Review on Granitic Residual Soils Geotechnical Properties

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1 Review on Granitic Residual Soils Geotechnical Properties Asmaa Gheyath Salih Department of Geotechnical Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, University Technology, ABSTRACT Knowledge on characteristics of granite residual soil offers important information on soil strength and its behavior for safe and economic geotechnical structure design. In and Singapore, residual soils were investigated extensively because they are widespread in tropical areas due to their many applications. Residual soils properties depend mainly on weathering degree of the natural rock. Therefore, this would make the soil geotechnical characteristics vary according to the degree of weathering. This paper attempts to summarize the basic geotechnical properties of granite residual soils as obtained by different researchers that conducted in several sites and conditions. The important geotechnical properties of the soil such as specific gravity, particles size, clay contents percentage and shear strength of the soil mass which determine the suitability and ability of the soil for construction. The significant of collecting such data will develop a clear vision for new researchers and civil engineering activities by providing the major characteristics and the nature of the composition of this type of tropical soils. KEYWORDS: Granite residual soil, geotechnical characteristics, weathering degree, shear strength, researchers, composition. INTRODUCTION Knowing of granite residual soil characteristics will assist in construction of strong bases such as roads highways, airports, dams, foundations, embankments, slopes, etc... Intensive rainfall weather cause massive slope failures each year (Taha et al., 1998). Thus, strong slope development with a large cuttings construction are requires for optimum shear strength of residual soils in order to obtain safe and economic design. The residual soil properties are varying in the single original rock although it has same weather condition. Townsend (1985) stated that residual soil is the result of chemical weathering and thus the characteristics of engineering residual soil depend on climatic factors, raw materials, topography, flow and age. These factors will tremendously influence the engineering characteristics of residual soil. The in situ behavior of soils is complex because it is heavily dependent on many factors (Ahmed et al., 2006). For that, it is necessary to analyze the factors through geotechnical engineering and other associated disciplines like geology, geomorphology, hydrogeology, climatology and other earth and atmosphere related sciences

2 Vol. [2012], Bund. T 2646 This paper provides the basic geotechnical properties of granite tropical residual soils and discussed the important correlations and facts that related. These data and information gathered will contribute significantly to the number of active participants in civil engineering and construction. RESIDUAL SOIL Residual soils cover more than three-quarters of the land area of Peninsular (Taha et al., 2000). Granite and sedimentary residual soils cover most parts of the land in except the coastal areas where soft clay dominates (Amin, 1997). The residual soils in are composite soils of sand, silt and clay in varied proportions that depend on the geological setting of the soil (Nithiaraj, 1996) There is no standard definition of residual soils. Different researchers gave different definitions. For example, one such definition says residual soils are those that form from rock or accumulation of organic material and remain at the place where they were formed (Ahmed et al., 2006). The Public Works Institute of (1996) defined it as a soil which has been formed in situ by decomposition of parent material and which has not been transported any significant distance and residual soil as a soil formed in situ under tropical weathering conditions. This research concern about tropical areas residual soils, which are located in zone between 20 o N (Tropic of Cancer) and 20 o S (Tropic of Capricorn) of the equator. WEATHERING PROFILE Weathering is the process that produces change in the surface of rocks exposed to the atmosphere and/or hydrosphere and produces soil, thus the soil is the product of rock weathering as Illustrated in Figure 1. Figure 1: Typical profile of residual soil (after Little, 1969) A typical weathering profile as shown in Figure 1 is a vertical section of the soil layers which demonstrates the vertical distribution of rock and soil to different weathering grades. Thus,

3 Vol. [2012], Bund. T 2647 reflecting progressive stages of transformation from fresh bedrock through weathered material to ground surface. Soil distributions of tropical area divided into three main types, granite residual soil, sedimentary residual soil and meta-sedimentary residual soil (Tan, 2004). The residual soils are composite soils of sand, silt and clay in varying proportions depending on the geological setting of the soil (Balasubramaniam, 1985). The granite and sedimentary residual soils are the two most commonly found types of residual soil in. MOISTURE CONTENT Determination of the moisture content of the natural soil is very important because it shows the ground characteristics that affected by the water content specially the lands that they have a high fines percentage. However, natural moisture content increases with increasing clay content due to the ability of clay particles to absorb the water. It was also found that the moisture content of the soil is increasing with increasing the depth because of the ground top is more exposed to the sun. Table 1 shows the natural moisture content obtained by previous researchers. It was found that natural moisture content of granite residual soil in is in the range of 5% - 50%. However Komoo (1985) conducted a study that related to the natural moisture content offer 99% availability. SPECIFIC GRAVITY Specific gravity is the ratio of soil mass to the mass of water at 20 C. Determination of specific gravity of soil is a useful parameter for the calculation of void ratio, porosity or degree of saturation of a soil. In addition, it is also important in the calculation of compaction, consolidation, permeability, testing limits shrinkage and particle size distribution using sedimentation method. Residual soil value of the specific gravity does not change with depth but it decreases with increasing of initial void ratio in soil. Table 1 shows specific gravity values in different sites in and Singapore (Marto and Kassim, 2003); it also includes recent research results done by Salih (2012) According to Table 1, the specific gravity values vary according to various studies based on samples location. Study conducted by Tan (1995) for a sample of the Karak highway obtained the specific gravity of a relatively small until Also another study conducted by Tan (1995) in Penang and Sungai area; Chan and Chin (1972) in Kuala Lumpur shows the value of specific gravity greater than 2.7. Study in Singapore reported a range of specific gravities between 2:55 to However, the specific gravity may also be related to the clay content in the soil as it decreases with increasing of clay content, this increasing in clay content will result in affecting the value of the void ratio thus the specific gravity values as described above.

4 Vol. [2012], Bund. T 2648 Table 1: Specific gravity value of granite residual soil in and Singapore Resource Location Moisture Specific Depth content gravity, (m) (%) Gs Taha, et al. (2000) Kuala Lumpur, Kasa & Ali (1997) Nilai, Negeri Sembilan 2.66 Sungai Ara, Penang Bt.Bendara, Penang Banjaran Kledang, Perak Tan (1995) Km 26.5 lebuh raya KL Karak Km 39.9 lebuh raya KL Karak Kuantan Kepli(1994) Melaka, Yee & Ooi (1975), Kepli (1994) Above 4m To 4m 2.67 Suhaimi & Abdul (1994) ITM Shah Alam, Tan & Ong (1993) Perak, 8 Ramli (1991) Sungai Buluh, Jalan Duta Damansara, Bukit Lanjan, Tapah dan Skudai Ali (1990) Kuala Lumpur, Komoo (1989) Kuala Lumpur, Todo & Pauzi (1989) and Singapore To Balasubramaniam, et al (1985) Komo (1985) Selangor, 5-20 Chan & Chin (1972) Kuala Lumpur, Lee (1967) Cameron Highland, 18 Skepper, et al. (1966) and To Kipli (1994) Salih (2012) UTM, Johor, PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION Researchers found that soil characteristics are affected by the residual original material, mode of formation, degree of weathering and the position of the samples at the site, such as depth. According to Gidigasu (1976), the features of the original texture of the rock types characterize size of soil particles that are formed. For example, soil formed from granite has high clay content than soil that formed from the sandstone rocks. However the soil resulting from the rock stone sandy soil is more uniform than granite. According to Lee (1967), Tan and Ong (1993) and Zhao (1994), clay content decreases with depth while content of silt and sand increase with depth. Ting (1976) mentioned that the granite residual soil can be classified as a composition of sand-silt-clay. Table 2 shows the particle size distribution and soil classification of granite residual soil obtained by previous researchers as mentioned in it.

5 Vol. [2012], Bund. T 2649 Resource Taha, et al. (2002) Anuar & Faisal (1997) Tan (1995) Affendi, et al. (1994a) Table 2: Distribution of particle size of granite residual soil Location Clay Silt Gravel Classification / Sand (%) (%) (%) (%) Symbol Cheras, Kuala CH lumpur Nilai, Negeri Sandy loam or silt Sembilan Sungai Ara, Penang CL/ML 47.4 Bt.Bendara, Penang ML/CL Banjaran Kledang, CL-CH, ML-MH Perak Km 26.5 lebuh raya ML-MH KL-Karak 46.2 Km 39.9 lebuh raya ML-MH, CL-CH KL-Karak 65.8 Kuantan ML-MH, CL-CH lebuh raya Karak University Malay Affendi, et al. Bukit Idaman (1994b) KL-Karak Kepli(1994) Melaka, MH, CH Yee & Ooi (1975), Kepli (1994) Suhaimi & Abdul (1994) ITM Shah Alam, Tan & Ong (1993) Perak, Komoo (1989) Kuala Lumpur, SC, SM, CS Salih (2012) MH UTM, Johor, From Table 2, it is found that the percentages of clay, silt, sand and gravels vary for different sample and is not uniform based on the depth at which they collected. ATTERBERG LIMITS Water within the voids of a soil can affect the engineering behavior of fine soil. Determination of natural moisture is important, but the relationship between water content and some aspects of engineering standards are required. Therefore, determination of Atterberg limits is an important experiment to find out relationship and the behavior of soil engineering. Tan and Ong (1993) had shown that the liquid limit and plastic limit of residual soil decrease with depth due to reduced content clay with increasing depth. Their study also showed that the granite residual soil of grade VI has a high plasticity to plasticity very high and most point lies below the line 'A' as shown in Figure 2. According to Todo et al., (1994), this result is caused by

6 Vol. [2012], Bund. T 2650 differences in composition of the original rocks and minerals in varying degrees of chemical weathering. Figure 2: Plasticity chart of granite residual soil (Tan & Ong, 1993) Atterberg limits of granite residual soil obtained by previous researchers from presented in Table 3. Table 3: Atterberg limits of granite residual soil Resource Location Liquid Limit LL (%) Plastic Limit PL (%) Plasticity Index PI (%) Taha, et al. (2002) Cheras, Kuala lumpur Anuar & Faisal (1997) Nilai, Negeri Sembilan Sungai Ara, Penang Bt.Bendara, Penang Banjaran Kledang, Perak Km 26.5 lebuh raya KL- Karak Tan (1995) Km 39.9 lebuh raya KL- Karak Kuantan Affendi, et al. (1994a) lebuh raya Karak University Malay Affendi, et al. (1994b) Bukit Idaman KL-Karak Kepli(1994) Melaka, Yee & Ooi (1975), Kepli (1994) Suhaimi & Abdul ITM Shah Alam, (1994)

7 Vol. [2012], Bund. T 2651 Tan & Ong (1993) Perak, Sungai Buluh, Jalan Duta Damansara, Bukit Lanjan, Tapah dan Ramli (1991) Skudai Ali (1990) Kuala Lumpur, Komoo (1989) Kuala Lumpur, Balasubramaniam, et al. (1985) Ting & Ooi (1976) Chan & Chin (1972) Kuala Lumpur, Salih (2012) UTM, Johor, Table 3 shows that the granite residual soil in has a liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index respectively ranged between %, 18-50% and 1-74%. SOIL SHEAR STRENGTH Shear strength is one of the most important features in geotechnical engineering. Shear strength of the land usually involved in geotechnical problems like stability of slopes, or in shallow foundations, cuts, fills, dams, pavements design and the stresses on the walls. Engineering structures and building must be stable and robust when subjected to the expected maximum load. In a design, determining the shear strength of soil is required. Soil shear strength is derived from two main components of the resistance to prevent the sliding friction between the particles and the cohesion between particles. It is also affected by moisture content, pore pressure, disturbance of the structure, the ground water level fluctuations, stress history, time and environmental conditions (Cernica, 1995) SHEAR STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF GRANITE RESIDUAL SOIL Shear strength of soil is one of the most important geotechnical engineering aspects. Shear strength is a vital component in the stability of slopes where most of the slopes, either natural or cut slopes, consist of residual soil. However, determination of residual soil shear strength is difficult due to the diverse composition of the soil as well as difficulties of obtaining undisturbed samples of good quality. The quality of the sample can affect the shear strength of soil. Disruption in the stability of the soil samples results of a lower value of shear strength due to the collapse of soil structure and increases the value of effective friction angle (Ø') When the effective shear strength parameters c 'and Ø' are determined, saturation of the specimen is required. As indicated by Fookes (1997), the high pressure needed in the process of saturation of specimens can increase soil moisture content and saturation level which cause the value of c' to be reduced due to reduction of soil suction. However, Bressani and Vaughan (1989) claimed that the value of Ø' is not affected by soil saturation. Moreover Brand (1982) stated that the effective cohesion (c') measured is very small. Study observed in by Todo et al. (1989, 1994) concluded that the soil shear strength in is in the range of kpa. In general, the effective stress parameters of the granite

8 Vol. [2012], Bund. T 2652 residual soils reported in the past publications at tested location were ranged between c' = 7 77 kpa and Ø' = o. Also, another study carried out by Gue and Tan (2006) illustrated the relationship between the peak effective angle of friction (Ø' peak) and the percentage of fines (silt and clay) in the residual soils obtained from thirteen (13) different sites, as shown is Figure 3. Figure 3: ϕ' peak versus percentage of fines for residual soils Figure 3 observed that the value of Ø' peak generally falls between 26 o to 36 o and there is a trend showing reduction of Ø' peak with increased fines content. Also Figure 4 shows c' obtained from these thirteen (13) different sites. Figure 4: c' versus percentage of fines for residual soils.

9 Vol. [2012], Bund. T 2653 It is obvious that the c' value is generally less than 10 kpa or zero for soil with low fines content. However, for weathered rock, the c' value could be higher due to the increasing in clay content. Table 4 illustrates the soil shear strength parameters of the prior study to the direct shear tests and triaxial tests in different sites in and Singapore. Table 4: Shear strength parameters of granite residual soil Resource Anuar & Ali (1997) Kepli(1994) Suhaimi & Abdul (1994) Todo, et al. (1994) Ramli (1991) Todo & Pauzi (1989) Balasubrama niam, et al. (1985) Ting & Ooi (1976) Lee (1967) Rahardjo (2002) Winn, et al (2001) Salih (2012) Location Nilai, Negeri Sembilan Melaka, ITM Shah Alam, Depth (m) Direct Shear Test C (kn/m 2 ) 113- UD 84-D ϕ (o) 31- UD 35-D C' = 28 Φ' = 39 Unconsolidat ed Undrained (UU) C (kn/m 2 ) Kuala Lumpur Sungai Buluh, Jalan Duta Damansara, Bukit Lanjan, Tapah dan Skudai ϕ (o) and Singapore < Triaxial Test Consolidated Undrained (CU) C' (kn/m 2 ) ϕ' (o) < Cameron Highland, 35 Yishun, Singapore 33 Mandai, Singapore 31 Bukit Timah, 10- < Singapore UTM, Johor, Consolidated Drained (CD) C (kn/m 2 ) C'= 8-9 ϕ (o) Φ' = 28-30

10 Vol. [2012], Bund. T 2654 Studies by direct shear test method concluded that the value of cohesion ranged between 0 and 113 kpa, while the friction angle was 21 o For UU triaxial tests; cohesion and friction angle respectively ranged from kpa and 1 o -11. While the CU triaxial tests showed that the value of each effective cohesion and effective friction angle ranged from 0-17 kpa and 25 o Also other results obtained by Salih (2012) for CD triaxial tests, effective cohesion and friction angle were found in the range C'= 8-9 kpa and Φ' = respectively. Figure 5: Mohr's stress circles at failure and failure envelope: (a) for CD test (b) for CU test (Taha, 1998) Samples of granite residual soil classified as "clay with high plasticity" (CH) were tested by (Taha, 1998). These samples were taken just 8 km southeast Kuala Lumpur. The Mohr stress circles at failure and the strength parameters for CD test of undisturbed granite soil are shown in Figure 5a. On other hand; The Mohr's circle at failure and the strength parameters for CU test are shown in Figure 5b. Figure 5a illustrated that, the cohesion interception was 10 kpa and the internal frictional angle was 28.1, whether Figure 5b undisturbed sample were had been cohesion intercept of 15 kpa and an internal friction angle of The range reported for the respective properties are large and probably indicative of the heterogeneity resulted from weathering. However, as noted by Komoo (1985), the variation of index properties with depth for the various weathering grades exhibited increasing or decreasing trends and were indicative of the relative engineering within a weathered profile. The effective stress parameters reported from the different studies do show a wide range of values. A possible explanation can be attributed to wide range in particle size distribution. Irfan and Tang (1992) preformed a study on the effect of coarse inclusion content on the effective stress parameters and found that beyond a particular coarse inclusion content, the behavior of samples tend to be cohesionless.

11 Vol. [2012], Bund. T 2655 CORRELATION OF SOIL ENGINEERING PROPERTIES Winn, et al., (2001) conducted a research on hill of granite residual soil in Timah, Singapore. They had made some correlation between the angle of friction with percentage of fines and plasticity index as shown in Figure 6. (a) (b) Figure 6: Effective friction angle versus: (a) clay content for residual soils (b) plasticity index (Winn, et al., 2001) Figure 6a shows the relationship between effective friction angle (φ ') with clay content. The value of φ ' is obtained mostly valued at between 20 º and 37 º. In addition to the value of φ ' is found decreases with increasing clay content with the following equation: φ ' = 0.14 ( % clay) (1) Figure 6b shows the relationship between φ ' and the plasticity index; φ ' decreases with increasing plasticity index with the following equation: φ ' = 0:32 (117 PI) (2) where φ ' is effective friction angle for granite residual soil and PI is plasticity index.

12 Vol. [2012], Bund. T 2656 CONCLUSIONS The intensive investigations through many researches show that, the degree of weathering process and clay content has a significant influence on the engineering properties of the granite residual soils. The integration of the engineering properties information obtained that, the granite soil has similar properties to the same ground depth. However, these properties vary gradually at different depths depends on the pore-size distributions, which is vary in contrast with weathering process degree. The conducted studies confirmed that, a higher degree of weathering process would cause higher pore volume with larger range of pore-size distribution. These studies also showed that, the clay content has a large influence in determining granite residual soil properties. Thus, it can be concluded that residual soils properties are deeply affected by clay content percentage and they are a function of depth for various degree of weathering. REFERENCES 1. Affendi, A., Ali, F.H. and Bujang, K.H. (1994a) Moisture- Suction Variation in Partially Saturated Granitic Residual Soil. Regional Conference in Geotechnical Engineering 1994 (GEOTROPIKA 94), Melaka. 2. Affendi, A., Chandrasegaran, S. and Ali, F.H. (1994b) Triaxial Shear Tests on Partially Saturated Undisturbed Residual Soil. Regional Conference in Geotechnical Engineering 1994 (GEOTROPIKA 94), Melaka. 3. Ahmed, F., A., Yahaya, A. S. and Farooqi, M. A.(2006) Characterization and Geotechnical Properties of Penang Residual Soils with Emphasis on Landslides. American Journal of Environmental Sciences 2 (4): Ali, F.H. (1990) Improvement of Residual Soils. Proceedings of Tenth Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, 1990, Taipei Anuar, K. and Ali, F.H. (1997) Reinforced Modular Block Wall With Residual Soils as Backfill Material. Proceeding of 4th Regional Conference in Geotechnical Engineering (GEOTROPIKA 97), Johor Balasubramaniam, A.S., D.T. Bergado and C. Sivandran, (1985) Engineering behavior of soil in Southeast Asia. In Balasubramaniam et al. (Ed.) Geotechnical Engineering in Southeast Asia. A commemorative volume of the Southeast Asian Geotechnical Society. 7. Brand, E.W. (1982) Analysis and Design in Residual Soils. Proceedings of the Conference on Engineering and Construction in Tropical and Residual Soils. ASCE, Honolulu, Hawai Bressani, L.A. and Vaughan, P.R. (1989) Proceeding of Conference on Damage to Soil Structure During Triaxial Testing., Rio di Jeniero. 9. Cernica, John N. (1995) Geotechnical engineering: soil mechanics. University of California, Wiley. 10. Chan, S.F. and Chin, F.K., (1972) Engineering Characteristics of the Soils along the Federal Highway in Kuala Lumpur. Proceeding 3rd Southeast Asian Conference on Soil Engineering, (1972) Hong Kong

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