Click Here for Full Article GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS, VOL. 33, L18309, doi:10.1029/2006gl027025, 2006 Modern and ancient seismogenic out-of-sequence thrusts in the Nankai accretionary prism: Comparison of laboratory-derived physical properties and seismic reflection data Takeshi Tsuji, 1 Gaku Kimura, 2 Shinya Okamoto, 2 Fumio Kono, 3 Hisako Mochinaga, 3 Tatsuo Saeki, 3 and Hidekazu Tokuyama 1 Received 26 May 2006; revised 26 July 2006; accepted 1 August 2006; published 22 September 2006. [1] To investigate characteristics of a seismogenic out-ofsequence thrust (OOST) imaged as a strong reflection on seismic profiles in the Nankai accretionary prism, we determined acoustic properties of discrete samples from an fossil Nobeoka OOST outcrop under confining pressures, and compared the acoustic properties with those of an active OOST in the Nankai accretionary prism. We observed anisotropy of velocity and attenuation in the hanging wall of Nobeoka OOST attributed to foliation of pelitic-phyllite. In contrast, the footwall is composed of brittlely deformed, chaotic shales and fine sandstones, and velocities in the footwall are lower than those in the hanging wall. Amplitude variation with offset (AVO) modeling utilizing contrasts in P- and S-wave velocities and densities between the hanging wall and footwall of the Nobeoka OOST indicates that fractures filled with overpressured fluid likely account for angle-dependent reflection amplitudes of the active OOST in the Nankai Trough. Citation: Tsuji, T., G. Kimura, S. Okamoto, F. Kono, H. Mochinaga, T. Saeki, and H. Tokuyama (2006), Modern and ancient seismogenic out-ofsequence thrusts in the Nankai accretionary prism: Comparison of laboratory-derived physical properties and seismic reflection data, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L18309, doi:10.1029/ 2006GL027025. 1. Introduction [2] At convergent plate margins, plate boundary fault characteristics are important for understanding the nature of earthquake mechanisms and deformation of the accretionary prism. The décollements in the Nankai and Barbados accretionary prisms are commonly characterized using seismic data, including reflection polarity, seismic velocity, and attenuation [e.g., Moore and Shipley, 1993; Shipley et al., 1994; Tsuji et al., 2005], because seismic data can be calibrated by borehole data. However, the seismogenic OOST is too deep to penetrate with riserless drilling, so its properties have only been estimated from seismic data. Seismic reflection data from the Nankai Trough off the Kii Peninsula in southwest Japan (Figures 1a and 1b) image a strong negative polarity OOST (or splay fault) reflection 1 Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan. 2 Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan. 3 Technology and Research Center, Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation, Chiba, Japan. Copyright 2006 by the American Geophysical Union. 0094-8276/06/2006GL027025$05.00 branching from the major plate boundary fault [e.g., Park et al., 2002; Tsuru et al., 2005]. This OOST might have ruptured during the 1944 Tonankai earthquake and associated tsunami [e.g., Tanioka and Satake, 2001]. The negative polarity reflection of the OOST has been interpreted to indicate elevated fluid pressure in the fault zone [Park et al., 2002]. From seismic data alone, the reflection polarity is highly useful information to estimate fault zone properties. However, polarity of deep seismic reflections is also affected by acoustic dispersion, and fracture zone causes wavelet tuning [e.g., Costain and Çoruh, 2004]. Therefore, full OOST characterization solely using reflection polarity is not possible, so we compare acoustic properties of an active seismically-imaged OOST (Figure 1b) with those of a fossil OOST (Figure 1c). [3] Herein, we have determined acoustic properties of discrete samples under confining pressures up to 55 MPa obtained from the Nobeoka fossil OOST (Figure 1c), and compare them with those of an active Kumano OOST imaged on seismic profiles off Kii Peninsula (Figure 1b). Although studies of discrete samples do not provide information on the effects of large-scale fracturing, we need to know elastic moduli of the matrix for quantitative estimation of the degree of large-scale fractures from seismic data. A better understanding of active Kumano OOST s characteristics will benefit scheduled penetration of the fault by the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP). 2. Geological Setting [4] The Shimanto belt, exposed along southwest Japan (Figure 1a), is divided into the northern and the southern belts, separated by a major fault, the Aki Tectonic Line in the Shikoku and Kii regions, and the Nobeoka Thrust in Kyushu [Imai et al., 1971]. Although almost all parts of the fault corresponds to age boundary (Cretaceous - Tertiary), Eocene radiolaria are found in both hanging wall and footwall rocks of the Nobeoka OOST in our study area [Murata, 1998] (Figure 1c), so here the OOST apparent displaces only Tertiary rocks. Deformation features of the Nobeoka OOST differ from common thrust; the footwall of the Nobeoka OOST is more heavily deformed than the hanging wall, perhaps a consequence of more fluid in the footwall side (Figure 1c). [5] Because the Nobeoka OOST is interpreted as a fossil OOST, preserves in situ structure, and crops out [Kondo et al., 2005], it is ideal for evaluating characteristics of a seismogenic OOST. Kondo et al. [2005] estimated that the Nobeoka OOST formed at depths of 7.19.0 km, similar to L18309 1of5
Figure 1. (a) Locations of the Nobeoka OOST and the seismic line off Kumano; distribution of the Shimanto belt; and locations of the Butsuzo Tectonic Line (BTL), and Median Tectonic Line (MTL), all in southwest Japan [Kondo et al., 2005]. (b) Seismic reflection profile off Kumano, which crosses the planned IODP site. (c) A sketch of horizontal exposure of the Nobeoka OOST on a tidal flat [Okamoto et al., 2006]. White and gray stars represent samples that were measured at confining and atmospheric pressures, respectively. The hanging wall is composed of phyllite dominant terrigenous sediment that includes thin coherent sandstone layers of the Kitagawa Group. The footwall sequence is composed of shaledominated chaotic rocks of mélange in the Hyuga Group [Kondo et al., 2005]. those of the active seismically-imaged Kumano OOST (58 km below seafloor) [Park et al., 2002]. 3. Laboratory Analyses [6] We analyzed 10 discrete samples from the hanging wall and eight samples from the footwall (white stars in Figure 1c). Because we observed foliation in the hanging wall, two samples (normal and parallel to the foliation) were drilled at each sampling point. Identification of foliation in the footwall mélange was difficult, but we drilled two samples (normal and parallel to the foliation) where it could be identified. Elsewhere in the footwall, we only took single samples. [7] We drilled minicore samples from the center part of large outcrop samples to avoid weathered rock as much as possible. Analyzed samples were 3.8 cm (1.5 inch) in diameter and 4.5 cm in length. In addition to samples taken for analysis under confining pressure, we drilled 10 samples for analysis at atmospheric pressure (gray stars in Figure 1c). At the core of the fault, we observed clear contrasts in bulk densities and porosities of discrete samples (Figures 2a and 2b and Table 1). Permeabilities of our samples were too low (< 0.01 md) to analyze with our device. [8] We used the pulse transmission technique, with a principal frequency of 500 khz, to determine P- and S-wave velocities. To obtain clear signals, we used specific S-wave transducers that vibrate tangentially. Our experimental configuration allowed simultaneous measurement of P- and S-wave travel times at 5 MPa intervals between 5 and 55 MPa. For each travel time measurement, we read first breaks of waveforms recorded at several confining pressures simultaneously on the oscilloscope. Clear waveforms were obtained at each confining pressure, and travel times were measured after digitizing each trace with 6250 points at a time sweep of 5 10 5 s, with a resulting time resolution of 8 10 9 s. For a minicore sample 4.5 cm long and a P-wave velocity of 4500 m/s, precision is estimated to be ±1.8 m/s. P- and S-wave travel times in Table 1. Comparison of Physical Properties (Range and Average) in Hanging Wall and Footwall Samples of the Nobeoka OOST a Bulk Density, g/cm 3 Porosity, % Vp (Dry) at 55 MPa, km/s Vs (Dry) at 55 MPa, km/s Range Average Range Average Orientation Range Average Range Average Hanging wall 2.262.72 2.68 0.363.07 1.48 Normal to foliation 4.835.48 5.12 3.083.41 3.28 Parallel to foliation 5.636.14 5.89 3.613.76 3.69 Footwall 2.552.65 2.60 1.836.27 3.61 Normal to foliation 4.024.35 4.18 2.722.77 2.75 Parallel to foliation 4.715.11 4.91 3.073.10 3.08 Weak foliation 4.125.10 4.57 2.693.32 2.97 a P- and S-wave velocities represented in Table 1 were obtained at 55 MPa confining pressure and dry conditions. 2of5
Figure 2. Depth profiles of (a) bulk densities, (b) porosities, (c) P-wave velocities at 0MPa, (d) P-wave velocities at 55 MPa, (e) S-wave velocities at 55 MPa, and (f) P-wave quality factors at 55 MPa. Vertical axis represents depth relative to the location of fault core. Black solid dots, open dots, and gray dots represent acoustic properties normal to the foliation, parallel to the foliation, and weak foliation, respectively. Black lines and gray zones represent locations of the fault core and the high velocity interval, respectively. minicore samples were measured in dry conditions at room temperature, because in saturated conditions fluid dispersion masks pressure effects, and because velocity is relatively independent of temperature under dry conditions [e.g., Wang, 2001], respectively. For determining P-wave velocities in samples at atmospheric pressure, we used a 200 khz source frequency. 4. Velocities and Quality Factors [9] Both P- and S-wave velocities vary exponentially with confining pressure (Figures 3a 3d), mainly due to compaction and closure of micro-cracks and flaws, and increasing contact between grain boundaries [e.g., Kuster and Toksoz, 1974]. Velocities in footwall samples (Figures 3b and 3d) increase substantially with confining pressure, compared to those in hanging wall samples (Figures 3a and 3c), probably because crack density in the footwall is greater than that in the hanging wall. [10] P- and S-wave velocities in hanging wall samples are higher than those in footwall samples, respectively (Table 1 and Figures 2c and 2d). Furthermore, foliationnormal P-wave velocities in the hanging wall are 700 m/s slower than the foliation-parallel velocities (Table 1 and Figure 2d). As for P-wave velocities, foliation-normal S-wave velocities are slower than foliation-parallel velocities (Figure 2e). However, it is difficult to investigate S-wave anisotropy, because the S-wave transducer vibrates tangentially. [11] We calculated water-saturated P-wave velocities from velocities determined under dry conditions via Gassmann s relation. Although Gassmann s relation assumes low, not ultrasonic, frequencies, we use it for simplification. For both hanging wall and footwall samples, foliation-normal P-wave velocities estimated for saturated conditions are 500 m /s higher than those determined under dry conditions, and foliation-parallel velocities are 100 m /s higher. Although velocity anisotropies of watersaturated samples are weaker than those of dry samples, anisotropy is still observable in hanging wall samples. Furthermore, P-wave velocities in Nobeoka OOST rocks are higher than those in active Kumano OOST rocks, the latter estimated from seismic reflection data [Tsuru et al., 2005]. [12] P-wave quality factors (inverse of attenuation) were calculated using the spectrum division technique [Toksoz et al., 1979]; each spectrum was calibrated using aluminum reference samples. P-wave quality factors correlate with confining pressure, although we observe differences between the foliation-normal and foliation-parallel samples (Figures 3e and 3f ). Furthermore, the average of P-wave quality factors of hanging wall samples is higher than that of the footwall samples. It should be noted that the quality factors are high (low-attenuation) just above the fault core (Figure 2f ). However, it is difficult to compare quality factors of discrete samples with seismic data, because differences in source frequencies involve different attenuation mechanisms, and quality factors for saturated conditions may be less than those for dry conditions. 5. Discussion [13] Velocities and quality factors increase just above the fault core (gray zones in Figure 2), where velocity anisotropy at atmospheric pressure is weak and velocity increase with pressure is less apparent. These characteristics may be caused by the filling of most cracks with quartz, which is observed just above the fault core in the Nobeoka OOST. Thermal alteration due to earthquake slip may also affect elastic moduli and anisotropy; we observe 3of5
many earthquake-related fractures just above the fault core (Figure 1c). [14] Comparison of the acoustic properties of the fossil Nobeoka, determined from outcrop samples, and active Kumano, calculated from seismic reflection data, OOSTs is warranted by the two thrusts similar tectonic settings and lithologies (Figure 1c), although Eocene and current plate motions differ. Weathering has affected properties of the Nobeoka OOST, but overall results from the hanging wall and the footwall should reflect trends of in situ properties. If we assume an average bulk density of 2.5 g/cm 3, a seafloor depth of 2 km, an OOST depth of 7 km, hydrostatic conditions, and an effective stress coefficient of n = 1 [e.g., Christensen and Wang, 1985], effective pressure in the Kumano OOST is calculated to be 73 MPa. This effective pressure may be higher than in situ values, because the Kumano OOST is probably overpressured [e.g., Park et al., 2002]. Assuming that velocities at 55 MPa represent those at in situ effective pressures, the contrast between foliation-normal P-wave velocities in hanging wall samples Figure 4. Comparison of angle-dependent reflection coefficients of discrete Nobeoka OOST samples (thick line) and the active Kumano OOST from seismic reflection data (solid dots) (Zone B given by Tsuru et al. [2005]). Thin lines represent reflection coefficients parameterized by Poisson s ratio. Poisson s ratios in the footwall of the Nobeoka OOST are lower than that of the active Kumano OOST, suggesting high fluid pressures in the footwall of the active Kumano OOST. Figure 3. Pressure parameterized P-wave velocities of the (a) hanging wall and (b) footwall, S-wave velocities in the (c) hanging wall and (d) footwall, and P-wave quality factors of the (e) hanging wall and (f) footwall. Black solid dots, open dots, and gray dots represent acoustic properties normal to the foliation, parallel to the foliation, and weak foliation, respectively. and footwall samples is >500 m /s (Table 1 and Figure 2d). We compared foliation-normal velocities because our modeling assumed a steep ray path, and the dip of foliation on the active Kumano OOST is estimated to be <30, not much different from the 10 dip of the Kumano OOST reflection (Figure 1b). The change in P-wave velocities across the fault core of the Nobeoka OOST is larger than that estimated from the reflection amplitude of the Kumano OOST (<500 m /s) [Warner, 1990; Tsuru et al., 2005]. Therefore, Kumano OOST reflection amplitudes can be explained only by the difference in matrix elastic moduli of the Nobeoka OOST. [15] To compare Poisson s ratios of the Nobeoka and the active Kumano OOSTs, we modeled amplitude variation with offset (AVO) using the P- and S-wave velocities of Nobeoka samples. We used average velocities of the hanging wall (V p = 5491 m /s; V s = 3284 m /s) and footwall (V p = 4592 m /s; V s = 2912 m /s) samples at 55 MPa and saturated conditions for AVO modeling. To make reflection coefficients of the Nobeoka and the active Kumano (0.05) OOSTs equivalent, we modified P- and S-wave velocities of the footwall samples while preserving their Poisson s ratios. The angle-dependent reflection coefficient (thick line in Figure 4) obtained by the Zoeppritz equation [Aki and Richards, 1980] compared to that of the active Kumano OOST obtained by a 2-ship, long-offset survey (dots in Figure 4 [Tsuru et al., 2005]) shows a far offset reflection coefficient lower than that of the active Kumano OOST (Figure 4). If Poisson s ratios in the footwall are higher ( = 0.25) than those of the Nobeoka OOST, the AVO response of the Nobeoka OOST coincides well with that of the active Kumano OOST. Due to Poisson s ratio increase with increasing pore pressure in wet sediment [e.g., Dvorkin et al., 1999], the high pore fluid pressure in the footwall likely explains the AVO response of the active Kumano OOST. Notice that Poisson s ratio in wet rock also depends on the dry-frame elastic moduli. Taking these moduli as input into Gassmann s fluid substitution, we confirm the increase of wet-rock Poisson s ratio with decreasing confining pressure (increasing pore fluid pressure). Therefore, AVO modeling 4of5
suggests high fluid pressures in the footwall of the active Kumano OOST. [16] Acknowledgments. We thank C. Moore, T. Tsuru, J. Dvorkin, and M. Coffin for valuable discussions. We also thank G. Moore, an anonymous referee, and GRL Editor E. Calais for helpful reviews of the manuscript. Seismic reflection data (Figure 1b) are courtesy of CDEX, JAMSTEC. Takeshi Tsuji was supported for this research by JSPS Research Fellowship (DC). References Aki, K., and P. G. Richards (1980), Quantitative Seismology, Theory and Methods, vol. 1, 153 pp., Freeman, W. H., New York. Christensen, N. I., and H. F. Wang (1985), The influence of pore pressure and confining pressure on dynamic elastic properties of Berea sandstone, Geophysics, 50, 207 213. Costain, J. K.. and C. Çoruh (2004), Basic theory of exploration seismology with Mathematica notebooks and examples on CD-ROM, in Handbook of Geophysical Exploration, Seismic Exploration, vol. 1, pp. 231 238, 518 548, Elsevier, New York. Dvorkin, J., G. Mavko, and A. Nur (1999), Overpressure detection from compressional- and shear-wave data, Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 3417 3420. Imai, I., Y. Teraoka, and K. Okumura (1971), Geologic structure and metamorphic zonation of the northeastern part of the Shimanto terrane in Kyushu,Japan, J. Geol. Soc. Jpn., 77, 207 220. Kondo, H., G. Kimura, H. Masago, K. Ohmori-Ikehara, Y. Kitamura, E. Ikesawa, A. Sakaguchi, A. Yamaguchi, and S. Okamoto (2005), Deformation and fluid flow of a major out-of-sequence thrust located at seismogenic depth in an accretionary complex: Nobeoka Thrust in the Shimanto Belt, Kyusyu, Japan, Tectonics, 24, TC6008, doi:10.1029/2004tc001655. Kuster, G. T., and M. N. Toksoz (1974), Velocity and attenuation of seismic waves in two-phase media, part 1 Theoretical formulations, Geophysics, 39, 587 606. Moore, G. F., and T. H. Shipley (1993), Character of the decollement in the Leg 131 area, Nankai Trough, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results, 131, 73 82. Murata, A. (1998), Duplexes and low-angle nappe structures of the Shimanto terrane, southwest Japan, Mem. Geol. Soc. Jpn., 50, 147 158. Okamoto, S., G. Kimura, S. Takizawa, and H. Yamaguchi (2006), (open discussion) Earthquake fault rock indicating a coupled lubrication mechanism, 135 149, sref_id:1815_3844/eed/2006_1_135. Park, J.-O., T. Tsuru, S. Kodaira, P. R. Cummins, and Y. Kaneda (2002), Splay fault branching along the Nankai subduction zone, Science, 297, 1157 1160. Shipley, T., G. Moore, N. Bangs, C. Moore, and P. Stoffa (1994), Seismically inferred dilatancy distribution, northern Barbados Ridge decollement, Geology, 22, 411 414. Tanioka, Y., and K. Satake (2001), Detailed coseismic slip distribution of the 1944 Tonankai earthquake estimated from tsunami waveforms, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 1075 1078. Toksoz, M. N., D. H. Johnston, and A. Timur (1979), Attenuation of seismic waves in dry and saturated rocks: 1. Laboratory measurements, Geophysics, 44, 681 690. Tsuji, T., T. Matsuoka, Y. Yamada, Y. Nakamura, J. Ashi, H. Tokuyama, S. Kuramoto, and N. Bangs (2005), Initiation of plate boundary slip in the Nankai Trough off the Muroto peninsula, southwest Japan, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L12306, doi:10.1029/2004gl021861. Tsuru, T., S. Miura, J.-O. Park, A. Ito, G. Fujie, Y. Kaneda, T. No, T. Katayama, and J. Kasahara (2005), Variation of physical properties beneath a fault observed by a two-ship seismic survey off southwest Japan, J. Geophys. Res., 110, B05405, doi:10.1029/2004jb003036. Wang, Z. (2001), Fundamentals of seismic rock physics, Geophysics, 66, 398 412. Warner, M. (1990), Absolute reflection coefficients from deep seismic reflections, Tectonophysics, 173, 15 23. H. Tokuyama and T. Tsuji, Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo, 1-15-1 Minamidai Nakano-ku, Tokyo 164-8639, Japan. (tsuji@ ori.u-tokyo.ac.jp) G. Kimura and S. Okamoto, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan. F. Kono, H. Mochinaga, and T. Saeki, Technology and Research Center (TRC), Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation (JOGMEC), 1-2-2 Hamada, Mihama-ku, Chiba-shi, Chiba 261-0025, Japan. 5of5