Contents Preface xiil Chapter 1 Introduction to Remote Sensing

Transcription

1 Preface xii Chapter 1 Introduction to Remote Sensing Order of Battle Air order of battle Electronic order of battle Space order of battle Naval order of battle Imagery Survey Visible GOES, whole Earth DMSP (0.5 km), Earth at night UoSAT (100m), San Francisco Landsat 5 (30m), San Diego Astronaut photography SPOT (10 m) IRS (5 m) IKONOS San Diego/Coronado Island High-resolution airborne imagery Infrared (IR) GOES Landsat IR San Diego DMSP IR and microwave Radar (SAR) RADARSAT, Maui and the airport SIRC Multi-wavelength/polarization Maui SIRC, San Diego Harbor Three Axes Resources Problems 29 v

2 vi Contents Chapter 2 Electromagnetic Basics The Electromagnetic Spectrum Maxwell s equations Polarization of Radiation Energy in Electromagnetic Waves Photoelectric effect Photomultiplier tubes Sources of Electromagnetic Radiatio Line spectra Blackbody radiation Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR) Matter Interactions Transmission Reflection Scattering Absorption Problems 53 Chapter 3 Visible Imagery The First Remote Sensing Satellite: Corona A little history The technology Some illustrations Atmospheric Absorption, Scattering, and Turbulence Atmospheric absorption: wavelength dependence Atmospheric scattering Atmospheric turbulence Basic Geometrical Optics Focal length/geometry Optical diagram: similar triangles, magnification Aperture (f/stop) Image formation by lens or pinhole Diffraction Limits: the Rayleigh Criterion Detectors Film Solid state Focal plane arrays Uncooled focal planes: Microbolometers Imaging System Types Framing systems mostly film systems (Corona) Scanning systems Cross track (Landsat MSS, TM; AVIRIS) Along track (SPOT HRV) Hubble: The Big Telescope The Hubble satellite 82

3 vii The repair missions Operating constraints South Atlantic anomaly Spacecraft position in orbit The telescope itself Detectors Wide Field and Planetary Camera Example: Diffraction and resolution limits Rayleigh criteria Geometric resolution Commercial Remote Sensing IKONOS and Quickbird IKONOS Imaging sensors and electronics for the IKONOS satellite Camera telescope Imaging sensors & electronics NOB with IKONOS: Severodvinsk DMSP: Visible Sensor, Earth at Night Exposure Times Problems 101 Chapter 4 Orbital Mechanics Interlude Gravitational Force Circular Motion Equations of motion Example: A car is going around in a circle of 200 m radius at 36 km/hr. What is ω? Example: A satellite is going around the Earth once every 90 minutes. What is ω? Centripetal force Satellite Motion Kepler s Laws Elliptical orbits Equal areas swept out in equal times Orbital period: τ 2 ρ Orbital Elements Semi-major axis: a Eccentricity: e or ε Inclination angle: I Right ascension of the ascending node: Ω Closest point of approach (argument of perigee): ω A Few Standard Orbits Low Earth orbit (LEO) Medium Earth orbit (MEO) Geosynchronous orbit (GEO) 111

4 viii Contents Molniya orbit (HEO) Summary table illustrations Problems 115 Chapter 5 EO Spectral Imagery Reflectance of Materials Human Visual Response Landsat Orbit Sensor: Thematic mapper Optics Focal planes Prime focal plane Cold focal plane Spectral response Spatial resolution swath Dynamic range Data links Systeme Probatoire d Observation de la Terre (SPOT) HRV sensor, pan/spectral both 60-km swath Imaging modes spatial and spectral resolution Spectral Responses for the Commercial Systems Imaging Spectroscopy AVIRIS Hyperion MightySat II FTHSI Problems 136 Chapter 6 Image Analysis Interpretation Keys (elements of recognition) Shape Size Shadow Height (depth) Tone or color Texture Pattern Association Site Time Image Processing Digital numbers: pixels and pictures, histograms Dynamic range snow and black cats 143

5 ix Filters Smoothing Edge detection Histograms and Target Detection Histograms, Spectral Data, and Transforms Supplemental Notes on Statistics Problems 156 Chapter 7 Thermal Infrared IR Basics Blackbody radiation Wien s displacement law Stefan-Boltzmann law T Emissivity Atmospheric absorption IR Concepts Kinetic temperature Thermal inertia, conductivity, capacity, diffusivity Heat capacity (specific heat) Thermal conductivity Thermal inertia Thermal diffusivity Diurnal temperature variation Landsat Early Weather Satellites TIROS NIMBUS GOES Satellite and sensor Weather and storms Hurricane Mitch Volcanoes and ash clouds Shuttle launch: vapor trail, rocket Defense Support Program DSP SEBASS thermal spectral Hard targets Gas measurements: Kilauea Pu u O o Vent Problems 178 Chapter 8 Radar Imaging Radar Theory Imaging radar basics Radar range resolution Signal shape 183

6 x Contents Radar azimuthal resolution Beam pattern and resolution Synthetic-Aperture Radar Radar Cross Section (σ) Dielectric coefficient: soil moisture Roughness Tetrahedrons/corner reflectors Polarization Wavelength Vehicles Shuttle Imaging Radar (SIR) Soil penetration Oil slicks and internal waves RADARSAT: ship detection European radar satellites: ERS-1, ERS Ship wakes Multi-temporal images: Rome SPAIN MOROCCO Strait of Gibraltar Sandia Ku-band airborne radar Problems 208 Chapter 9 Radar and LIDAR Radar Interferometry Topographic mapping The Shuttle Radar Topographic Mapping (SRTM) Mission Mission design Mission results: level-2 terrain-height datasets (digital topographic maps) LIDAR Introduction OPTECH: Airborne Laser Terrain Mapper (ALTM) Bathymetry Exercise 224 Appendix 1 Derivations 225 A1.1 Derivation of the Bohr Atom 225 Assumption 1: The atom is held together by the Coulomb Force 225 Assumption 2: The electron moves in an elliptical orbit around the nucleus (as in planetary motion). 226 Assumption 3: Quantized angular momentum 226 Assumption 4: Radiation is emitted only from transitions between the discrete energy levels 228

7 xi A1.2 Dielectric Theory 229 A1.3 Derivation of the Beam Pattern for a Square Aperture 230 Appendix 2 CORONA 233 A2.1 Mission Overview 233 A2.2 Camera Data 234 A2.3 Mission Summary 235 A2.4 Orbits An Example 242 Appendix 3 Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System 243 A3.1 Relay Satellites TDRSS 243 A3.2 White Sands 244 A3.3 TDRS 1 to A3.3.1 Satellites 245 A3.3.2 Payload 246 A3.4 TDRS H 247 A3.4.1 TDRS H, I, and J Payload Characteristics 247 A S-Band Multiple Access 248 A Single-Access (SA) Antenna (2) 248 A Space-Ground-Link Antenna (Ku Band) 248 Appendix 4 Useful Equations and Constants 249 EM Waves 249 Bohr Atom 249 Blackbody Radiation 249 Reflection and Refraction 250 Optics 250 Orbital Mechanics and Circular Motion 250 Index 251