Surface temperature what does this data tell us about micro-meteorological processes?
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1 Surface temperature what does this data tell us about micro-meteorological processes? Prof. Dr. Eberhard Parlow Meteorology, Climatology and Remote Sensing (MCR Lab) Department of Environmental Sciences University Basel, Switzerland - meteo.duw.unibas.ch Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 1
2 What is the satellite measuring in the TIR-bands? Frascati Centre of the World - Longwave terrestrial radiation (> 4 µm) from : - Earth surface - Atmospheric molecules along path length especially water vapour (H 2 O) and ozone (O 3 ) - Aerosols, clouds, dust & haze Atmospheric correction needed to get T surf Two physical laws are important: - Wien s displacement law - Law of Stefan-Boltzmann Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 2
3 Wien s displacement law λ T = c = 2897 λ : wavelength µm T : surface temperature K Describes the shift of the spectrum of black body radiation towards shorter wavelengths as temperature increases. Sun : 6000 K λ max 0.5 µm (visible green) Earth : 300 K λ max 10 µm (thermal infrared) Wilhelm Wien ( ) Nobel laureate in Physics Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 3
4 Wien s displacement law Black body radiation as a function of wavelength for various absolute temperatures. Temperature Intensity Temperature Intensity T s : 287 K Earth T s : 6000 K Sun Wavelength Wavelength Temperature Intensity T s : 850 K Wavelength At 850 K = 577 C: Iron begins to emit red wavelength (red heat). At >1573 K 1300 C all visible wavelengths are emitted (white heat) Temperature Intensity T s : 1573 K Wavelength Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 4
5 Stefan-Boltzmann law Q l = σεt 4 Q l : emitted radiation flux density (Wm -2 (Js -1 m -2 )) σ : Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( Wm -2 K -4 ) ε : emissivity (black body:1, natural surfaces: ) T : surface temperature K Describes the power radiated from a black body in terms of its temperature. It states that the total energy radiated per unit surface area of a black body across all wavelengths per unit time is directly proportional to the fourth power of the black body's thermodynamic temperature T. Josef Stefan ( ) & Ludwig Boltzmann ( ) Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 5
6 Stefan-Boltzmann law Longwave terrestrial emission as function of temperature Mnemonic : 273 K = 0 C : emission is 316 Wm -2 : Δ in 0 C 15 C range : 5 Wm -2 K -1 : Δ in 15 C 30 C range : 6 Wm -2 K -1 Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 6
7 What is the satellite measuring in the TIR-bands? the satellite measures emitted longwave radiation depending on the surface temperature and according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law! This emission is a loss of energy for the surface!! Two technical terms but they make a difference! - Surface temperature : the longwave emission of the surface, calibrated and converted to absolute temperatures (K) including surface emissivity correction! - Brightness temperature : the longwave emission of the surface calibrated and converted to absolute temperatures (K) without emissivity correction (ε = 1, assuming a black body radiator)! Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 7
8 What controls the surface longwave emission? or the surface temperature? - Solar radiation flux density (W m -2 ) - Topography (altitude, slope & aspect (m,, ) - Vegetation & land use (LULC) - Surface reflectance (albedo) (%, W m -2 ) - Air temperature ( C) - Evapotranspiration rate (W m -2 ) - Heat conductivity (W K -1 m -1 ) - Heat capacity (J kg -1 K -1 ) - Soil moisture especially top soil moisture (%) - 3D-structure of surface - Cloud coverage and cloud temperature (%, C) - Wind velocity (m s -1 ) -.. Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 8
9 What controls the surface longwave emission? Solar radiation flux density (W m -2 ) Longwave emission vs solar radiation flux density: - Smaller amplitude, - Phase shifted due to transport of turbulent sensible heat flux, all day long existing Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 9
10 What controls the surface longwave emission? Topography (altitude, slope & aspect (m,, ) Landsat RGB Landsat surface temperature DEM Solar irradiance on inclined slopes at satellite overpass A test site in N-Sweden (Abisko) Parlow 1988 Solar irradiance altitudinal effect Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 10
11 What controls the surface longwave emission? Topography (altitude, slope & aspect), solar irradiance Solar irradiance 700 Surface temperature DEM Aspect depending surface temperature in the Swiss Jura Mountains 298 K = 25 C 278 K = 5 C Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 11
12 What controls the surface longwave emission? Topography (altitude, slope & aspect ), solar irradiance Wm -2 1/10 K R 2 = 0.36 Is not really bad but it s not enough Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 12
13 What controls the surface longwave emission? Vegetation and surface reflectance (albedo) (%, W m -2 ) Landsat-8 False CIR Cairo Landsat-8 Surface surface temperature temperature Cairo Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 13
14 What controls the surface longwave emission? Vegetation and surface reflectance (albedo) (%, W m -2 ) Landsat-8 NDVI False CIR Cairo Landsat-8 Surface surface temperature temperature Cairo Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 14
15 What controls the surface longwave emission? Vegetation (NDVI) and surface reflectance R 2 = 0.50 Is not really bad but it s not enough Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 15
16 What controls the surface longwave emission? Vegetation (NDVI) (T s = NDVI + 318,519944) Cairo Cairo Original Predicted f(ndvi) NDVI explains 50 % of surface temperatures, but water is completely wrong (River Nile) and urban areas are also overestimated Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 16
17 What controls the surface longwave emission? Vegetation (NDVI) (T s = NDVI + 318,519944) Cairo Cairo Residual (orig-predicted) Original Predicted f(ndvi) NDVI explains 50 % of surface temperatures, but water is completely wrong (River Nile) and urban areas are also overestimated Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 17
18 What controls the surface longwave emission? Heat conductivity (W K -1 m -1 ) & heat capacity (J kg -1 K -1 ) Describes the property of a material to conduct heat. Energy (J) conducted in the soil per m 2 unit surface and second if temperature gradient is1 K m C 1 m 19 C 1 m -2? J s -1 J s -1 m -2 m K -1 W m -1 K -1 Material Status Heat conductivity (W m -1 K -1 ) Sandy soil dry 0.30 (40% pore volume) saturated 2.20 Clay Dry 0.25 (40% pore volume) saturated 1.58 Bog soil dry 0.06 (80% pore volume) saturated 0.50 Snow old 0.08 Ice new C, pure 2.24 Water 4 C 0.57 Concrete dense 1.51 Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 18
19 What controls the surface longwave emission? Heat conductivity (W K -1 m -1 ) & heat capacity (J m -3 K -1 ) Assuming two cases with equal energy uptake at the surface e.g. sandy soil dry (left, 0.3 W K -1 m -1 ) and 40 % water saturated (right, 2.2 W K -1 m -1 ). 1 m -2 1 m -2 1 m 0.3 J s -1 1 m 2.2 J s -1 - Bad heat conductivity - Strong vertical temperature gradient - Heat stored close under surface - High surface temperature - Good heat conductivity - Medium vertical temperature gradient - Heat stored over a bigger volume - Lower surface temperature Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 19
20 20 What controls the surface longwave emission? Heat conductivity (W K -1 m -1 ) & spec. heat capacity (J kg -1 K -1 ) Describes the specific heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of mass by 1 K = the volumetric heat capacity C (J m -3 K -1 ) normalized by the density ρ (kg m -3 ) c = C / ρ J K -1 kg -1 Material Status Specific heat capacity c (J kg -1 K -1 x 10 3 ) Sandy soil dry 800 (40% pore volume) saturated 1480 Clay dry 890 (40% pore volume) saturated 1550 Bog soil dry 1920 (80% pore volume) saturated 3650 Snow old 2090 new 2090 Ice 0 C, pure 2100 Water 4 C 4180 Concrete dense 880 Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 20
21 What controls the surface longwave emission? Heat conductivity (W K -1 m -1 ) & heat capacity (J kg -1 K -1 ) Assuming two cases with equal energy uptake at the surface e.g. sandy soil dry (left, 890 x 10 3 J K -1 kg -1 ) and 40 % water saturated (right, 1400 x 10 3 J K -1 m -1 ) 890 x 10 3 J K -1 kg x 10 3 J K -1 kg -1 - Low heat capacity - Heat uptake leads to fast temperature increase - High surface temperature - High heat capacity - Heat uptake leads to slow temperature increase - Lower surface temperature Due to very high heat capacity of water all materials with higher water content heat up or cool down quite slowly! Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 21
22 What controls the surface longwave emission? Vancouver Hamburg Windhoek Surface properties/altitude Surf. properties/soil wetness Surf. Properties/emissivity Central Australia Venice San Francisco/Oakland Soil wetness Surf. properties/soil wetness Surface properties Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 22
23 What controls the surface longwave emission? Windhoek Surf. Properties/emissivity Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel
24 Interactions of radiation and heat fluxes The radiation budget seen as a bank account Item Incomes Expenditures Salary 5000 Rent & insurance 1500 Add. income 1000 Food etc 4000 Sum inc./expend Balance Q* = KW KW + LW LW Q* = KW (1-α) + LW εσt 0 4 Q*: net radiation, KW: solar, LW: terrestrial, : in/out α : albedo ; Q* can be >0, =0, <0!! Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 24
25 Temperature, humidity z Heat fluxes and gradients What determines heat fluxes? a b c a) Vertical heat flux from surface towards atmosphere /ground Sign : b) No vertical gradient and therefore no heat flux c) Vertical heat flux from atmosphere/ground towards surface. Sign : + Earth surface Without gradients no heat fluxes!!!! Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 25
26 Interaction of radiation and heat fluxes The complete heat budget Q* + Q H + Q E + Q S + Q A + Q P = 0 [W m -2 ] Q* : net radiation (sum of all short- and longwave radiation fluxes) Q H Q E Q S Q A Q P : sensible heat flux density (temperature) : latent heat flux density (evapotranspiration) : storage heat flux density / ground heat flux density : anthropogenic heat flux density (the great unknown) : photosynthetic heat flux density (very small) Q* - Q G : available energy for turbulent heat exchange The equation is 0 because it refers to a surface which has no mass!! Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 26
27 Radiation and Heat Fluxes at daytime The surface temperature is only a small part of the radiation and complete heat budget Surface Model Multispectral Data Thermal-IR NDVI or Land Use Radiation Model Surface Albedo Surface Temperature Model for Atmos. Rad. Model Model Model Solar Irradiance KW Shortwave Reflexion KW Longwave Emission LW Atmosph. Radiation LW Storage Heat Flux Q s Sensible Heat Flux Q H Latent Heat Flux Q E = Net radiation daytime: Q* = KW - KW + LW - LW Q* is mostly > 0 and therefore radiative energy is available for the various heat fluxes! Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 27
28 Radiation and Heat Fluxes at night-time Thermal-IR NDVI or Land Use Surface Temperature Model for Atmos. Rad. Model Model Model Longwave Emission LW Atmosph. Radiation LW Storage Heat Flux Q s Sensible Heat Flux Q H Latent Heat Flux Q E = Net radiation night-time: Q* = LW - LW Q* is mostly < 0 and heat fluxes must compensate negative net radiation. This leads to cooling of air and soil or condensation of water vapour. Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 28
29 Landsat CIR image of SW-Black Forest France Plains of Upper Rhine Valley SW-Germany Freiburg Forest LULC is left visible. Some forests at the Upper Rhine Plains. Forested areas at western slopes of Black Forest. Basel Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 29
30 Aster Night LW-emission SW-Black Forest (Wm -2 ) FR BS Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 30
31 Aster Night LW-emission and LULC FR BS Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 31
32 Aster Night LW-emission of forest areas Forests at the lowlands of Rhine Valley : cool Forest at the western slopes : warm Forests at the high mountains : cool Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 32
33 Landsat Night-T s of SW-Black Forest (in Kelvin) Net radiation at nighttime: Q*=LW - LW = LW - σεt s 4 Landsat-5 : : Night K LW < LW High T surf on slopes Therefore very negative Q* at high T s. Q* must be compensated by heat fluxes over whole night! What is the process? Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 33
34 FR MODIS mean night emission from cloudfree scenes during summer 2015 BS The highest emissions come from forests at slope sites! Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 34
35 MODIS mean day/night emission as f(elevation) During daytime surface temperature decreases with altitude. During night time highest surface temperatures at m altitude Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 35
36 MODIS mean day/night emission as f(lulc) During day and night time urban areas show up highest surface temperatures. Forests reach similar surface temperatures during night time as urban surfaces! These warm forest pixels at night are all at slope sites. Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 36
37 The problem : all night high surface temperatures Along the western slopes of the Black Forest at medium altitude and at probably all forested slopes around the world there are quite high T s during night time. This feature can be detected all over the night and using various satellite sensors like Aster, Landsat, Modis etc.! The high surface temperatures imply a very negative net radiation of 50 to 100 Wm 2. This energy loss has to be compensated instantaneously by the heat fluxes (sensible and/or latent and/or storage heat flux). Which meteorological process is able to compensate negative Q* all over the night? Which heat fluxes is responsible and how does the process work? Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 37
38 Basic scheme of cold air production on slopes Warm air advection Cold air flow Forested western slopes of Black Forest (or any other mountain ) - Advection of slightly warmer air aloft from Upper Rhine Valley towards forest surface - Heat transfer (sensible heat flux) to crown surface to compensate negative Q* - This keeps LST high - Energy loss of air means cooling of air - Cooled air sinks down into trunk space and generates mountain wind system. This process runs all over the night!! - Cold air production rate of forests m 3 m -2 h -1 (vs m 3 m -2 h -1 of grasland) Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel
39 What happens at forest stands in the lowlands? Daytime LST are cool due to evapotranspiration of trees during daytime. Net radiation is high due to cool surface and low albedo. Early evening When net radiation switches to negative values forest starts cold air production but tree canopies remain some time aloft the cold air pond. Later at night After some hours much cold air is produced which cannot flow off. Forest is steadily drowned in its cold air pond up to canopy height and above. Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 39
40 Conclusions - Thermal IR imagery is an important spatially distributed information not only during daytime - But it is only one variable of the complex radiation and heat budget equations and all the other variables have to be considered - The simple analysis of IR imagery alone leads mostly to erroneous interpretations and does not consider the complexity of heat flux processes - In mountain areas the high surface temperatures of forested areas on slopes are indicating the cold air production and generation of mountain wind systems by a complex warm air mass advection heat exchange process. - During night time it is important to keep in mind that warm areas have a very negative net radiation which has to be compensated by heat fluxes. Only the sensible heat flux is able to compensate negative net radiation over the whole night. But this process generates cool air! Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 40
41 Conclusions - If forests are in flat terrain then they are drowned by the cold air after some few hours and then surface temperatures are much colder - There is much scientific work to be done in thermal IR data analysis to understand the complex heat flux processes especially with night IR imagery - Therefore it is very good to have night Landsat/Aster-thermal data available as a standard product - This will generate important insights into boundary layer energy and heat flux processes. Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 41
42 Lessons learned :!?!?!? High surface temperatures of forests at slope conditions during night time indicate their cold air production and the triggering of mountain valley wind systems!!! This sounds crazy but. keeping in mind the complete energy balance it is physically correct and can be validated by field measurements. Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 42
43 Rome/Frascati area: Landsat-day-IR/Aster night-ir Thank you for your attention! Eberhard Parlow/Uni Basel 43
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