Abstract. Striga is a root parasite of m a n y f o o d c r o p s. It c a u s e s

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2 Abstract R a m a i a h, K.V., Parker, C., V a s u d e v a R a o. M.J., a n d M u s s e l m a n, L.J Striga identification a n d c o n t r o l handbook. Information Bulletin No. 15. P a t a n c h e r u, A.P., India: International C r o p s R e s e a r c h Institute for t h e S e m i - A r i d T r o p i c s. Striga is a root parasite of m a n y f o o d c r o p s. It c a u s e s serious yield losses throughout the s e m i - a r i d tropics. T h e purpose of this bulletin is to c r e a t e i n c r e a s e d a w a r e n e s s o f t h e n e e d t o r e d u c e s u c h l o s s e s associated with Striga infestations. It d e s c r i b e s t h e most important of the 25 s p e c i e s of t h e w e e d o c c u r r i n g in the world, their biology, a n d s y m p t o m s of attack. It also provides brief information a b o u t the options for controlling the parasite. A key is p r e s e n t e d to assist in the identification of the s e v e n m o s t d a m a g i n g s p e c i e s of Striga, a n d the text is s u p p o r t e d by 34 illustrations in color. The International Crops Research Institute lor the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) is a nonprofit scientific educational institute receiving support from donors through the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research. Donors to ICRISAT include governments and agencies of Australia, Belgium, Canada, Federal Republic of Germany, France. India, Italy, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United Slates, and the following international and private organizations: Asian Development Bank, European Economic Community, Ford Foundation, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Development Research Centre, International Fertilizer Development Center, Internalional Fund for Agricultural Development, Leverhulme Trust, Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, Rockefeller Foundation, and the United Nations Development Programme. Responsibility for the information in this publication rests with ICRISAT. Where trade names are used this does not constitute endorsement of or discrimination against any product by the Institute. Correct citation: RAMAIAH, K.V., PARKER, C, VASUDEVA RAO, M.J., and MUSSELMAN, L.J Striga identification and control handbook. Information Bulletin No. 15. Patancheru, A.P., India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics.

3 STRIGA IDENTIFICATION AND CONTROL HANDBOOK K.V. R a m a i a h I C R I S A T, B.P , O u a g a d o u g o u, U p p e r Volta W e s t A f r i c a C. P a r k e r W e e d R e s e a r c h O r g a n i z a t i o n, B e g b r o k e Hill, Y a m t o n, O x f o r d, O X 5 1PF, U K M. J. V a s u d e v a R a o I C R I S A T C e n t e r, P a t a n c h e r u P.O. A n d h r a P r a d e s h , India L.J. M u s s e l m a n O l d D o m i n i o n University, Norfolk, Virginia , U S A Published by the International Crops Research Institute tor the Semi-Arid Tropics with financial assistance from the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Canada. ICRISAT Information Bulletin No. 15 International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics ICRISAT Patancheru P.O. Andhra Pradesh , India 1983

4 Contents I N T R O D U C T I O N 3 B I O L O G Y S e e d s G e r m i n a t i o n H a u s t o r i a l i n i t i a t i o n A t t a c h m e n t N u t r i t i o n L i f e c y c l e STRIGA S P E C I E S Striga asiatica Striga hermonthica Striga densiflora K e y t o m a i n Striga s p e c i e s Striga euphrasioides Striga aspera Striga gesnerioides Striga forbesii S Y M P T O M S O F STRIGA A T T A C K 3 6 C O N T R O L M E A S U R E S R e s i s t a n t c u l t i v a r s Striga-pulling by h a n d R o t a t i o n s N i t r o g e n fertilizer H e r b i c i d e s G e r m i n a t i o n s t i m u l a n t s B i o c o n t r o l I n t e g r a t e d c o n t r o l P h o t o C r e d i t s 5 1

5 I N T R O D U C T I O N P l a n t s of Striga g e n u s ( S c r o p h u l a r i a c e a e ) a r e g e n e r a l l y k n o w n a s w i t c h w e e d s. T h e g e n u s i n c l u d e s a b o u t 2 5 s p e c i e s, o n l y a f e w o f w h i c h a r e e c o n o m i c a l l y i m p o r - tant, for i n s t a n c e S. hermonthica, S. asiatica, S. gesnerioides, S. densiflora, S. euphrasioides, S. aspera, a n d S. forbesii (in o r d e r o f i m p o r t a n c e ). S p e c i e s r a n g e f r o m a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y p a r a s i t i c t o a l m o s t totally a u t o t r o - p h i c. T h e y a t t a c k s e v e r a l f o o d c r o p s, m a i n l y c e r e a l s, but a l s o s o m e b r o a d - l e a v e d c r o p s s u c h a s c o w p e a. T h e r e i s a w i d e r a n g e o f w i l d h o s t s. T h o u g h p r e c i s e c r o p l o s s e s t i m a t e s a r e difficult t o m a k e, c o m p l e t e c r o p failu r e s c a u s e d b y Striga h a v e b e e n r e c o r d e d, a n d o c c u r i n m a n y r e g i o n s o f A f r i c a a n d India. C o n t r o l o f Striga c o u l d not o n l y i n c r e a s e f o o d p r o d u c t i o n in Striga-infested l a n d, b u t a l s o b r i n g b a c k into c u l t i v a t i o n l a n d that w a s p r e s e n t l y a b a n d o n e d b e c a u s e of Striga i n f e s t a t i o n. U n f o r t u n a t e l y, Striga is still c o n s i d e r e d as a w e e d n u i s a n c e a n d n o t a s t h e i m p o r t a n t a g r i c u l t u r a l pest i t is. T h o u g h f a r m e r s w h o s e p l a n t s s u f f e r Striga a t t a c k r e c - o g n i z e it as a p r i m a r y y i e l d - r e d u c e r of t h e i r f o o d c r o p s, t h e e x t e n t o f t h e p r o b l e m h a s s o far not b e e n r e a l i z e d b y r e s e a r c h a n d e x t e n s i o n a g e n c i e s a n d t h e i r d o n o r s. A s a result, t h e r e is a g e n e r a l l a c k of a w a r e n e s s of t h e p r o b - l e m. T h e r e i s a l s o s o m e c o n f u s i o n i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f different Striga s p e c i e s. T h i s h a n d b o o k illustrates in c o l o r s o m e o f t h e e c o n o m i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t s p e c i e s a n d g i v e s i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n, h o s t r a n g e, a n d c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s 3

6 B I O L O G Y Seeds Striga s e e d s a r e p r o d u c e d i n e n o r m o u s n u m b e r s. E a c h s e e d c a p s u l e (Fig. 1 ) p r o d u c e s s o m e s e e d s, a n d e a c h p l a n t t h u s p r o d u c e s s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d s. T h e y a r e g e n e r a l l y d i s p e r s e d b y w i n d, w a t e r, c a t t l e, a n d m a n. S e e d s a r e m i n u t e, m e a s u r i n g a b o u t 0.2 x 0.3 m m ( s e e c e n t e r o f Fig. 2 ; for c o m p a r i s o n m a i z e s e e d s a r e s h o w n, t o p, a n d s o r g h u m s e e d s, b o t t o m : x 3 m a g n i f i c a t i o n ). All s p e c i e s o f Striga h a v e p r o m i n e n t r i d g e s o n t h e s e e d c o a t s u r f a c e t h a t c a n b e s e e n u n d e r t h e m i c r o s c o p e. T h e p r i m a r y r i d g e s a r e g e n e r a l l y o r n a m e n t e d. S e c o n d - a r y r i d g e s, w h i c h r u n a t v a r y i n g a n g l e s b e t w e e n p r i m a r y r i d g e s, m a y l a c k o r n a m e n t a t i o n. G e r m i n a t i o n Striga s e e d s p o s s e s s t h e r e m a r k a b l e c a p a c i t y t o r e m a i n v i a b l e i n t h e soil for y e a r s i n t h e a b s e n c e o f a s u i t a b l e p l a n t h o s t. T h e s e e d s a r e u s u a l l y d o r m a n t for a f e w m o n t h s a f t e r h a r v e s t b e f o r e t h e y a c q u i r e t h e c a p a c i t y t o g e r m i n a t e, b u t s o m e s a m p l e s h a v e b e e n s h o w n t o g e r m i n a t e m o r e q u i c k l y t h a n o t h e r s. A f t e r t h i s d o r m a n c y r e q u i r e m e n t i s s a t i s f i e d t h e s e e d s n e e d a p e r i o d o f c o n d i t i o n i n g. T h i s m a y l a s t s o m e d a y s u n d e r o p t i m u m m o i s t u r e a n d t e m p e r a t u r e c o n d i t i o n s b e f o r e t h e y r e s p o n d t o a g e r m i n a t i o n s t i m u l a n t p r o - d u c e d b y t h e y o u n g h o s t root. T h e s e e d s h a v e t o b e v e r y c l o s e t o t h e h o s t r o o t ( w i t h i n 1 0 m m a n d p r e f e r a b l y w i t h i n 3-4 m m ) t o b e s t i m u l a t e d. A t f a v o r a b l e t e m p e r a - t u r e s o f C, s e e d g e r m i n a t i o n o c c u r s w i t h i n 2 4 h o u r s ( F i g. 3 : x 2 5 ). 4

7 Figure 1 5

8 Figure 2 6

9 Figure 3 7

10 Haustorial initiation T h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e c h e m o t r o p i c b e h a v i o r t h a t a s s i s t s t h e p a r a s i t e i n m a k i n g c o n t a c t w i t h t h e host root. O n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e root, t h e tip o f t h e r a d i c l e t r a n s f o r m s itself into a h a u s t o r i u m ( a r r o w e d in Fig. 4), a p p a r e n t l y d u e t o a c h e m i c a l s e c r e t i o n f r o m t h e host root k n o w n a s t h e h a u s t o r i a l initiation f a c t o r. A t t a c h m e n t T h e r a d i c l e of t h e Striga s e e d l i n g s e c r e t e s e n z y m e s that assist in its p e n e t r a t i o n of t h e h o s t root. T h e x y l e m of t h e p a r a s i t e t h e n e s t a b l i s h e s c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h t h a t o f the host, t h u s c o m p l e t i n g t h e s u c c e s s f u l e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the p a r a s i t e on t h e host (Figs. 5 a n d 6). C e r t a i n s p e c i e s of Striga c a n p r o d u c e a d v e n t i t i o u s r o o t s t h a t f o r m s e c o n d a r y h a u s t o r i a. T h u s t h e p a r a s i t e b e c o m e s c o n - n e c t e d to m a n y roots of t h e host w i t h i n a short t i m e. Nutrition O n c e e s t a b l i s h e d, t h e p a r a s i t e b e c o m e s a m e t a b o l i c sink for t h e c a r b o h y d r a t e s p r o d u c e d in t h e host, t h u s d e p r i v i n g the host of s o m e of its p h o t o s y n t h a t e s. T h e effect of Striga on t h e host, h o w e v e r, is m o r e t h a n just the r e m o v a l of water, assimilates, a n d other nutrients. R e c e n t s t u d i e s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f R e a d i n g, U K, h a v e s h o w n that, as a result of Striga i n f e s t a t i o n, g r o w t h inhibitors i n t h e host a r e i n c r e a s e d a n d g r o w t h p r o m o - ters a r e d e c r e a s e d ( s u g g e s t i n g a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e d a m a g i n g e f f e c t s of Striga on t h e h o s t ). Y o u n g Striga s e e d l i n g s are c o m p l e t e l y p a r a s i t i c o n t h e host w h i l e t h e y a r e s u b t e r r a n e a n a n d, a t this s t a g e, c a u s e m a x i - m u m d a m a g e t o t h e host. O n e m e r g e n c e f r o m t h e g r o u n d t h e y d e v e l o p g r e e n l e a v e s (Fig. 7 ) t h a t p r o d u c e their o w n p h o t o s y n t h a t e s. H o w e v e r, t h e r e i s a c o n - 8

11 Figure 4 9

12 Figure 5 a: S o r g h u m root b: Striga initial c: Striga h a u s t o r i u m 10

13 Figure 6 a: Striga leaf initial b: S u b t e r r a n e a n Striga 11

14 Figure 7 12

15 t i n u e d flow o f c a r b o h y d r a t e s, w a t e r, a n d m i n e r a l s f r o m t h e host. Life c y c l e After g e r m i n a t i o n a n d a t t a c h m e n t, Striga t a k e s a f e w w e e k s t o e m e r g e, d e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e d e p t h o f t h e s e e d i n t h e soil. A f t e r e m e r g e n c e, i t t a k e s a b o u t w e e k s t o c o m p l e t e its life c y c l e. T h u s, 2-4 m o n t h s a r e r e q u i r e d f r o m g e r m i n a t i o n to s e e d - s e t t i n g. It is o f t e n o b s e r v e d that Striga c a n c o m p l e t e its life c y c l e on t h e c r o p s t u b - ble after t h e h a r v e s t of t h e host. 13

16 STRIGA S P E C I E S T h e e c o n o m i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t Striga s p e c i e s a r e all a n n u - als. T h e g e n u s i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y o p p o s i t e l e a v e s a n d irregular f l o w e r s w i t h a p r o n o u n c e d b e n d in t h e c o r o l l a tube ( see K e y to the main Striga species, pp ). 1. Striga asiatica (L.) K u n t z e ( = S. lutea L o u r. = S. hirsuta B e n t h. = S. coccinea B e n t h. ) S. asiatica is a s e l f - p o l l i n a t e d s p e c i e s w i t h e s t a b l i s h e d m o r p h o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g strains ( m o r p h o - t y p e s ) p r e s e n t in different g e o g r a p h i c a l r e g i o n s of t h e s e m i - a r i d tropics. In India, it is u s u a l l y w h i t e - f l o w e r e d (Fig. 8). I n I n d o n e s i a s e v e r a l d i s t i n c t f o r m s h a v e b e e n o b s e r v e d, i n c l u d i n g o n e w i t h p a l e - p i n k f l o w e r s (Fig. 9 ) and another with yellow flowers (Fig. 10). A y e l l o w - flowered variant w a s also f o u n d in North Carolina in the USA, Upper Volta ( West Africa), a n d in South Africa. In S o u t h A f r i c a the s p e c i e s h a s bright r e d f l o w e r s w i t h a y e l l o w c o l o r o n t h e u n d e r s u r f a c e o f t h e c o r o l l a (Fig. 11) a n d, in the U S A, a d e e p r e d f l o w e r (Fig. 12). D i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e s. Plants of this s p e c i e s are extremely variable, slender erect herbs, s c a b r i d - p u b e s c e n t o r a l m o s t g l a b r o u s, w i t h g l a n d u l a r p u b e s - cent b u d s. C a l y x - l o b e s s u b u l a t e, c a l y x distinctly 10- ribbed, usually hispid; corolla t u b e up to 10 mm long, g l a n d u l a r p u b e s c e n t, a n d c o r o l l a m m d i a m e t e r ; bracts linear- lanceolate, a b o u t 5 mm long. D i s t r i b u t i o n. It is w i d e s p r e a d in t h e s e m i - a r i d t r o p i c a l regions of A s i a, s o u t h e r n A f r i c a ( f r o m L a k e V i c t o r i a in T a n z a n i a to S o u t h A f r i c a ), a n d is a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d in North a n d South Carolina, USA. Additionally, it has b e e n r e c o r d e d f r o m n o r t h e r n t r o p i c a l A f r i c a, but rarely a s a n a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o b l e m. 14

17 Figure 8 15

18 Figure 9 16

19 Figure 10 17

20 Figure 11 18

21 Figure 12 19

22 H o s t r a n g e. A l m o s t all c e r e a l c r o p s : s o r g h u m, p e a r l millet, m a i z e, f i n g e r a n d foxtail millet, a n d u p l a n d r i c e ; a l s o s u g a r c a n e, Paspalum, a n d g r a s s w e e d s f o r e x a m p l e Digitaria sanguinalis. H o s t s p e c i f i c i t y. S o r g h u m - a n d m i l l e t - s p e c i f i c s t r a i n s of S. asiatica h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d f r o m India. 2. Striga hermonthica ( D e l. ) B e n t h. ( = S. senegalensis B e n t h. ) S. hermonthica (Fig. 13) is a c r o s s - p o l l i n a t e d s p e c i e s. Pollination i s e f f e c t e d b y i n s e c t s, i n c l u d i n g b u t t e r f l i e s (Fig. 14) a n d m o t h s that s u c k n e c t a r f r o m t h e b a s e o f t h e l o n g c o r o l l a t u b e. B e e - f l i e s ( B o m b y l i i d s ) a r e o f t e n f o u n d visiting t h e f l o w e r s t o f e e d o n p o l l e n, but m a y not b e e f f e c t i v e p o l l i n a t o r s. L o n g - t o n g u e d l e p i d o p t e r a n s a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e m o s t likely p o l l i n a t o r s. C r o s s - p o l l i n a t i o n r e s u l t s in a c o n t i n u o u s v a r i a t i o n in this s p e - c i e s w h e r e a s, in S. asiatica, t h e s p o n t a n e o u s m u t a t i o n s m a y be fixed by self- pollination. In S. hermonthica w i d e v a r i a t i o n h a s b e e n r e c o r d e d for plant t y p e, c o r o l l a s h a p e, size, a n d c o l o r (Fig. 15). W h i t e - f l o w e r e d p l a n t s a r e o c c a s i o n a l l y s e e n a t v e r y l o w f r e q u e n c y. T h e y a r e p r o b a b l y s p o n t a n e o u s r e c e s s i v e m u t a n t s. D i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e s. E r e c t h e r b r e a c h i n g a h e i g h t of 0.5 m; f l o w e r s bright pink; c a l y x d i s t i n c t l y f i v e - r i b b e d ; c o r o l l a t u b e m m i n l e n g t h, b e n d i n g c h a r - a c t e r i s t i c a l l y a t a n a n g l e i m m e d i a t e l y o v e r t h e tip o f t h e c a l y x. D i s t r i b u t i o n. W i d e s p r e a d i n t h e s e m i - a r i d z o n e s o f n o r t h e r n t r o p i c a l A f r i c a f r o m 5 S u p t o 2 0 N l a t i t u d e. F r o m e a s t to w e s t it is d i s t r i b u t e d a c r o s s t h e w i d t h of A f r i c a. It is not r e p o r t e d f r o m o t h e r p l a c e s in t h e w o r l d, e x c e p t t h e s o u t h w e s t A r a b i a n p e n i n s u l a. 2 0

23 Figure 13 21

24 Figure 14 22

25 Figure 15 H o s t r a n g e. S o r g h u m (Fig. 16), pearl millet (Fig. 17), maize, u p l a n d rice, finger millet, s u g a r c a n e, a n d s e v e r a l wild grasses in fallow lands a n d field bunds. H o s t specificity. At least t w o c r o p - s p e c i f i c strains exist in West Africa. O n e is specific to pearl millet in the drier zone north of latitude 13 N, w h e r e it d o e s not parasitize s o r g h u m (Fig. 18). T h e s e c o n d strain f o u n d in the north Sudanian zone, a r o u n d latitude 12 N, attacks s o r g h u m but not pearl millet. Maize, however, appears to be g e n e r a l l y s u s c e p t i b l e to this s p e c i e s. 3. Striga densiflora B e n t h. Striga densiflora is relatively less i m p o r t a n t as a s p e c i e s c o m p a r e d with S. aslatica a n d S. hermonthica, a n d is often m i s t a k e n for t h e w h i t e - f l o w e r e d S. asiatica. S. densiflora f o u n d on g r a s s e s is short ( u p to 0.2 m), w h i l e on s o r g h u m a n d m a i z e it c a n r e a c h a height of up to 1 m. 23

26 Figure 16 24

27 Figure

28 Key to the main Striga species 1a. 1b. C a l y x ribs 5 2 2a. 2 b L e a v e s s c a l e - l i k e ; rarely e x c e e d i n g 5 mm in length. Corolla v a r i a b l e in color: w h i t e / m a u v e / p i n k / purple, 3-5 m m a c r o s s ; d e n s e l y b r a n c h e d p a r a - site on cowpea but usually less branched forms on other hosts... S. gesnerioides Leaves green, mm long: a. 3 b. Corolla white, m m a c r o s s ; a n t h e r s b l u i s h - black; plants s p a r s e l y b r a n c h e d, drying bluish S. densiflora C o r o l l a p i n k / m a u v e, m m a c r o s s 4 4a. 4b. C o r o l l a tube about equal to c a l y x in length ( c a 10 m m ) bent i m m e d i a t e l y a b o v e calyx; b r a c t e o l e 2-3 mm w i d e S. hermonthica Corolla t u b e m m long, distinctly longer t h a n 5a. C a l y x ribs 10 or m o r e, but n e v e r m o r e t h a n 5 e x t e n d i n g t o t i p s o f c a l y x l o b e s, r e m a i n d e r s t o p p i n g a t t h e s i n u s ; c o r o l l a m m a c r o s s ; 5b. 6a. 6b. C a l y x ribs 15, t h r e e m e e t i n g at the tip of e a c h calyx lobe 6 L e a v e s narrowly l a n c e o l a t e, 3-8 m m w i d e without teeth; corolla white, m m a c r o s s ; s e e d s 0.5 mm long S. euphrasioides L e a v e s broadly l a n c e o l a t e m m w i d e, c o a r s e l y t o o t h e d ; c o r o l l a s a l m o n - p i n k ( r a r e l y y e l l o w ), 26 27

29 28

30 D i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e s. Robust, little b r a n c h e d, a n d erect herb; aerial parts profusely hairy, g r e e n or purple, t u r n i n g d a r k b l u e o n d r y i n g ; f l o w e r s d e n s e l y a r r a n g e d o n t h e i n f l o r e s c e n c e ( h e n c e t h e n a m e densiflora); f l o w e r s bright w h i t e ; c a l y x f i v e - r i b b e d ( u n l i k e S. asiatica that h a s 10 ribs). A n o t h e r distinguishing feature is the anther color, w h i c h is c r e a m y w h i t e in S. asiatica a n d d a r k blue in S. densiflora. S e e d s a r e s i m i l a r in size to S. asiatica but u s u a l l y a r e d a r k e r b r o w n w i t h t h e n a r r o w e n d blunt rather t h a n p o i n t e d. F i g u r e 1 9 s h o w s a c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n p l a n t s of S. densiflora (on t h e left), a n d S. asiatica (right). D i s t r i b u t i o n. S. asiatica a n d S. densiflora a r e f o u n d together in s o m e parts of India. M i x e d populations of the t w o s p e c i e s a r e often s e e n i n s o r g h u m fields i n M a h a - r a s h t r a, K a r n a t a k a, a n d G u j a r a t s t a t e s in India. In o t h e r parts of India S. densiflora is f o u n d on wild grasses. H o s t r a n g e. S o r g h u m, m a i z e, millets, a n d w i l d g r a s s e s. 4. Striga euphrasioides B e n t h. ( = S. angustifolia ( D o n ) S a l d h a n a ) S. euphrasioides is less parasitic t h a n the previously d e s c r i b e d s p e c i e s, b e i n g c a p a b l e o f g e r m i n a t i o n a n d p o s s i b l y e v e n o f g r o w i n g t o a n a d v a n c e d s t a g e i n t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e host ( t h o u g h t h e r e i s d i s a g r e e m e n t o n this). D i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e s. S m a l l e r e c t h e r b r e a c h i n g a m a x i m u m height of 0.45 m; white flowers in long lax t e r m i n a l s p i k e s ( s e e Fig. 2 0, c e n t e r ; on t h e left, S. a s i a - tica; right, S. densiflora); calyx ribbed, unlike other s p e c i e s ; c a p s u l e w a l l s m u c h s t r o n g e r ; c a l y x r e m a i n s w i t h t h e s p i k e for a c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e after s e e d d i s p e r - sal. S e e d s a r e d i s t i n c t l y larger (0.3 x 0.5 m m ) w i t h m o r e e l a b o r a t e s c u l p t u r i n g. 29

31 Figure 19 30

32 D i s t r i b u t i o n. India a n d B u r m a. H o s t r a n g e. S o r g h u m, maize, sugarcane, upland rice, a n d g r a s s w e e d s. Figure 20 31

33 5. Striga aspera (Willd.) B e n t h. (= Euphrasia aspera Willd.) Distinguishing features. It is similar to S. hermonthica except that it is smaller, the major distinguishing c h a r - acteristic being that the corolla tube has glandular hairs and e x t e n d s b e y o n d the tip of the calyx before it c h a r a c - teristically bends, w h e r e a s that of S. hermonthica is free from glands a n d the corolla t u b e b e n d s abruptly over the calyx tip (see Fig. 2 1, right; on the left, S. hermonthica). Distribution. Throughout West Africa and S u d a n. Host range. Upland rice, and wild grasses. Also, o c c a - sionally o b s e r v e d o n maize, s o r g h u m, a n d s u g a r c a n e. However, it is rarely an e c o n o m i c p r o b l e m. 6. Striga gesnerioides ( Willd.) V a t k e ( = S. orobanchoides B e n t h. ) S. gesnerioides is almost completely parasitic, a n d c o n - tains less chlorophyll than other s p e c i e s. Distinguishing features. Distinctly different f r o m other species. A large number of short b r a n c h e s arise from the g r o u n d level; c o m p a c t (Fig. 22); g r o w s to a height of 0.15 m; leaves scale- like; f o r m s a very large haustorium with the host root, unlike other s p e c i e s (see Fig. 23 that s h o w s a S. gesnerioides haustorium, arrowed right, attached to a c o w p e a root on the left); s p e c i e s s h o w s variation in flower size a n d color: f l o w e r s usually bluish, pink, purple, or c r e a m y white. Distribution. From C a p e Verde Islands through tropical and southern Africa and through the Arabian peninsula and western a n d southern India. Also f o u n d in Florida in the USA. 32

34 Figure 21 33

35 Figure 22 34

36 35

37 Host r a n g e. C o w p e a, t o b a c c o, Euphorbia, hairy indigo (Indigofera hirsuta) (Fig. 24), Jacquemontia tamnifolia, and other weedy Convolvulaceae, and the w e e d y l e g u m e Tephrosia pedicellata. A w i d e range of other hosts are reported. Host specificity. T h e f o r m s parasitizing c o w p e a, t o b a c c o, indigo, a n d Tephrosia h a v e e a c h b e e n s h o w n to be specific to t h e s e hosts. 7. Striga forbesii B e n t h. It is rarely an e c o n o m i c p r o b l e m. D i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e s. Erect, s i m p l e o r littleb r a n c h e d herb g r o w i n g to a height of a b o u t 0.5 m; flowers pink (Fig. 25), scarlet, or yellow, mm diameter; corolla tube mm long, sparsely pubescent. This species c a n be distinguished from S. hermonthica by the p r e s e n c e of t w o f l o w e r s only o p e n on e a c h inflorescence, the salmon- pink colored corolla, a n d lobed leaves. Distribution. Throughout West a n d East Africa, South Africa a n d M a d a g a s c a r. Host r a n g e. Maize, s o r g h u m, rice, and Setaria sphacelata. SYMPTOMS OF STRIGA ATTACK In severe infestations s y m p t o m s of Striga attack generally b e c o m e o b s e r v a b l e e v e n before t h e Striga e m e r g e s from the soil. Both S. asiatica a n d S. hermonthica c a u s e stunting of the host shoot and failure of panicle f o r m a - 3 6

38 Figure 24 37

39 Figure 25 38

40 tion, but other s y m p t o m s are different for the two species. S. asiatica attack induces s y m p t o m s similar to t h o s e i n d u c e d by d r o u g h t - l i k e leaf wilting (Figs. 26 a n d 27) a n d leaf rolling, even though the soil is saturated with moisture. S. hermonthica does not generally c a u s e d r o u g h t s y m p t o m s but d o e s c a u s e chlorotic lesions (Fig. 28). T h e s e m a y not a l w a y s be c l e a r a n d are quite often c o n f u s e d with leaf d i s e a s e s. Striga m a y c o m - pletely d e s t r o y the host if d r o u g h t o c c u r s b e c a u s e drought a d d s to the water stress already created by Striga. Striga attack c a n be very serious on millets b e c a u s e millets are generally g r o w n on lighter soils under low a n d erratic rainfall, and the attack c a n lead to a c o m p l e t e loss of yield. S o r g h u m m a y also be badly a t t a c k e d on lighter soils with low rainfall (Fig. 29), but s h o w less d a m a g e in high-rainfall a r e a s, p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e of high soil fertility and moisture that favor g o o d c r o p g r o w t h a n d also d i s c o u r a g e Striga. S. gesnerioides c a n be a very s e r i o u s p a r a s i t e of c o w p e a, c a u s - ing chlorosis and then severe wilting and collapse under drought stress, very often leading to c o m p l e t e crop failure. CONTROL MEASURES No single control m e a s u r e currently available c a n provide c o m p l e t e c o n t r o l, a n d m a n y of t h o s e listed b e l o w have limited applicability on small farms. T h e identification, breeding, a n d distribution of resistant varieties are by far the most important research a n d developmental activities r e c o m m e n d e d, but other a g r o n o m i c control m e a s u r e s should be exploited wherever feasible. 39

41 Figure 26 40

42 Figure 27 41

43 Figure 28 42

44 43

45 R e s i s t a n t c u l t i v a r s The breeding of cultivars that are not parasitized, or are only lightly parasitized by Striga, offers a practical c o n - trol measure. A few resistant cultivars of s o r g h u m have already been identified. N - 13 f r o m India, a n d Framida (Fig. 30) f r o m S o u t h A f r i c a, for e x a m p l e, h a v e g o o d levels of r e s i s t a n c e. O t h e r useful cultivars i n c l u d e SPV 103, an i m p r o v e d c u l t i v a r f r o m India, a n d IS , a l o w - s t i m u l a n t variety f r o m S u d a n. T o l e r a n c e ( c a p a c i t y to yield well in spite of a high Striga infestation) has been exhibited by s e v e r a l l o c a l a n d i m p r o v e d cultivars of s o r g h u m. Very little information is available on breeding for resistance to Striga in maize, pearl millet, a n d c o w - pea. H o w e v e r, p r e l i m i n a r y results i n d i c a t e that t h e r e is g e n e t i c variability for host plant r e s i s t a n c e in pearl millet, and that Serere 2 A - 9 is less susceptible. Host r e s i s t a n c e to Striga is not b e l i e v e d to exist in maize b e c a u s e it is not native to A f r i c a. In p r e l i m i n a r y c o w p e a trials, t w o varieties, S u v i t a - l l ( G o r o m G o r o m local f r o m U p p e r Volta) a n d T N (an i m p r o v e d local f r o m Niger), h a v e exhibited a satisfactory level of resistance to S. gesnerioides. C r o p varieties resistant to Striga at specific l o c a t i o n s c a n b e r e q u e s t e d f r o m t h e a u t h o rs. Striga-pulling by h a n d It is not practical to hand- pull d e n s e infestations but s p a r s e infestations c a n be h a n d - p u l l e d b e f o r e Striga flowers. T h i s p r a c t i c e p r e v e n t s t h e p r o d u c t i o n of Striga s e e d s. S u c h h a n d - p u l l i n g s h o u l d c o n t i n u e b e y o n d c r o p harvest, if necessary. T h e c r o p stubble should also be u p r o o t e d o r b u r n e d t o p r e v e n t the c o n t i n u e d g r o w t h a n d s e e d i n g of the p a r a s i t e. 44

46 45

47 R o t a t i o n s C r o p r o t a t i o n o f f e r s g o o d p o t e n t i a l c o n t r o l w h e r e v e r i t i s p r a c t i c a b l e. R o t a t i o n w i t h t r a p c r o p s ( c r o p s t h a t g e r m i - n a t e Striga s e e d but a r e n o t p a r a s i t i z e d ) s u c h a s c o t t o n, s u n f l o w e r, g r o u n d n u t, a n d s o m e o t h e r l e g u m e s n o t o n l y r e d u c e s t h e Striga s e e d r e s e r v o i r i n t h e soil b u t a l s o i n c r e a s e s c e r e a l y i e l d s b e c a u s e o f b e n e f i c i a l r o t a t i o n e f f e c t s. A b r e a k i n t h e c o n t i n u o u s c u l t i v a t i o n o f s o r g h u m w i t h a t r a p c r o p, e v e n for 1 y e a r, h a s b e e n f o u n d u s e f u l i n r e d u c i n g Striga b u i l d - u p, b u t n o t v e r y e f f e c t i v e w h e n i n f e s t a t i o n i s a l r e a d y s e v e r e. N i t r o g e n f e r t i l i z e r T h e e x a c t t i m i n g a n d f o r m o f n i t r o g e n a p p l i c a t i o n a r e n o t c r i t i c a l, t h e e s s e n t i a l r e q u i r e m e n t b e i n g t h a t t h e c r o p a b s o r b s i t a n d r e s p o n d s, V e r y h i g h l e v e l s a r e n e e d e d t o s u p p r e s s Striga a l t o g e t h e r, b u t l e v e l s r e c o m - m e n d e d for Striga-free c r o p s a r e likely t o b e h i g h l y b e n e f i c i a l i n d e l a y i n g Striga e m e r g e n c e a n d r e d u c i n g t h e d a m a g e c a u s e d. A n a p p l i c a t i o n o f 2 0 % u r e a a s a d i r e c t e d s p r a y o n e m e r g e d Striga p l a n t s c a n kill t h e p l a n t s b y s c o r c h i n g a n d t h u s r e d u c e its s e e d p r o d u c t i o n. H e r b i c i d e s N o h e r b i c i d e c a n p r o v i d e a p e r f e c t s e l e c t i v e c o n t r o l o f Striga. B u t, w h e r e 2, 4-0 c a n b e s a f e l y u s e d i n t h e c e r e a l c r o p s, i t m a y a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y p r e v e n t e m e r g e n c e w h e n a p p l i e d a t a b o u t t h e t i m e o f Striga g e r m i n a t i o n, o r i t m a y kill e m e r g e d p a r a s i t e s w h e n a p p l i e d later. O t h e r h e r b i - c i d e s s u c h a s l i n u r o n, b r o m o x y n i l, a n d a m e t r y n e h a v e b e e n s u g g e s t e d f o r d i r e c t e d s p o t - s p r a y i n g i n m i x e d c r o p s w h e r e i t w o u l d n o t b e s a f e t o u s e 2, 4 - D. 4 6

48 G e r m i n a t i o n s t i m u l a n t s E t h y l e n e g a s, a n d s o m e s y n t h e t i c a n a l o g u e s o f n a t u r a l g e r m i n a t i o n s t i m u l a n t s, c a n b e e f f e c t i v e i n t r i g g e r i n g " s u i c i d a l " g e r m i n a t i o n o f Striga s e e d i n t h e s o i l. E t h y - l e n e i s b e i n g e x t e n s i v e l y u s e d i n t h e U S A, b u t t h e t e c h - n i q u e h a s n o t y e t b e e n d e v e l o p e d for u s e e l s e w h e r e. B i o c o n t r o l P r a c t i c a l b i o c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e s a r e y e t t o b e d e v e l o p e d, b u t p o t e n t i a l l y u s e f u l o r g a n i s m s i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g. a. T h e g a l l - f o r m i n g w e e v i l ( S m i c r o n y x umbrinus) t h a t l a y s e g g s i n t h e f l o w e r b u d s ( s e e F i g. 3 1 s h o w i n g d a m - a g e o n S. hermonthica). T h e g r u b s ( F i g. 3 2 : x 8 0 ) f e e d o n t h e o v u l e s a n d e f f e c t i v e l y r e d u c e s e e d p r o d u c t i o n, s o m e t i m e s b y %. I n S. gesnerioides, g a l l s m a y b e f o r m e d i n t h e s t e m a s w e l l. b. T h e b u t t e r f l y Precis (= Junonia) s p e c i e s w h o s e l a r v a e f e e d o n l e a v e s, b u d s, a n d c a p s u l e s o f m a n y Striga s p e c i e s ( F i g. 3 3 ). c. A r a n g e of f u n g a l d i s e a s e s, i n c l u d i n g Fusarium equiseti t h a t c a u s e s g i r d l i n g o f t h e s t e m a n d v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f d a m a g e, i n c l u d i n g t h e a b o r t i o n o f s e e d c a p - s u l e s o r a c o m p l e t e kill o f y o u n g p l a n t s ( F i g. 3 4 ). I n t e g r a t e d c o n t r o l W h i l e a n y o f t h e a b o v e a p p r o a c h e s m a y n o t b e a d e - q u a t e o n t h e i r o w n, c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t w o o r m o r e c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s c a n m a k e a s i g n i f i c a n t i m p a c t. 4 7

49 Figure 31 48

50 Figure 32 Figure 33 49

51 Figure 34 50

52 P h o t o C r e d i t s UK W e e d R e s e a r c h O r g a n i z a t i o n (C. P a r k e r ) : 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 14, 17, 19, 2 1, 2 3, 2 5, 2 6, 27, , 3 2, 3 4 K.V. R a m a i a h : 4, 13, 18, 2 2, 2 9, 3 0. M. J. V a s u d e v a R a o : 1, 8, 15, 16, 2 0, b a c k c o v e r. L.J. M u s s e l m a n : 12, 2 4, 3 3. L R. H o u s e : 1 1, front c o v e r. 51

53