Chart of Nuclides and the Production of Elements With Atomic Number Greater Than Iron s
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1 Chart of Nuclides and the Production of Elements With Atomic Number Greater Than Iron s At this point, we know how elements smaller than iron are produced in the core of a healthy star. Specifically: Small elements with relatively large mass-per-nucleon counts are forced together to make larger elements that have smaller massper-nucleon counts. In the process, the lost mass is turned into pure energy via E = mc 2. 1.)
2 The cut-off for this process is supposed to be iron. To fuse small elements into LARGER THAN iron elements would require a massper-nucleon count to go UP via E = mc 2. For this to happen, energy would not be given off--it would have to be taken in. The temptation is to assume that the process to make elements at the elements larger than iron end of the spectrum was just like the process to make elements at the elements smaller than iron end, the only difference being that at the higher end you d need something like a supernova to provide the needed energy to complete the fusion process. It turns out that that is not how larger elements are produced during supernovas. 2.)
3 Why not? The amount of pressure required to force just two protons together to get fusion is enormous (remember, 10,000,000 degrees Kelvin and a billion atmospheres of pressure). Even with quantum mechanical tunneling active, the energies required for a proton to overcome the electrostatic repulsion produced by a proton-rich nucleus of, say, zinc, is considerably greater than the particle energies generated during supernovas. By extension, the electrostatic repulsion generated in an attempt to push two protonrich zinc nuclei together via fusion is even less likely. So how are the larger elements created? Note 1: Supernovas produce enormous numbers of free neutrons. Being without charge, neutrons can effortlessly couple with already existing atoms experiencing no repulsion in the process. 3.)
4 Note 2: Although they are primarily made up of hydrogen and helium, all second and third generation stars have within them the same elements we find on earth. Sooo, when a supernova blows, a lot of the small, medium and large elements in the star become neutron rich (that is, they have way more neutrons than they d normally have). As a consequence, each element will end up with numerous radioactive isotopes--versions of themselves with more neutrons than are needed for stability. Sooner or later, the unstable ones radioactively decay via beta emission (remember, beta emission is produced when a neutron decays into a proton with an electron being ejected as a high energy particle. 4.)
5 So let s follow one such particle. When the beta decay occurs, the element moves one element up on the Periodic Table (that is, it now has one more proton in its nucleus). It is now a new element with way too many neutrons still in its nucleus to be stable. Sooner or later, one of the extra neutrons will beta decay and the element becomes the next higher element atomic number wise (again, it now has one more proton than it had before). If the new element is still unstable, sooner or later the new element will have another of its extra neutrons beta decay making the particle into yet the next higher element. This process will go on until the element produced is stable. At that point, the process stops. This is called the r-process (the r stands for rapid --supernovas happen in about a second). This is the mechanism that creates larger element during a supernova. 5.)
6 There is another similar process called the s-process (the s stands for slow ) in which a free neutron can attach itself to an element during the course of a star s life (that is, way before the star supernovas), then beta decays making that element into the next element up. This mechanism occurs very slowly in stars taking, maybe, several million years to occur to a particular atom (if at all). The presence of this mechanism produces, though, an interesting phenomenon. It turns out that there are elements that were generated in first generation stars that were LARGER than iron (atomic number 26) and were not produced as a consequence of the star s death. Those elements are strontium (atomic number 38), yttrium (atomic number 39), zirconium (atomic number 40), barium (atomic number 56), lanthanum (atomic number 57), and europium (atomic number 63). 6.)
7 From Google Pictures, the Periodic Table shows the elements greater than iron that are produced slowly in stars. 7.)
8 Here is an example of the process. Below is a chart of nuclides with the number of neutrons increasing by one as you proceed right. 8.)
9 Let s track a single iridium atom with 208 nuclides. Pb 207 Pb 208 Pb 209 Pb 210 Pb 211 Pb 212 Pb 213 Pb 214 Pb x10 9 y Ti 206 Ti 207 Ti 208 Ti 209 Ti 210 Ti 21 Ti 212 Ti 213 Ti m Hg 205 Hg 206 Hg 207 Hg 208 Hg 209 Hg 210 Hg 211 Hg 212 Hg m Au 204 Au 205 Au 206 Au 207 Au 208 Au 209 Au 210 Au 211 Au s Pt 203 Pt 204 Pt 205 Pt 206 Pt 207 Pt 208 Pt 209 Pt 210 Pt s Ir 202 Ir 203 Ir 204 Ir 205 Ir 206 Ir 207 Ir 208 Ir 209 Ir s 9.)
10 After.208 seconds, the iridium will beta decay into platnum 208 with one less neutron, jumping as shown on the neutron chart below. Pb 207 Pb 208 Pb 209 Pb 210 Pb 211 Pb 212 Pb 213 Pb 214 Pb x10 9 y Ti 206 Ti 207 Ti 208 Ti 209 Ti 210 Ti 21 Ti 212 Ti 213 Ti m Hg 205 Hg 206 Hg 207 Hg 208 Hg 209 Hg 210 Hg 211 Hg 212 Hg m Au 204 Au 205 Au 206 Au 207 Au 208 Au 209 Au 210 Au 211 Au s Pt 203 Pt 204 Pt 205 Pt 206 Pt 207 Pt 208 Pt 209 Pt 210 Pt s e Ir 202 Ir 203 Ir 204 Ir 205 Ir 206 Ir 207 Ir s Ir 209 Ir )
11 After.302 seconds, the platnum will beta decay into gold 208 with one less neutron, jumping as shown on the neutron chart below. Pb 207 Pb 208 Pb 209 Pb 210 Pb 211 Pb 212 Pb 213 Pb 214 Pb x10 9 y Ti 206 Ti 207 Ti 208 Ti 209 Ti 210 Ti 21 Ti 212 Ti 213 Ti m Hg 205 Hg 206 Hg 207 Hg 208 Hg 209 Hg 210 Hg 211 Hg 212 Hg m Au 204 Au 205 Au 206 Au 207 Au 208 Au 209 Au 210 Au 211 Au s e Pt 203 Pt 204 Pt 205 Pt 206 Pt 207 Pt 209 Pt 210 Pt 208 Pt 211 Ir 202 Ir 203 Ir 204 Ir 205 Ir 206 Ir 207 Ir 208 Ir 209 Ir s.208 s 11.)
12 After 1.29 seconds, the gold will beta decay into mercury 208 with one less neutron, jumping as shown on the neutron chart below. Pb 207 Pb 208 Pb 209 Pb 210 Pb 211 Pb 212 Pb 213 Pb 214 Pb x10 9 y Ti 206 Ti 207 Ti 208 Ti 209 Ti 210 Ti 21 Ti 212 Ti 213 Ti m Hg 205 Hg 206 Hg 207 Hg 208 Hg 209 Hg 210 Hg 211 Hg 212 Hg m e Au 204 Au 205 Au 206 Au 207 Au 209 Au 210 Au 211 Au 212 Au s Pt 203 Pt 204 Pt 205 Pt 206 Pt 207 Pt 208 Pt 209 Pt 210 Pt 211 Ir 202 Ir 203 Ir 204 Ir 205 Ir 206 Ir 207 Ir 208 Ir 209 Ir s.208 s 12.)
13 After 41 minutes, the mercury will beta decay into titanium 208 with one less neutron, jumping as shown on the neutron chart below. Pb 207 Pb 208 Pb 209 Pb 210 Pb 211 Pb 212 Pb 213 Pb 214 Pb x10 9 y Ti 206 Ti 207 Ti 208 Ti 209 Ti 210 Ti 21 Ti 212 Ti 213 Ti m e Hg 205 Hg 206 Hg 207 Hg 209 Hg 210 Hg 211 Hg 212 Hg 213 Hg m Au 204 Au 205 Au 206 Au 207 Au 208 Au 209 Au 210 Au 211 Au s Pt 203 Pt 204 Pt 205 Pt 206 Pt 207 Pt 208 Pt 209 Pt 210 Pt 211 Ir 202 Ir 203 Ir 204 Ir 205 Ir 206 Ir 207 Ir 208 Ir 209 Ir s.208 s 13.)
14 After minutes, the titanium will beta decay into lead 208 with one less neutron, jumping as shown on the neutron chart below. As lead 208 has a half life of 52,000,000 years, this is a stable atom and we ve just created a bigger atom from a smaller atom without using fusion. Pb 207 Pb 208 Pb 209 Pb x10 9 y Ti 206 Ti 207 Ti m Ti 209 Ti 210 Hg 205 Hg 206 Hg 207 Hg 208 Hg 209 Hg 210 e Pb 211 Pb 212 Pb 213 Pb 214 Pb 215 Ti 21 Ti 212 Ti 213 Ti 214 Hg 211 Hg 212 Hg 213 Au 204 Au 205 Au 206 Au 207 Au 208 Au 209 Au 210 Au 211 Au 212 Pt 203 Pt 204 Pt 205 Pt 206 Pt 207 Pt 208 Pt 209 Pt 210 Pt 211 Ir 202 Ir 203 Ir 204 Ir 205 Ir 206 Ir 207 Ir 208 Ir 209 Ir )
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