability of the channel the stagnation period is either marginal or completely nil (Fig.8). Relationship between Flood Height and Flood Stagnation: There is positive relationship between flood height and flood stagnation period in all the observed years for same 67 grids, although the magnitude of relationship is not uniform. In the lower catchment area the relationship is stronger than the average value indicated in the following table. Table 6: Correlation and Regression Values between Flood Height and Flood Stagnation Year Regression Coefficient Correlation Coefficient Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

136 Fig. 8 Gradual degradation of drainage network, natural depression, and rise of water level of the master stream Bhagirathi etc. are mainly responsible for growing rate of positive allometry between flood height and flood stagnation period. Integrated Flood Zones Integration of different parameters like flood height, flood stagnation, and flood frequency for the measurement of flood can provide a detail picture of spatial flood character at a glance. This map (Fig.10) has been prepared on the basis of composite weighted score values which has mentioned in the early part of this paper. 1. Intensive Flood Zone Basically the confluence area of Dwarka River basin comes under intensive flood zone. Almost all the mouzas of Kandi block experience intensive flood. Total area of intense flood zone is about km 2. Low lying topography, wetland character, poor drainage system, convergence of large number of meso level rivers etc. are mainly responsible for intensive flood. The fig. 9 Fig. 9 is showing the variation in areal coverage of intensive flood zone in different major flood years. 2. Moderate Flood Zone Relatively upper part of Dwarka River basin specially the eastern part of Murshidabad district, eastern part of Birbhum district come under this category. Total area of moderate flood coverage is sq.km. Extensive river command area, convergence of meso rivers, deposition of river bed, influx of water from the other river basin etc. are mainly responsible for flood in this zone. 3. Low Flood Zone In relatively upper part of this river basin specially the western part of Birbhum of West Bengal and eastern part of Dumka district of Jharkhand come under this flood zone. Total areal coverage is sq.km. Relatively greater degree of slope, high relief less dense population, less cropping intensity, all are responsible for low flood and marginal flood loss. 130 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

137 4. No Flood Zone In extreme upper portion of the catchment area where there is no large and broad river, surface flow is more common than any channel flow the occurrences of flood is almost nil or rarely found. For example in the memorable flood history, only during flood year 2000, some portion of no flood zone was marginally affected. Total coverage of this kind of no flood zone is sq.km. The flood intensity zone on the basis of flood frequency, flood stagnation period and flood height have been presented in fig.10 by using the Composite Score to represent the total flood character. Table 7: Scale of Integrated Flood Affected Area Flood zone Area % of area to total Intensive flood zone km Moderate flood zone km Low flood zone km No flood zone km Major Findings: The flood level height has increased remarkably in lower catchment area and normally maximum flood height is found in confluence catchment area. Due to non-perennial character of river and high slope, upper part of this basin is totally free from flood devastation. Flood frequency is increasing since Now every year macro to meso level floods are experienced by lower Fig. 10 catchment dwellers. There is strong relation between flood in lower catchment area and discharge of water from Deucha barrage. During 2000 flood coverage area and damaging intensity were very high due to the release of huge amount of water from the barrage. Out of some memorable flood incidences, flood 2000, flood 1998, flood 2007 are significant. Among them 2000 flood is worst one for its spatial extent, flood height and stagnation period. About 63% area of the whole basin was affected by flood during this period. As a flood vector, rainfall is directly linked with mass scale flood but as a specimen of human interference, narrowing down of river course by encroaching lodges, sudden discharges from barrages (Deucha) etc. are also responsible for the cumulative flood devastation in this basin. From the comparative study of the flood intensive zone it is expressed that the zone is gradually shifting toward relatively upper reach since It Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

138 indicates that the flood affected area and intensity are spreading upward. Some Remedial Measures: I. Dredging of feeder channels will help to free trespassing of the water from Dwarka to Bhagirathi at faster rate. II. Increasing of the retention capacity of the wetland or wetland areas to hold excess water during flood. III. Large numbers of sizeable culverts are essential along the road for the passing of the water as it will save the road damage. IV. Controlled monitoring of water discharge from dam and barrage is necessary during peak monsoon period and the capacity of the storing water must be increased. V. Encroachment of the settlement areas into the channel must be avoided as the constricted flow is responsible for sudden flood occurrence. VI. Flood safety room, community hall, common concrete granary etc. may be considered as good step to get rid of much losses. VII. Village wise flood volunteer group should be organized for urgent and prompt saving of properties during flood. VIII. Flood warning system should be implemented and revived. At least one river gauge station per each 20 km distance should be established with proper rain gauge system. IX. Profit loss calculation should immediately be revised for Deucha barrage to make our future plan more viable. X. The perception of the basin dwellers should be implied to chalk out the management strategies. Flood is natural phenomena, so it should not be hampered and tampered. It is high time that people should be concerned about ensuing threats otherwise river can announce rebel against the river tamer and on that days man would have nothing to do rather shameful surrender to river and riverine process. People are living within the flood command area, so they should adjust with flood at any cost. References Khullar, D.R. (2000) India A Comprehensive Study, Kalyani Publishers pp Majumdar, S.C.(1941): Rivers of Bengal Delta, Department of Irrigation, Govt. of West Bengal Mukhapadhyay, S. Mukhapadhyay, M. & Pal. S.(2011): Advanced River Geography ACB. Publishing, pp Dr. Sutapa Mukhopadhyay, Associate Professor, sutapageo@gmail.com Surajit Let, Research Scholar, Dept. of Geography, Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan, W. B. surajitgeo83@gmail.com 132 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

139 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Book Review - 1 Paradigm Shift in Geography M. H. Qureshi (ed. 2013) M. H. Qureshi (ed. 2013) Paradigm Shift in Geography: Manak Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi; pp xxvi+352; price Rs.1500/- Not many geographers know that Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, has been publishing a series of geographical books, known as Jamia Millia Islamia Studies. The series contains at least half a dozen books on diverse themes. The volume under review is a part of that series. The volume under review Paradigm Shift in Geography contains 13 papers, presented at a seminar, held on 26th and 28th Nov. 2011, under the auspices of the A. M. Khwaja Chair, presently held by Professor M. H. Qureshi, the editor of the volume. Not all the papers focus on the theme of the seminar: in fact, a majority takes up other themes, not less important, but not quite in consonance with the spirit of the seminar. The book opens with a foreword by the then Vice-Chancellor, Janab Najeeb Jung, followed by a preface by Professor M. H. Qureshi, that acquaints the readers with what one would expect in the book and gives a brief resume of the articles contained in the volume. The text starts with the keynote address of Madaswamy Moni of National Informatics Centre, New Delhi. Emphasizing the importance of environmental conservation and sustainable and inclusive growth, he talks of paradigm shift as seen in the emerging geo-spatial techniques. Hanuman Singh Yadav s paper Global Finance and Capital driven Spaces: A Geographical Explanation presents an analytical view of the role of capital in the organization of space, a fact often ignored in geographical study. Yadav s paper offers compelling argument to support his view that geography has gone through a paradigm shift, both in method and philosophy, in tune with the development of capitalism, as positivism, radicalism and lately postmodernism, but geographical analysis remained devoid of ideology. This opens a new avenue of debate for evaluating the extent to which capital dictates the character of economic landscape. B. S. Butola s Shifting Paradigm: Shifting Goalposts in Political Geography runs into 63 pages, occupying almost a fifth of the book- length. Written in a terse, often a stifling style, the paper is insufferably long and chaotically organized. He sets out to explain, at great length, the concept of paradigm, and the divergent views of Thomas Kuhn and Karl Popper, observing that Kuhn himself used the concept of paradigm and paradigm shift in not less than 21 senses, which he enumerates (pp 78 &79 of the volume), crediting Haggett and Chorley, followed by David Harvey for popularizing the concept of paradigm. He gives credit to Friedrich Ratzel, as the originator of the idea of Lebensraum,

140 that morphed subsequently into geopolitik of Karl Haushofer. Surprisingly, he thinks that Ratzel was the first to bring humans in the ambit of geographical study, a view not widely shared. In his narrative of paradigm shift, Butola talks of the gradualism of Charles Lyell on one side and the evolution of Charles Darwin on the other. He doesn t stop here, and switches over to the mechanistic and Cartesian-Newtonian paradigm, followed by Copernicus-Galileo paradigm, rather in a an inverse order, to arrive at the Continental and Plate Tectonics paradigm. What the latter has to do with paradigm shift in political geography is not clear to this reviewer. Reverting to Greco-roman idealistic paradigm, and then the views of some French philosophers, Butola compresses in a sentence the contribution of European philosophers, starting from Immanuel Kant, underscoring the names of eight philosophers, including some celebrated composers like Mozart and Bach, Butola drifts in his voyage of paradigm-discovery, encompassing everything that comes his way till he touches the anchoring ground of Michael Foucault before talking of biopolitics, on which he has contributed a paper in Human Geography (see bibliography). He concludes- Under bio-political regime, the organisms including the human beings and their life processes have become the subject of political power. Butola s narrative of geography, as a discipline, swings from one extreme to the other. He says geography as a discipline is different from many other disciplines, particularly from natural and social science disciplines and humanities, (what remains to be included?). He, self righteously, like Kabir, reviles both, the sciences on their pontification on metaphysical approach and experimental verification, and social sciences for constructing the narratives and discourses, combining them with borrowed techniques from science. One should know that concepts and techniques don t descend from heaven, and don t fall in an exclusive domain of one science or the other. Science doesn t grow in isolation, it enriches itself by sharing, adoption, application and propagation. He accuses geographers of blindly importing concepts from various disciplines. Would he like to straitjacket geography in an inflexible frame protecting it from the evil influences of other sciences? The most damaging and contemptuous remarks that show low esteem for the discipline are in the pen-ultimate paragraph. These read as follows. Geography as a discipline was subjected to two equally dangerous pathologies: implosion due to mindless borrowing from other disciplines, and explosion due to low capacity to digest the imported stuff, resulting into throwing up indigested knowledge articulated into numerous sub-branches of the discipline. Geographers! Beware, you stand the risk of chewing the secondary, thrown-up stuff. Sarfaraz Alam s essay - Main Ideological Currents in Indian Geography, well written and sequentially organized, is likely to be a reference material for those who would like to know about ideologically guided research in India. Though, as the author observes in his essay, ideological 134 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

141 debate in geography appeared late on the scene, there is no reason why its late arrival or even its neglect among Indian geographers be lamented. Does ideology really have a place in an objective analysis of a situation? It could have as much of a vitiating impact as an enlightening one. Alam divides the ideological evolution of Indian geography into four phases, viz. period of empirical and regional geography, period of positive and systematic geography, period of relevant geography and period of ideological diversity. Differentiating between conservative, liberal and radical ideologies, Sarfaraz quotes from the writings of Indian geographers, ranging from Rana P. B. Singh to Moonis Raza, Aijazuddin Ahmed and M. H. Qureshi, on the one hand, to A. P. Misra, Swapna Banerjee-Guha and B. K.Choudhary on the other. In conclusion, the author finds that no one ideology pervades in teaching or research in Indian geography, and concludes that research should be conducted by adhering to standard scientific ideals and integrities, and that it should be critical in approach not only to question the existing geographical knowledge but also to expose the hidden agenda of geographical knowledge production. What appears from the essay is that Alam seems to believe in taking up an ideological position for which he seeks support from D. Gregory by quoting his statement - Our adoption of one position rather than another is much more convincing if the choice is a conscious one, deriving from a careful appraisal of the alternatives. One can take a position postfacto following rigorous research analysis, but a pre-conceived ideological position is the mind of a lunatic. The reality, whatever it implies, does not lie in ideology, it has to be discovered through scientific methods. Misra and Raju have proceeded with the intention, as the title suggests, of discussing Colonial Influence on Geographical Studies in India: A Brief Perspective. They think that the leading geography departments of India (Calcutta, Banaras and Aligarh) which flourished under the colonial regime carried on with the colonial legacy and decided on the nature and trend of geographical studies in India. As these three early departments produced students who spread far and wide in the country and perpetuated the same legacy. This is exactly the reason why Indian geographers have always been seeking or waiting for something to come from the west. This is the singular reason why most of the studies and works done by Indian geographers during the period have revealed the same trend and tendency, a very simplistic explanation indeed. The authors seem to think, as the reviewer understands, that the studies of themes like communal divide, ethnic conflicts and religious and environmental studies, advocated by the western scholars were meant to promote the interest of the capitalist western world. In a large and diverse country like India, one can discover an array of themes and problems, and no one prevents Indian geographers from moving away from the comfort of their armchair research and grapple with problems in the field. But, would they? Ali Raza Moosvi s Paradigm Shifts and Expansion of Knowledge: A Preliminary Study of Geography is a precise and well written review of geography as a university discipline, with a historical perspective. In Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

142 his review, Ali has justifiably inserted the contribution of Middle East geographers such as al-idrisi and Ibn Battuta, though one may question the inclusion of the latter in the rank of geographers. His mention of al-biruni evokes admiration of this great scientific thinker whose Kitabu l Hind is a masterpiece of geographical understanding. While tracing briefly the evolution of geography through the centuries, and that of modern geography with Humboldt s Kosmos and Thomas Huxley s Physiography, through the phase of determinism to the emergence of modern technology, Ali laments that the present geographical paradigms of empiricism and spatial representation have a deep connection with the market with which they transact on a daily need-basis. More and more technological applications are being introduced in geography only in so far as the application of technology to space is concerned. But synthesizing this information in a spatial context needs a theory, and it is here that geography seems to be lacking. Then comes the most significant statement The study of basic theory, already in need of urgent redress, would collapse and the subject itself would be anchorless to move in whichever direction as the winds of change and opportunity blow unless we infuse the discipline with basic theory and understanding. B. K. Choudhary s exhaustive paper Paradigmatic Shift in Geography - Journey from Human Ecology to Political Ecology is based on an important assumption, i.e., the human ecology has yielded place to political ecology. One is tempted to remind the author that the very concept of ecology having its origin in the biological sciences, and attributed to German scientist Ernst Haeckel, the adoption of the term either as human, political, economic, as a qualifying prefix, adds one more perspective to the range of relationships and human-nature interactions. None of the two substitutes - human and political ecology- is contentious and none of them offers a holistic definition of the discipline. Never in its history, human ecology was considered a substitute for, or an adequate definition of, Geography. Both, human ecology as well as political ecology could represent two important perspectives. Choudhary s demonstration of the importance of political power, and political ecology, with examples from the use of environmental resources, related to land use, ground water extraction and mineral resources, in different parts of the country is convincing, but it is not the whole truth; many more factors are involved. As he himself observes The nature of the complexities of the scenario is much more intricate than the human-environment relation in the classical sense. It is these intricacies that geography has to address today, if it has to survive and it intends to make itself socially relevant. While on couldn t agree more with Choudhary, one is tempted to add that geography was never limited to making of an inventory, nor did it shy away from what the author calls intricate relationship. A satisfactory explanation could be simple or full of complexities, depending on the nature of problems. The potential of political ecology, as seen by the author, to analyse the triad of Resource- Development-Peace using multiple social frame works, is an optimistic assessment. 136 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

143 Anindita Datta s review of gender geographies in India is metaphorically titled - Wild Flowers on the Margins of the Field: On the Geographies of Gender in India. Is Gender Geography in India like wild flowers on the margins of cultivars? Indian geography is not unfamiliar with gender problem: to bring it centre stage and to accord an appropriate place in the array of sub-disciplines is what is aimed in this review paper of Datta. During the recent decades, there has been steady progress and there is clear encouragement to the introduction of this sub-discipline even at the under-graduate level. As noted by the author the UGC did propose an undergraduate programme of gender-study in 2001 Yet, there exists a clear lag between research trends in the local and global contexts. The most common effort in this direction has been to make the disparities in education, health-care and employment of women vis-à-vis man, visible. However, an overt questioning of patriarchy and the unequal balance of power between men and women that result in these patterns has not really occurred. Regrettably, in the opinion of this reviewer, seeking a balance of power as if men and women are competitors or rivals is a proposition not shared universally. The review-paper is indeed interesting and the wild flowers - the gender geography on the margin of the cultivated field should be tended to blossom, but to supplement and not to destroy the existing luxuriance, as the weeds do. Rajeshwari s paper- Methodological Developments in Medical Health Care Geography, a very systematically organized and informative paper with a select bibliography and a couple of end notes, is a good read for all those interested in medical geography; and the reviewer would not hesitate in recommending it as a an important reading material for graduate students. The opening paragraph of the paper, defining different approaches to geography, often missed in research papers, is followed by a review, in brief, of global researches in medical geography and the situation in India. And, finally, the author talks of future directions and the issues at hand. It is a concise, precise and systematically organized paper that is smooth in style and enlightening in content. The paper, however, may not suggest a paradigm shift, but a shift in focus and emphasis. Preparing Crop Inventory and detecting Land Use Changes. Shift in Methodological Paradigm is a paper presented by three professors of the department of Geography, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi. Unlike a substantive paper, the authors have presented a methodological shift in collecting crop statistics. Tracing the history and importance of crop statistics from the days of Kautilya s Arthashastra right through the Moghul period, exemplified by Ain-e-Akbari, the celebrated work of Akbar s general Abul Fazal, that suggests devices for the compilation of crop statistics, the authors comment on the elaborate and time consuming method of collection through ground survey, sampling reporting of statistics. They advocate the adoption of Remote Sensing Techniques - Visual and Digital by enumerating its advantages over traditional methods. There is a methodology for every aspect Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

144 of estimation, area, productivity etc, and, as they suggest is being applied by state agencies through ^CAPE (Crop Acreage and Production Estimation) and LACIE (Large Area Inventory Experiment). Outlining the procedure through various charts, the authors conclude that the remote sensing technology has enormous potential, what they have delineated is just indicative, and many studies can be conducted on various themes on agriculture, taking highresolution data. To this reviewer s delight, he finds Mahabir Singh Jaglan talking of the Place and Significance of Field-work in Geographical Teaching and Research in India. It can hardly be denied that as the years and decades pass by, geography in Indian universities is bracing to don the mantle of an armchair discipline, reflecting, philosophizing, trying to find a niche for geography in the changing philosophical base of social science disciplines. What the author of the paper is emphasizing is the indispensability of fieldwork in a geography course designed for university level studies. Quoting Fuller (2006), the author enumerates the objectives and the advantages of fieldwork and demonstrates with the help of data, extracted from five national journals, the pathetic state of fieldwork content in university courses. Part of the explanation, the reviewer thinks, lies in the state of decline in physical geography, at the post-graduate level in the universities. The application of Remote sensing techniques cannot be a substitute for fieldwork and actual contact with physical or socio-economic landscape not stimulates thinking but also provides a basic framework of understanding.. The pen-ultimate paper of the volume is one by R. B. Bhagat who is arguing for a Decentralised Food Security Policy within the larger framework of Population, Hunger and Food Security in India, the title of his paper. Taking stock of the food security situation over the last half a century, Bhagat shows how the food availability has improved despite an increase in population and has lingered around 440 gm per capita per day following Green Revolution, though a decline in an overall availability of pulses is a cause for concern. Seen against a norm of 2,400 kcal per person per day in rural and 1900 kcal in urban areas, Bhagat, quoting other authorities, makes out a case of undernourishment to the tune of 79.8 in rural and 75.8% in urban areas. Mere availability of food doesn t guarantee access to food, and this establishes a close link between poverty and food security. This affects even children and causes infant mortality. Intervention by the Central Government has taken the form of Food Security Act, guaranteeing food to poorer sections of the society at affordable price. The author points out several deficient features in the National Food Security act, rooting for a decentralised system operated by the states through the village Panchayats. Dinesh Pratap in a spatial study of Forest Policies, Management Rules and Local Community in Uttarakhand evaluates the impact of changing forest policies and their impact on the forests of Uttarakhand. With the primary objective of ensuring environmental stability, ecological 138 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

145 balance and biodiversity conservation together with improving the productivity of the forests, a policy of joint management of the forests involving forest departments and the village communities was initiated. The policy, it appears, gave additional powers to the forest department. The author has discussed at length the implementation of the Joint Management Policy and the Forest Rights Act, 2006 as seen in Uttarakhand. He finds tardy implementation of the Forest Rights Act, procedural delays and conservative interpretation of rules resulting in the denial of community rights. And, despite various objections and suggestions of the community and recommendations of committees, the ideal forest policy for effective community management of the forests remains elusive, defeating the purpose of various policy initiatives and the introduction of new acts. Of the thirteen papers contained in the volume, none, strictly speaking, talks of a paradigm shift. Some talk of an additional perspective, some represent the geographical dimensions of national problems, some talk of new methodologies and their problem solving potential, and some others talk of the neglect of certain methods and approaches. The only paradigm shift appears to be keeping a safe distance from the landscape approach, greater indulgence in philosophical and methodological discussions and some neglect of substantive studies. Notwithstanding the above comments, the volume is rich in content. It has some well-organised review papers, a few presentations of the problems encountered in policy implementation, and above all some assertive discussions with a philosophical overtone. Though the nature of the seminar was such that one can find enough justification to include all that exists in the book, yet one wonders if Indian geographers are not tending to write more on geography than geography. Professor Qureshi deserves our appreciation for initiating this series and bringing out several volumes including the present one. The book is well- edited, and the printing is error-free. Let us hope the seminars and the present series of publication continue. K. R. Dikshit Pune Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1,

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147 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Book Review - 2 Glimpses of Kerala through Maps Srikumar Chattopadhyay and S. Suresh Kumar Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram; 2013 Srikumar Chattopadhyay and S. Suresh Kumar, Glimpses of Kerala through Maps, Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram; 2013, with 32maps and explanatory notes, pp. 93 price- not stated Nearly 30 years after the Centre of Earth Science Studies (CESS) in Thiruvananthapuram brought out the Resource Atlas of Kerala (scale 1:1, ), the Centre has published a new atlas- Glimpses of Kerala through Maps. The atlas contains two sections, the first consisting of 32 colour plates and the second the explanatory notes, including 21 tables and the references. All the colour plates use the same base map (scale 1:2, ) with district outlines. This facilitates a quick comparison of the contents of different maps. Fifteen of the 32 maps are multithematic. Though a few maps like the administrative divisions, the drainage, soil or rainfall maps, are based on the Resource Atlas of Kerala, they are fully updated and revised. Some of the maps carry the imprint of individual scientists like the Geology map (K. Soman), and the map of Planation Surfaces and of Landscape Ecological Zones (S. Chattopadhyay). Most of the maps, however, have been the outcome of team effort and based on the results of different research projects of the Centre. The explanatory notes for each map are short, to the point, and offer occasional background information. Tables form an important part of the explanatory notes. Some plates, i. e. Landscape Ecological Zones would be less meaningful without the detailed table. About one third of the plates relate to what the authors call Biophysical Set-up with two plates referring to biosphere and ecological zonation, and the remaining seven depict the physical features of Kerala. The plate Decrease in Annual Rainfall, is based on the comparison of rainfall, during the two periods of forty years each, from to Transport and Population form a small part of the atlas with only five plates. The map Spatial trend of internal migration in Kerala skilfully represents a problem specific to Kerala. The eight tables that follow present the agricultural landscape of the State, including the Size of operational landholding in the State. The change in the total cropped area, the decline in the area under paddy, the spatial variation in the area under coconut and the expansion of rubber plantation are well brought out. The last nine maps refer to social infrastructure and levels of deprivation and development using different parameters. This could form the a priori base for, development planning.

148 The colour scheme is slightly on the bright side, some following harmonious gradations of greens, blues or red, some more multi coloured. One important aspect of the maps is that they are not overloaded with information and together with the explanatory notes, provide a good overview of different facets of the geography and economy of Kerala. The atlas would be decidedly useful to planners, teachers and students as well as those interested in the physical and socioeconomic landscape of Kerala. Jutta Dikshit Pune 142 Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

149 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Professor Laxminarayan Sanna.Bhat : Obituary Born : Died : Professor Bhat Laxminarayan Sanna, commonly known as Prof L. S. Bhat, also endearingly addressed as Bhat sahib, by his students and close associates, passed away on 25 th Nov, 2014 following a massive heart attack in New Delhi. Ms Bhat and other members of the family were by his side when the end came. Professor Bhat is survived by his wife, two sons, his daughter and several grand children. The institute of Indian Geographers deeply mourns his death. In his demise, Indian Geography has lost an able researcher and a trendsetter in Regional Planning studies and practices. Professor L.S.Bhat was born in a small village, Holangadde, in Kumata taluka of Uttar Kannad district of Karnatak, on 28 th August, He spent his early life in Uttar Kannad district, then a part of Bombay presidency. During the early 1950 s, soon after his graduation in Science with Geography, he was awarded Daxina Fellowship. This enabled him to register as a student for M.Sc. (by Research) in Geography in Karnatak College, Dharwad. Thus began his geographical journey with rigour and enthusiasm. He was very fortunate in having Professor C.D.Deshpande, as his mentor and guide. Having come in close contact with stalwarts like Prof V.L.S. Prakasa Rao and Professor Andrew Learmonth, he imbibed their academic qualities that guided him in his future life. The most important position Dr. Bhat held was as a professor of geography and Regional Planning at the Indian Statistical

150 Institute (ISI), New Delhi. Here he came in contact with Prof. P. C. Mahalnobis with whom he worked on several projects. While working at the ISI, he was also associated with the Planning Commission of India, New Delhi, an association that lasted for over a decade between and He was awarded the Leverhulme Research Fellowship, and worked as a consultant to the United Nations ESCAP at Bangkok. In the late sixties, he was a visiting faculty at the SGS, Australian National University, Canberra. He was also a regular visiting faculty at Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi University, and the School of Architecture and Planning, New Delhi. He has to his credit a large number research publications, including books on Regional Planning in India, Micro-level planning, Integrated Area development, Planning regions and Regional Survey of Mysore State (with V.L.S.P.Rao), Impact of Metropolitan City on the surrounding Region, (co-author), and Contributions to the Economic Geography of India (with A.T.A. Learmonth). In recognition of his contributions to Indian Geography and Regional Planning, the Indian Council of Social Science Research, New Delhi, awarded him the prestigious National fellowship, to work on Spatial Perspectives in Decentralized Planning.' He was instrumental in the formulation and implementation of Research and Training Programmes, related to regional planning in geography, in several universities. He was a founder member and General Secretary of National Association of Geographers, India, for several years. He has steered the Association successfully, through the initial period of teething trouble. On the social front too, Prof. Bhat s contribution is no less significant. He initiated the Delhi Karnataka Sangh and served as its Secretary and President. He was felicitated as a distinguished Kannadiga during Karnataka Rajyotsava 99 celebrations, at New Delhi on , conducted jointly by the Department of Information and Publicity, Government of Karnataka, and the Delhi Karnataka Sangh. Despite his personal tragedy of having a special childhood disability, he bravely faced the harsh realities of life. He took active interest in the Delhi chapter of Handicapped Children Parents Association (HCPA). The works of Prof Bhat will continue to inspire professional geographers for a long time to come. K.M.Kulkarni Professor of Geography (Retd) Department of Geography Gujarat University Ahmedabad Transactions Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014

151 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Dr. K. V. Sundaram : Obituary Born : Died : Dr. K. V. Sundaram, one of the pioneers of regional planning in India, is no more with us. He left for his heavenly abode, after a prolonged illness, on 23th November Kavassery Vanchi Sundaram was born on 30th November 1929 at Calicut in Kerala State in India. His father, Shri K. A. Vanchi Iyer, moved to Tamil Nadu in 1930 to take up a job as Headmaster of a high school at Devakottai in Ramnathpuram district. Sundaram completed his schooling at Devakottai and under-graduate studies at Tirunelvelli and Madurai. He joined the first batch of the University of Madras for his Master s degree in Geography and completed the course in Sundaram started his professional career as a faculty in Alagappa Chettiar College at Karaikudi in Tamil Nadu in After seven years of teaching and research, he moved to the Town Planning Organization, now Town and Country Planning Organization (TCPO), Government of India, New Delhi as a Research Associate in He worked with a multi-disciplinery team in preparation of a Regional Development Plan for Metropolitan Delhi, which was the first of it s kind in India. After completion of the Delhi Master Plan, he worked on regional planning projects for the Rajasthan Canal Region, Dandakaranya Development Region, South-east Resource Region and the dacoity infected districts of central India. This wide ranging on-the-job experience stimulated his thinking on inter-state regionalisation for planning. His paper on Planning Regions of India, discussed in a special session of the International