SNOW AND GLACIER HYDROLOGY by PRATAP SINGH National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, India and VIJAY P. SINGH Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, U.S.A. KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS DORDRECHT / BOSTON / LONDON
Table of Contents DEDICATION PREFACE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS v vii xi PART I: PRELIMINARIES 1 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Definition of Hydrology 1 1.2 Classification of Hydrology 1 1.3 Hydrological Cycle 3 1.4 Inventory of the World's Water and Global Water Balance 5 1.5 Role of Hydrology 19 1.6 Scope and Importance of Snow and Glaciers 20 1.7 A Short History of Snow and Glacier Studies 38 References 45 PART II: PROPERTIES AND MEASUREMENT OF SNOW AND SNOW COVER 53 2. ATMOSPHERE AND ITS COMPONENTS S3 2.1 General Atmospheric Characteristics 53 2.2 Atmospheric Water Vapor and its Indices 56 2.3 Vaporization or Evaporation 61 2.4 Condensation 61 2.5 Heat Required for Conversion 62 2.6 Temperature 62 2.7 Precipitation 72 2.8 Formation and Growth of Snow Crystals 82 2.9 Classification of Snow Crystals 87 2.10 Chemistry of Snow 88 2.11 Typical Winds in Mountains 94 References 96 3. PROPERTIES OF SNOW AND ICE 104 3.1 Physical Properties 104 3.2 Thermal Properties 112 3.3 Optical Properties 117 References " 119
4. MEASUREMENT OF SNOW 121 4.1 Depth of Snowfall 121 4.2 Water Equivalent of Snowfall 121 4.3 Comparison of Snow Gauge Measurements 130 4.4 Errors in Precipitation Measurements 132 4.5 Shielding of Snow Gauges 144 4.6 Network and Observation Frequency 149 4.7 Telemetry of Snow Measurements 151 4.8 Areal Estimation of Precipitation 155 References 156 5. MEASUREMENT OF DEPTH, WATER EQUIVALENT, AND AREA OF SNOW COVER 161 5.1 Evolution of Snow Cover 161 5.2 Depth of Snow Cover 162 5.3 Snow Cover Water Equivalent 163 5.4 Areal Extent of Snow Cover 175 5.5 Satellite Sensors for Snow Related Studies 180 5.6 Microwave Response of Snow 185 5.7 Metamorphism of Snow 189 References 212 PART III: SNOWMELT AND ITS ESTIMATION 220 6. ENERGY EXCHANGE PROCESSES 220 6.1 Energy Balance 220 6.2 Snowmelt Indices 254 6.3 Comparison of Energy Balance and Index Approach 261 6.4.Observed Maximum Snowmelt Rates 262 References 264 7. STREAMFLOW HYDROGRAPH 273 7.1 Classification of Streams 273 7.2 Components of Streamflow 275 7.3 Delineation of Runoff Components 278 7.4 Factors Affecting Hydrograph Characteristics 278 7.5 Hydrograph Time Characteristics 281 7.6 Elements of Hydrographs 286 7.7 Recession Analysis of Snowmelt Hydrograph 288 7.8 Determination of Recession Constants 292 7.9 Baseflow Separation 301
References 307 PART IV: SNOWMELT RUNOFF MODELING AND FORECASTING 309 8. SNOWMELT RUNOFF MODELING 309 8.1 Mathematical Models 309 8.2 Modeling of Snowmelt Runoff 311 8.3 Storage Potential 317 8.4 Time Delay in Runoff Generation 320 8.5 Soil Conditions Beneath a Snow cover 337 8.6 Routing 338 8.7 Forecasting of Snowmelt Runoff 401 8.8 Simulation Accuracy 404 References 407 9. SNOWMELT MODELS 415 9.1 Streamflow Synthesis and Reservoir Regulation Model-(SSARR) 415 9.2 Snowmelt Runoff Model (SRM) 421 9.3 University of British Columbia Watershed Model (UBC) 427 9.4 Precipitation-Runoff Modeling System (PRMS) 437 9.5 HBV Model 443 References 445 PART V: HYDROLOGICAL ASPECTS OF GLACIERS 448 10. GLACIER CHARACTERISTICS AND MASS BALANCE 448 10.1 Glacier 448 10.2 Classification of Glaciers 449 10.3 Inventory of Glaciers 453 10.4 Spatial Characteristics of a Glacier 455 10.5 Glacier Movement 459 10.6 Mass Balance of a Glacier and Its Measurement 474 10.7 Depth of a Glacier and Its Measurement 484 References 489 11. GLACIAL MELTING 497 11.1 Melting of Glaciers 497 11.2 Effect of Dust and Debris on Melting 502 11.3 Estimation of Glacier-Melt Runoff 514 11.4 Degree-day Factors for Snow and Ice 521
11.5 Forecasting of Glacier-Melt Runoff 522 11.6 Glacier-Melt Runoff Models 523 11.7 Effect of Climate Change on Glacier-Melt Runoff 528 References 529 12. GLACIAL STORAGE AND DRAINAGE CHARACTERISTICS 536 12.1 Hydrologic Response of Glacierized Basins 536 12.2 Seasonal Distribution of Glacier-Melt Runoff 547 12.3 Melt Water Storage Characteristics 549 12.4 Melt Water Drainage Characteristics 554 12.5 Impact of Precipitation on Glacier-Melt Runoff 560 12.6 Runoff, Movement and Drainage 561 12.7 Generation of Extreme Flows from Glaciers 561 12.8 Estimation of GLOF Discharge 568 12.9 Application of Isotopes in Glacier Studies 572 12.10 Separation of Hydrograph Components 575 References 579 13. EROSION AND SEDIMENT YIELD 588 13.1 Definitions 588 13.2 Erosion and Sediment Yield v 591 13.3 Sources of Sediment in Glacierized Basins 594 13.4 Sediment Flux and Subglacial Drainage Network 603 13.5 Sediment-Yield Process 604 13.6 Sedimentation from Arctic and Temperate Glaciers 607 13.7 Sampling and Analysis of Suspended Sediment 608 13.8 Grain Size Distribution in Glacier Melt Streams 609 13.9 Sediment Yield Modeling 611 References 637 14. STREAMFLOW MEASUREMENTS 649 14.1 Selection of Discharge Observation Sites 650 14.2 Measurement of Stage 651 14.3 Measurement of Velocity 656 14.4 Measurement of Discharge 665 14.5 Stage-Discharge Relation 685 14.6 Shifting Control 688 14.7 Extension of Rating Curves 696 14.8 Hydraulic Geometry 707 14.9 Streamflow Network _ 710 References " 712
APPENDIX A 714 AUTHOR INDEX 721 SUBJECT INDEX 734