Detailed Contents. 1. Science, Society, and Social Work Research The Process and Problems of Social Work Research 27

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Philomena Richards
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1 Detailed Contents Preface xiii Acknowledgments xvii 1. Science, Society, and Social Work Research 1 Reasoning About the Social World 2 Everyday Errors in Reasoning 4 Overgeneralization 5 Selective or Inaccurate Observation 5 Illogical Reasoning 7 Resistance to Change 7 Adherence to Authority 8 The Social Scientific Approach 9 Social Work and the Social World 9 Social Work Research and Evidence-Based Practice 10 Striving for Validity 12 Measurement Validity 13 Generalizability 13 Causal Validity 14 Social Work Research in a Diverse Society 16 Social Work Research in Practice 17 Descriptive Research 18 Example: Who Are the Homeless? 18 Exploratory Research 18 Example: What Is It Like to Live in an Emergency Shelter? 18 Explanatory Research 19 Example: Why Do People Become Homeless? 19 Evaluation Research 20 Example: Should Housing or Treatment Come First? 21 Quantitative and Qualitative Methods 21 Strengths and Limitations of Social Work Research 22 Conclusion 23 K e y Te r m s 24 H igh l igh t s 24 D i s c us sion Q u e s t ions 25 P r ac t ic e E x e rc i se s 25 We b E x e rc i se 25 D e v e l opi ng a R e se a rc h P rop o s a l 26 A Qu e s t ion of Et h ic s The Process and Problems of Social Work Research 27 Social Work Research Questions 28 Identifying Social Work Research Questions 29 Refining Social Work Research Questions 29 Evaluating Social Work Research Questions 30 Feasibility 30 Social Importance 30 Scientific Relevance 30 Implications of Social Diversity and Formulating a Question 31 Foundations of Social Work Research 31 Finding Information 32 Searching the Literature 32 Searching the Web 34 Reviewing Research 35

2 Case Study: A Single-Article Review: Program Completion and Re-arrest in a Batterer Intervention System 36 An Integrated Literature Review: Female-Initiated Violence 37 Practice 38 Campbell Collaboration 39 Government-Supported Resources 39 Social Work Research Strategies 40 The Role of Social Theory 40 The Deductive/Inductive Cycle 42 Deductive Research 43 Domestic Violence and the Research Circle 43 Inductive Research 45 An Inductive Approach to Explaining Domestic Violence 46 Exploratory Research 47 Descriptive Research 48 Social Work Research Philosophies 48 Conclusion 51 K e y Te r m s 51 H igh l igh t s 52 D i s c us sion Q u e s t ions 52 P r ac t ic e E x e rc i se s 52 We b E x e rc i se s 53 D e v e l opi ng a R e se a rc h P rop o s a l Ethical and Scientific Guidelines for Social Work Research 54 Research on People 55 Historical Background 57 Ethical Principles 59 Achieving Valid Results 59 Honesty and Openness 60 Protecting Research Participants 62 Avoid Harming Research Participants 62 Obtain Informed Consent 64 Maintain Privacy and Confidentiality 65 The Uses of Research 70 Institutional Review Board Reviews 71 Scientific Guidelines for Social Work Research 72 Conclusion 75 K e y Te r m s 76 H igh l igh t s 76 D i s c us sion Q u e s t ions 76 P r ac t ic e E x e rc i se s 76 We b E x e rc i se s 77 D e v e l opi ng a R e se a rc h P rop o s a l Measurement 78 Concepts 79 Conceptualization in Practice 80 Substance Abuse 80 Depression 80 Poverty 81 From Concepts to Observations 82 Operationalization 83 Scales and Indexes 84 Treatment as a Variable 87 Gathering Data 87 Combining Measurement Operations 88 Measurement in Qualitative Research 89 Levels of Measurement 89 Nominal Level of Measurement 89 Ordinal Level of Measurement 91 Interval Level of Measurement 91 Ratio Level of Measurement 92 The Case of Dichotomies 94 Types of Comparisons 94 Measurement Error 95 Evaluating Measures 96 Reliability 96 Test-Retest Reliability 97 Internal Consistency 97 Alternate-Forms Reliability 98 Interrater Reliability 98 Intrarater Reliability 98

3 Measurement Validity 99 Face Validity 99 Content Validity 99 Criterion Validity 99 Construct Validity 100 Screening and Cut-Off Scores 101 Ways to Improve Reliability and Validity of Existing Measures 102 Measurement in a Diverse Society 104 Practice 105 Conclusion 106 K e y Te r m s 107 H igh l igh t s 107 D i s c us sion Q u e s t ions 108 P r ac t ic e E x e rc i se s 108 We b E x e rc i se s 108 D e v e l opi ng a R e se a rc h P rop o s a l 109 A Qu e s t ion of Et h ic s Sampling 110 Sample Planning 111 Define Sample Components and the Population 112 Evaluate Generalizability 113 Assess the Homogeneity of the Population 114 Sampling Methods 115 Probability Sampling 116 Probability Sampling Methods 117 Simple Random Sampling 119 Systematic Random Sampling 119 Stratified Random Sampling 120 Cluster Sampling 122 Nonprobability Sampling Methods 123 Availability Sampling 123 Quota Sampling 124 Purposive Sampling 126 Snowball Sampling 126 Sampling Distributions 127 Estimating Sampling Error 128 Determining Sample Size 129 Recruitment Strategies With Diverse Populations 131 Practice 134 Conclusion 134 K e y Te r m s 135 H igh l igh t s 136 D i s c us sion Q u e s t ions 136 P r ac t ic e E x e rc i se s 137 We b E x e rc i se s 137 D e v e l opi ng a R e se a rc h P rop o s a l 138 A Qu e s t ion of Et h ic s Causation and Research Design 139 Causal Explanation 140 Nomothetic Causal Explanation 140 Idiographic Causal Explanation 141 Research Designs and Criteria for Causal Explanations 142 Association 143 Time Order 143 Cross-Sectional Designs 144 Longitudinal Designs 145 Trend Studies 146 Panel Designs 146 Cohort Studies 147 Nonspuriousness 148 Randomization 148 Statistical Control 149 Mechanism 149 Context 151 Units of Analysis and Errors in Causal Reasoning 151 Individual and Group Units of Analysis 151 The Ecological Fallacy and Reductionism 152 Practice 153 Conclusion 154 K e y Te r m s 155 H igh l igh t s 155 D i s c us sion Q u e s t ions 156 P r ac t ic e E x e rc i se s 156 We b E x e rc i se s 156 D e v e l opi ng a R e se a rc h P rop o s a l 157 A Qu e s t ion of Et h ic s 157

4 7. Group Experimental Designs 158 Threats to Validity 159 Internal Validity 159 Noncomparable Groups 160 Endogenous Change 161 External Events 162 Contamination 162 Treatment Misidentification 163 Generalizability 163 Sample Generalizability 163 External Validity 164 Reactivity 164 True Experiments 165 Experimental and Comparison Groups 166 Randomization 166 Pretest and Posttest Measures 169 Types of True Experimental Designs 169 Difficulties in True Experiments in Agency-Based Research 173 The Limits of True Experimental Designs 174 Quasi-experiments 174 Nonequivalent Control Group Designs 175 Time Series Designs 177 Ex Post Facto Control Group Designs 179 Common Group Designs for Program Evaluation and Research 180 Types of Nonexperimental Designs 180 Practice 182 Diversity, Group Design, and Evidence-Based Practice 184 Ethical Issues in Experimental Research 185 Deception 185 Selective Distribution of Benefits 186 Conclusion 186 K e y Te r m s 187 H igh l igh t s 187 D i s c us sion Q u e s t ions 188 P r ac t ic e E x e rc i se s 188 We b E x e rc i se s 188 D e v e l opi ng a R e se a rc h P rop o s a l 189 A Qu e s t ion of Et h ic s Single-Subject Design 190 Foundations of Single-Subject Design 191 Repeated Measurement 192 Baseline Phase 192 Patterns 193 Internal Validity 193 Treatment Phase 197 Graphing 197 Measuring Targets of Intervention 197 What to Measure 198 How to Measure 198 Who Should Measure 199 Analyzing Single-Subject Designs 200 Visual Analysis 200 Level 200 Trend 202 Variability 202 Interpreting Visual Patterns 204 Problems of Interpretation 206 Types of Single-Subject Designs 206 Basic Design: A-B 210 Withdrawal Designs 211 A-B-A Design 212 A-B-A-B Design 212 Multiple Baseline Designs 214 Multiple Treatment Designs 217 Monitoring Client Progress 218 Practice 220 Single-Subject Design in a Diverse Society 221 Ethical Issues in Single-Subject Design 222 Conclusion 223 K e y Te r m s 223 H igh l igh t s 223 D i s c us sion Q u e s t ions 224 P r ac t ic e E x e rc i se s 224 We b E x e rc i se s 225 D e v e l opi ng a R e se a rc h P rop o s a l 225 A Qu e s t ion of Et h ic s Survey Research 227 Survey Research in Social Work 228 Attractions of Survey Research 228 Versatility 228 Efficiency 229 Generalizability 229

5 Errors in Survey Research 229 Writing Questions 231 Writing Clear Questions 231 Avoid Confusing Phrasing 232 Avoid Vagueness 232 Provide a Frame of Reference 233 Avoid Vague Words 233 Avoid Negative Words and Double Negatives 233 Avoid Double-Barreled Questions 234 Avoid Jargon 234 Minimize the Risk of Bias 234 Memory Questions 235 Closed-Ended and Open-Ended Questions 235 Closed-Ended Questions and Response Categories 237 Avoid Making Agreement Agreeable 237 Social Desirability 237 Minimize Fence-Sitting and Floating 237 Use Filter Questions 238 Utilize Likert-Type Response Categories 239 Matrix Questions 239 Sensitive Topics 240 Combining Questions 240 Designing Questionnaires 241 Maintain Consistent Focus 241 Build on Existing Instruments 241 Order the Questions 242 Add Interpretive Questions 243 Make the Questionnaire Attractive 244 Refine and Test Questions 244 Survey Design Alternatives 247 Mail Surveys 248 Group-Administered Surveys 251 Telephone Surveys 251 Reaching Sampling Units 251 Maximizing Response to Phone Surveys 254 In-Person Interviews 255 Balancing Rapport and Control 256 Maximizing Response to Interviews 257 Electronic Surveys 257 Mixed-Mode Surveys 258 A Comparison of Survey Designs 258 Secondary Data 260 Survey Research Design in a Diverse Society 262 Translating Instruments 263 Interviewer Respondent Characteristics 265 Practice 265 Ethical Issues in Survey Research 265 Conclusion 266 K e y Te r m s 267 H igh l igh t s 267 D i s c us sion Q u e s t ions 268 P r ac t ic e E x e rc i se s 268 We b E x e rc i se s 269 D e v e l opi ng a R e se a rc h P rop o s a l 269 A Qu e s t ion of Et h ic s Qualitative Methods: Observing, Participating, Listening 270 Fundamentals of Qualitative Methods 271 Case Study: Making Gray Gold 274 The Case Study 275 Participant Observation 276 Choosing a Role 276 Complete Observation 276 Participant Observation 278 Covert Participation 279 Entering the Field 280 Developing and Maintaining Relationships 281 Sampling People and Events 282 Taking Notes 283 Managing the Personal Dimensions 286 Systematic Observation 287 Intensive Interviewing 288 Establishing and Maintaining a Partnership 290 Asking Questions and Recording Answers 290 Focus Groups 292

6 Qualitative Research in a Diverse Society 293 Practice 294 Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research 295 Conclusion 297 K e y Te r m s 298 H igh l igh t s 298 D i s c us sion Q u e s t ions 299 P r ac t ic e E x e rc i se 299 We b E x e rc i se 299 D e v e l opi ng a R e se a rc h P rop o s a l 299 A Qu e s t ion of Et h ic s Qualitative Data Analysis 301 Features of Qualitative Data Analysis 302 Qualitative Data Analysis as an Art 304 Qualitative Compared to Quantitative Data Analysis 305 Techniques of Qualitative Data Analysis 305 Documentation 306 Conceptualization, Coding, and Categorizing 307 Examining Relationships and Displaying Data 309 Authenticating Conclusions 311 Reflexivity 312 Alternatives in Qualitative Data Analysis 313 Ethnography 313 Qualitative Comparative Analysis 314 Narrative Analysis 316 Grounded Theory 316 Photovoice 318 Content Analysis 319 Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis 322 Ethics in Qualitative Data Analysis 324 Conclusion 325 K e y Te r m s 326 H igh l igh t s 326 D i s c us sion Q u e s t ions 326 P r ac t ic e E x e rc i se s 327 We b E x e rc i se s 327 D e v e l opi ng a R e se a rc h P rop o s a l 327 A Qu e s t ion of Et h ic s Mixing and Comparing Methods and Studies 328 Mixed Methods 329 Should Methods Be Mixed? 330 Types of Designs 331 Comparing Research Designs 334 Performing Meta-Analysis 336 Case Study Meta-Analysis: Do Parent Training Programs Prevent Child Abuse? 339 Case Study: A Meta-Ethnographic Synthesis of Mutual Aid Groups 339 Practice 340 Conclusions 340 K e y Te r m s 341 H igh l igh t s 341 D i s c us sion Q u e s t ions 341 P r ac t ic e E x e rc i se s 341 We b E x e rc i se s 342 D e v e l opi ng a R e se a rc h P rop o s a l Evaluation Research 343 Evaluation Basics 344 Describing the Program: The Logic Model 346 Questions for Evaluation Research 350 Needs Assessment 350 Process Evaluation 351 Outcome Evaluation 354 Efficiency Analysis 356 Design Decisions 358 Black Box or Program Theory? 358 Researcher or Stakeholder Orientation? 359 Quantitative or Qualitative Methods? 361 Simple or Complex Outcomes? 361 Practice 363 Evaluation Research in a Diverse Society 364 Ethics in Evaluation 365 Conclusion 367 K e y Te r m s 368 H igh l igh t s 368

7 D i s c us sion Q u e s t ions 368 P r ac t ic e E x e rc i se s 369 We b E x e rc i se s 369 D e v e l opi ng a R e se a rc h P rop o s a l 369 A Qu e s t ion of Et h ic s Quantitative Data Analysis 370 Introducing Statistics 371 Preparing Data for Analysis 372 Displaying Univariate Distributions 376 Graphs 376 Frequency Distributions 380 Ungrouped Data 380 Grouped Data 381 Combined and Compressed Distributions 383 Summarizing Univariate Distributions 384 Measures of Central Tendency 385 Mode 385 Median 385 Mean 386 Median or Mean? 386 Measures of Variation 389 Range 389 Interquartile Range 389 Variance 390 Standard Deviation 391 Describing Relationships Among Variables 392 Graphing Association 394 Describing Association 396 Evaluating Association 396 Practice 397 Statistical Significance 397 Choosing a Statistical Test 399 Quantitative Data Analysis in a Diverse Society 400 Ethical Issues: Avoiding Misleading Findings 401 Conclusion 403 K e y Te r m s 403 H igh l igh t s 404 D i s c us sion Q u e s t ions 404 P r ac t ic e E x e rc i se 404 We b E x e rc i se s 405 D e v e l opi ng a R e se a rc h P rop o s a l 405 A Qu e s t ion of Et h ic s Reporting Research 406 Beginning With a Research Proposal 407 Case Study: Treating Substance Abuse 409 Reporting Results 412 Writing Can Be Frustrating! 412 Peer-Review Journal Articles 413 Applied Research Reports 416 Social Work Research in a Diverse Society 417 Ethical Considerations 417 Communicating With the Public 418 Plagiarism 419 Conclusion 419 K e y Te r m s 420 H igh l igh t s 420 D i s c us sion Q u e s t ions 420 P r ac t ic e E x e rc i se s 421 We b E x e rc i se s 421 D e v e l opi ng a R e se a rc h P rop o s a l 421 A Qu e s t ion of Et h ic s 422 Appendix A. Questions to Ask About a Research Article 423 Appendix B. How to Read a Research Article 425 Appendix C. Table of Random Numbers 439 On the Study Site Appendix D. Finding Information Appendix E. Reviewing Inferential Statistics Glossary 444 References 454 Index 471 About the Authors 482

Reader s Guide ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE. Quantitative and Qualitative Research, Debate About Secondary Analysis of Qualitative Data BASIC STATISTICS

Reader s Guide ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE. Quantitative and Qualitative Research, Debate About Secondary Analysis of Qualitative Data BASIC STATISTICS ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Main Effect Model I ANOVA Model II ANOVA Model III ANOVA One-Way ANOVA Two-Way ANOVA ASSOCIATION AND CORRELATION Association