ANALYTICAL METHOD DEVELOPMENT FOR MEASUREMENT OF UNREGULATED ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS IN AQUEOUS SAMPLES USING

Transcription

1 ANALYTICAL METHOD DEVELOPMENT FOR MEASUREMENT OF UNREGULATED ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS IN AQUEOUS SAMPLES USING LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY TANDEM MASS SPECTROMETRY by MIN K. YOON A Dissertation submitted to the Graduate School-New Brunswick Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program in Environmental Science written under the direction of Brian T. Buckley and approved by New Brunswick, New Jersey May, 2010

2 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Analytical Method Development for Measurement of Unregulated Organic Contaminants in Aqueous Samples using Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry By MIN K. YOON Dissertation Director: Brian T. Buckley Organic wastewater contaminants (OWCs) such as pharmaceuticals, hormones, and perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) are of growing environmental and public health concern. These OWCs were found in U.S. drinking water supplies according to nationwide studies by the U.S. Geological Survey. Many OWCs are not, however, regulated or routinely monitored in drinking water. The objective of this dissertation was to develop and optimize analytical methods for trace analysis of unregulated organic contaminants in drinking water sources. Furthermore, household water treatment-processes were studied to measure the efficacy of removal of these unregulated organic contaminants from drinking water samples. Two liquid chromatography-ion trap mass spectrometry systems (LC-IT-MS/MS) were compared for rapid, reliable and sensitive detection of the most abundant PFCs, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS). An ultra performance LC-linear IT-MS/MS achieved the lowest detection limits measured, 0.03pg ii

3 and 0.24pg for PFOA and PFOS respectively, which were approximately two orders of magnitude more sensitive than an LC-IT-MS/MS. With the increased sensitivity, the direct analysis of PFOA/S without solid phase extraction pre-concentration steps was also demonstrated. In addition, MS methods using Full Scan, Single Ion Monitoring, and MS/MS were compared and optimized for a sensitive analysis of PFCs. A novel rapid method was created by switching polarity for the simultaneous analysis of twenty unregulated compounds, including pharmaceuticals. Sensitive method detection limits were achieved in the range of sub ng/l to hundreds ng/l for all target compounds. An optimized analytical method was applied to quantify low ng/l levels of these target compounds in field water samples from regions throughout New Jersey. Eight target compounds were measured below 1µg/L and two target compounds (i.e. metformin and estradiol) were measured slightly above 1µg/L in the field water samples. Finally, granular activated carbon (GAC) and ion resin (Brita ) filtration, ozonation, and microwave heating were tested for efficacy at removing 20 target compounds in drinking water samples. The GAC/ion resin mechanism with adsorption properties demonstrated greater removal of the target compounds than the other two mechanisms. Even this water treatment-process only partially removed these target compounds with its mean removal of 66%. iii

4 Acknowledgement and/or Dedication I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Brian Buckley, Ph.D. Executive Director of Laboratories, Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute (EOHSI), Rutgers University. His wide knowledge and his logical way of thinking have been of great value for me. His understanding, encouraging and guidance have provided a good basis for the present thesis. I am deeply grateful to my thesis committee, Drs. Peter Strom, Ph.D., Mark Robson Ph.D. and Lee Lippincott, Ph.D. for their detailed and constructive comments and their thoughtful support. And I also wish to thank Drs. Eileen Murphy, Ph.D. from New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (NJ DEP) for detailed reviews and comments on this research work. I wish to express my warm and sincere thanks to my colleagues, Hilly Yang, Ph.D., Bozena Winnik, Ph.D., Elizabeth McCandlish, Ph.D. and Robert Stiles, Ph.D. who introduced me to the field and gave important guidance during my career in the field of research. And memorably, they have been such good friends, sisters and brothers during my graduate studies at EOHSI. Finally, I owe my loving thanks to my parents, Bo-hak and Yo-song Yoon, my grandmother, Jung-suk Kim, my brothers Young-sik and Choon-sik Yoon and my loving friend, Hyunmin Moon. Without their encouragement and understanding it would have been impossible for to finish this work. The financial support of NJ DEP and NIEHS were gratefully acknowledged. I offer my regards and blessings to all of those who supported me in any respect during the completion of the work. iv

5 Table of Contents Abstract.. ii Acknowledgement. iv List of Tables..... ix List of Figures..... x Chapter 1 - A Review of Emerging Unregulated Organic Contaminants; Human and Veterinary Drugs, Hormones and Perfluorinated Compounds Found in Drinking Water Resources Background States Geological Survey (USGS) investigation Source Water Assessment Program (SWAP) Occurrence, fate and transport of OWCs Risk Assessment of target compounds in drinking water Target Compounds of Interest Prescription and non-prescription drugs Steroid hormones Antibiotics Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) Analytical Methodology Sample preparation Previous analytical methods: GC-MS Current analytical methods: LC-MS Background Contaminations and Matrix Effects Water Treatment Process for Target OWC (Pharmaceuticals) Removal v

6 1.5.1 Activated carbon/brita filtration Oxidation process Microwave water-process References.. 23 Chapter 2 - A Comparison of Two Optimized Liquid-Chromatography-Ion Trap Mass Spectrometry Methods for Quantification of Perfluorooctanoic acid and Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid, Towards a Direct Analysis Method for Field Water Samples Abstract Introduction Experimental Standards and reagents SPE Sample preparation HPLC-MS (LCQ) UPLC-MS/MS (LTQ) Blanks, quality control and calibration Field water samples Results and Discussion Optimization of SPE columns HPLC MS optimizations UPLC-MS/MS adaptations MS optimizations by FS, SIM and MS/MS Sensitivity using LOD, LOQ and MDL NJ Water sample analysis Conclusions. 64 vi

7 2.6 References Chapter 3 - Method Development for Measurement of 20 Unregulated Compounds (Pharmaceuticals, Hormones, Perfluorinated Compounds) in Drinking Water Samples using LC-MS/MS in a rapid switching of ESI modes Abstract Introduction Experimental Materials Solid-phase extraction Liquid chromatography (LC) Mass spectrometry (MS) Validation and application of the method Statistical analysis Results and Discussion SPE Sample preparation HPLC-MS/MS method Selection of HPLC column Mobile phase optimization Development/optimization of MS/MS method Development of ESI-ITMS method for rapid polarity switching Method performance evaluation Method detection limits (MDLs) Field water samples from New Jersey Conclusions. 97 vii

8 3.6 References Chapter 4 - Household drinking water treatment processes for removal of 20 unregulated organic contaminants: Brita filtration (GAC/ion resin), ozonation and microwave heating system Abstract Introduction Experimental Materials and specifications Sampling: water treatment process Solid phase extraction LC-MS/MS analysis Data analysis Statistical analysis Results and Discussion Percent removal calculation Efficiency of granular activated carbon and ion exchange resins Efficiency of ozonation Efficiency of microwave heating system Target compounds of least removal Statistical Analysis Conclusions References. 135 Implications and Conclusions Curriculum Vita viii

9 List of tables Table 1.1 Twenty Compounds of interest Table 2.1 PFOA and PFOS calibration for FS, SIM, MS/MS method. 72 Table 2.2 Limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ) and method detection limit (MDL) for PFOA and PFOS 73 Table 2.3 Method Comparison using field water samples Table 2.4 Field Water Samples using SPE-UPLC-MS/MS Table 3.1 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for factorial combinations of extraction efficiency. 106 Table 3.2 Comparison of different elution conditions: %Recovery (%RSD; n=3) Table 3.3 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for elution conditions (groups) Table 3.4 ESI-MS/MS conditions: Precursor & product ions (SRM transition) for 20 target compounds Table 3.5 Analytical Detection Limits (DL) and Method detection limits (MDL) Table 3.6 Field water samples from New Jersey (1) Table 3.6 Field water samples from New Jersey (2) Table 4.1 Physiochemical properties of 20 target compounds: MW, log Kow and pka Table 4.2 Percent removal and percent relative standard deviation of 20 target compounds in tested water-processes (in alphabetical order). 154 Table 4.3 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for comparing tested water processes Table 4.4 Paired t-test for ibuprofen Table 4.5 Paired t-test for GAC/ion resin system Table 4.6 Paired t-test for ozonation system Table 4.7 Paired t-test for microwave system. 159 ix

10 List of illustrations Figure 1.1 Environmental pathways of drinking water contamination from human and veterinary drugs 35 Figure 1.2 Typical analytical procedures for the analysis of target OWCs (pharmaceuticals) in aqueous samples Figure 2.1 Extraction efficiencies (+%RSD) using popular commercial SPE cartridges Figure 2.2 Extracted ion chromatogram demonstrating an increase in signal intensity with increased ammonium acetate (2mM) content 70 Figure 2.3 Comparison of PFOS response factors for different MS methods for concentration of 15 to 3000 pg. 71 Figure 3.1 Percent recoveries using acidified methanol (MeOH + ), dichloromethane (DCM), and acetone elution solvents Figure 3.2 Comparison in different compositions of sample diluent: cimetidine (top) and codeine (bottom). 103 Figure 3.3 Single ion monitoring (top) vs. selected reaction monitoring (middle/bottom) using equivalent precursor ions of 315 m/z (ranitidine and progesterone). 104 Figure 3.4 Target ion traces of 20 standard mixture in ESI +/- modes Figure 4.1 Removal efficiencies of Brita for 20 target compounds (in alphabetical order) Figure 4.2 Percent removal by GAC/ion resins vs. MW 139 Figure 4.3 A relationship of percent removal by GAC/ion resins vs. excluding estradiol Figure 4.4 Percent removal by GAC/ion resins vs. Log Kow 141 Figure 4.5 A relationship of percent removal by GAC/ion reins vs. log Kow at higher removal rates Figure 4.6 Percent removal by GAC/ion resins vs. pka excluding testosterone and progesterone 143 Figure 4.7 Percent removal for GAC/ion resins vs. pka ( 10) x

11 Figure 4.8 Removal efficiencies of ozonation for 20 target compounds (in alphabetical order) Figure 4.9 Percent removal by ozonation vs. MW Figure 4.10 Percent removal by ozonation vs. log Kow. 147 Figure 4.11 A relationship of percent removal by ozonation vs. pka ( 10) excluding potential outliners 148 Figure 4.12 Removal efficiencies of microwave for 20 target compounds (in alphabetical order) Figure 4.13 Percent removal by microwave vs. MW Figure 4.14 Percent removal by microwave vs. log Kow Figure 4.15 Percent removal by microwave vs. pka xi

12 1 Chapter 1 - A Review of Emerging Unregulated Organic Contaminants; Human and Veterinary Drugs, Hormones and Perfluorinated Compounds Found in Drinking Water Resources 1.1 Background United States Geological Survey (USGS) investigation The United States Geological Survey (USGS) conducted the first nationwide investigation of the occurrence of pharmaceuticals, hormones, and other organic wastewater contaminants (OWCs) in U.S. water resources. The study demonstrated that 80% of 139 streams across 30 states had detectable concentrations of OWCs during a 1999 and 2000 sampling period. 1 Among the 95 OWCs selected, the majority do not have regulatory based allowable guidelines for concentrations in drinking water. Over 170 of the organic compounds with EPA drinking water standards or health advisories for levels in potable water supplies; no pharmaceuticals are currently included. 2 In this USGS study, five analytical methods employing gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC- MS) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) were created to measure concentrations of these OWCs. The GC-MS methods were used to detect semi volatile and volatile pollutants including pesticides. Measurement of drinking water contaminants initially quantified by USGS was shown using a solid phase microextraction (SPME) and GC-MS method. 3 In addition to GC methods, broad classes of non-volatile compounds were quantified using LC-MS methods Source Water Assessment Program (SWAP) Under the Safe Drinking Water Act by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), a source water assessment program (SWAP) was created to provide basic information about the drinking water in each public water system. The

13 2 three main source water assessment steps were outlined as follows: 1) delineate the source water assessment area, 2) conduct an inventory of potential sources of contamination and 3) determine the susceptibility of the water to contamination. 4 The state SWAP guidance was documented in an EPA report: 816-R on August, More than 30 states providing the SWAP or similar programs included Arizona, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. The SWAP may differ by state since each program is adapted to a state s water resources and drinking water priorities. Major states SWAP plans and reports can be reviewed on-line linked to an EPA website Occurrence, fate and transport of OWCs Groundwater is one of the major sources of water for processing to drinking water. Approximately 40% of the nation s public water supplies are from groundwater and more than 40 million people, mainly rural populations, supply their own drinking water via domestic wells. 7 Another more recent USGS study documented the detection of OWCs in 81% of the groundwater sites sampled across 18 states. 8 Generally, broad classes of OWCs were detected in the groundwater samples: insect repellent, plasticizers and detergent metabolites were most frequently detected classes of OWCs followed by pharmaceuticals. The results also showed that the number of compounds detected significantly decreased as a well s depth increased. 8 This suggested a potential for groundwater contamination through leaching from landfills and other surface/leaching

14 3 phenomena. 9 In addition, wellheads were previously reported as the sources of organic contaminants due to shallow seals and gravel packs. 10 The OWCs were generally detected more frequently in surface water samples than in groundwater. Numerous studies found contaminants such as surfactants, 1, 8, 11 pharmaceuticals, steroids and other OWCs in untreated drinking water sources. The five most frequently detected OWCs in surface water were cholesterol (59%, natural sterol), metolachlor (53%, herbicide), cotinine (51%, nicotine metabolite), ß-sitosterol (37%, natural plant sterol), and 1, 7-dimethylxanthine (27%, caffeine metabolite). However, the five most frequently detected OWCs in ground water included tetrachloroethylene (24%, solvent), carbamazepine (20%, pharmaceutical), bisphenol-a (24%,plasticizer ), 1,7-dimethylxanthine (16%, caffeine metabolite), and tri (2- chloroethyl) phosphate (12%, fire retardant) , 13, 14 This phenomenon has not been limited to the United States. Several municipal wastewater and raw waters used for drinking water production in Western Europe were contaminated with various household and industrial chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and personal care products: benzotriazoles, benzothiazole-2-sulfonate, diclofenac and carbamazepine showed mean concentrations of 1-10µg/L. 14 In the greater Dublin area, 15 pharmaceutical compounds found in influent and effluent samples from three wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) were measured with salicylic acid and ibuprofen being the most abundant. 15 Similarly, 13 pharmaceutical compounds were found in WWTP influent and effluent from different locations in Spain and Croatia: acetaminophen, atenolol, mevastatin, trimethoprim, and ibuprofen at higher

15 4 concentrations of µg/l. 16 A secondary observation was that some OWCs were very seasonally dependent. 17 The direct discharge of wastewater effluent was proposed to be one direct pathway of OWCs into surface water 13, 18 in addition to other environmental fate and transport processes (i.e. sorption and biodegradation). 19, 20 Kasprzyk-Hordern et al. 13 showed the impact of factors such as surrounding area, proximity to wastewater effluent and weather conditions, which can affect the concentrations of pharmaceuticals, and personal care products (PPCPs), endocrine disruptors and illicit drugs in surface water. The average daily load of PPCPs was calculated to be approximately 6 kg, which were discharged daily into rivers. 13 Sorption and bio-degradation followed by photodegradation and hydrolysis were measured for the predominant fate processes for pharmaceuticals. 19 The neutral and ionic properties of the target particles drove the sorption process mechanisms of the pharmaceuticals. 19 A recent study 20 measured the loss of pharmaceuticals but did not find a major loss from sorption during the transport of estuarine surface water. Instead, microbial degradation was found to be the principal loss with rates that varied as the relative persistence of pharmaceuticals varied from one compound to another within a single water treatment system. The six most labile compounds included nicotine (t 1/2 = days), acetaminophen (t 1/2 = days), fluoxetine (t 1/2 = days), diltiazem (t 1/2 = days), nifedipine (t 1/2 = days), and caffeine (t 1/2 always >40 days). However other pharmaceutical compounds including salbutamol, antipyrine, cotinine, sulfamethoxazole, carbamazepine, and trimethoprim were shown to be the least labile with their t 1/2 always greater than 40 days. 20 Kasprzyk-Hordern 13 also determined some PPCPs (e.g., erythromycine-h 2 O,

16 5 codeine, carbamazepine, gabapentin and valsartan) were both ubiquitous and persistent in the aqueous environment. Relative degradation rates for those pharmaceuticals were still slower than other small biomolecules, such as glucose and amino acids. This suggested that many OWCs, especially pharmaceuticals and endocrine disrupting compounds were significantly more recalcitrant to microbial degradation than similarly sized small biomoleucules. 20 Along with the biodegradation mechanism, photodegradation is another source of loss in the fate and transport mechanism of PPCPs in environment. Previous studies showed fast photodegradation for certain pharmaceuticals including: ranitidine, sulfamethoxazole, diclofenac, ofloxacin and propranolol with t 1/2 of 0.6, 2.4, 5.0, 10.6, 16.8 days, respectively. 21, 22 Other pharmaceuticals, cimetidine, carbamazepine and clofibric acid, however, showed strong resistance to photodegradation. The bio- and photo- degradation processes were suggested as key mechanisms for loss of the target OWCs, which should be considered when tracing organic contaminants from their source. In addition, it is also essential in the understanding removal studies that showed precursor compounds transformed to altered forms of degradation products. 23 For the transport of OWCs to drinking water sources, a variety of animal and human uses as well as waste sources were identified as routes to water contamination. Figure 1.1 was created to show environmental pathways for drinking water contamination from human and veterinary drugs based on previous studies. It is a 12, 19, 24 composite derived from other published fate studies. Several studies demonstrated that outdated medicines or their remains are being flushed down household drains along with drugs and their metabolites from excreted human waste. Bound and Voulvoulis 12

17 6 suggested the significant pathways of pharmaceutical aquatic contamination are from disposal of domestic household waste. Similarly, Kümmerer 19 included animal husbandry and fruit production when they described the occurrence, fate, and transport of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment. It was also noted that pharmaceutical compounds disposed of as household waste may end up at landfill sites where they enter the landfill effluent, transport to soil and eventually cause groundwater contamination. 12, 19, 24 In a recent study, waste-indicator and pharmaceutical compounds were detected in leachate-contaminated ground water. The contaminants included acetaminophen, caffeine, cotinine, 1, 7-dimethylxanthine, fluoxetine, and ibuprofen found in four wells downgradient from a landfill in Indiana. 25 Kinney et al. 24 have measured maximum and minimum (detectable) concentrations of pharmaceuticals at the lowest depth of sampled soil suggesting interactions of soil components with pharmaceuticals during leaching. For veterinary pharmaceuticals, direct contamination of soil via manure and surface or ground water contamination by runoff from agricultural fields was thought to be more 26, 27 prevalent. Hirsch et al. showed however, that drinking water source contamination from veterinary applications was relatively less prevalent than was previously expected Risk Assessment of target compounds in drinking water It is difficult to perform risk assessments and determine health effects for many OWCs since the concentration of pharmaceuticals in drinking waters were very low (ng/l) compared to their levels in medical doses. A risk assessment of pharmaceuticals in both the U.S. and the European Union was not initially addressed under a marketing 29, 30 authorization but, unintended human exposure to pharmaceutical compounds, hormones and perfluorinated compounds caused alarm since many have been found in

18 7 drinking water supplies. The key scientific concerns in performing a toxicological risk assessment of adverse health effects were reviewed as follows. Previously, environmental factors (e.g., fate, transport, and removal) were often lacking in risk assessments. Schulman et al. 31 showed a chemical-specific risk assessment on four pharmaceutical compounds: acetylsalicylic acid (analgesic), clofibrate (lipid regulator), cyclophosphamide (cytotoxic/anticancer) and indomethacin (antiinflammatory). The levels measured for these pharmaceuticals in aquatic media were believed to be below safe limits. 31 Similarly, Jones et al. 32 estimated no significant risk in an aquatic environmental assessment of the top 25 English prescription pharmaceuticals using a model to predict environmental concentrations. Schwab s mathematical model also predicted no effect concentrations of pharmaceuticals using acceptable daily intakes based on US EPA s no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) for active pharmaceutical ingredients. 33 The assumptions were made for low river flow and no depletion, which did not model metabolism, removal and degradation. However, factors such as sorption, metabolism, degradation and transformation of these organic contaminants were rather significant 20, 23 and should be considered in any practical model from environmental fate/transport. In addition, a majority of these risk assessment studies were done using their measured concentrations and detection frequencies were based on European data. Only a couple of studies of human health risk assessment from 33, 34 the U.S. using pharmaceuticals found in drinking water sources were performed. This area needs further work. Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) are used for many important manufacturing and industrial applications including paper production, textile manufacturing, leather

19 8 treatment, surfactant additives, coatings manufacture, and firefighting foams and equipment production. They were recently studied for their human risk assessment from drinking water contamination. The most abundant PFCs, PFOA and PFOS (PFOA/S) were ubiquitously found in human blood and wildlife throughout the world. 35 Notably, PFOA/S do not degrade in the environment, persist in the human body, and cause adverse health effects. PFOA has been declared as a likely carcinogen by a USEPA Science Advisory Board review panel. 2 Recently, the USEPA set a Provisional Short-Term Health Advisory level of 0.4 µg/l and 0.2 µg/l for PFOA and PFOS, respectively in drinking water (US EPA, 2009). In addition, a drinking water guidance level protective of lifetime exposure of 0.04 µg/l was advised based on a published US EPA risk assessment. 36 One of the biggest concerns from risk assessment studies was the bioaccumulation and subsequent chronic health effects from OWCs for some pharmaceuticals and perfluorinated compounds that persist and do not easily degrade in 19, 35 the environment. The bioaccumulation is likely to cause a chronic poisoning from repeated exposure even at a trace level of toxic contaminant over a long period of time. 37 This is especially true for drinking water exposure since people drink water daily over their life time. Little is known, however, about the chronic effects of OWCs (e.g., pharmaceuticals) and their end points. Estrogenicity is one of the most evaluated effects, but no reports of life-cycle effects were generated for any compounds with the exception 38, 39, 40, 41, 42 of ethynil-estradiol. Estrogenicity studies demonstrated a high risk factor reported as EC 50 value of 1ng/L using a molecular marker of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Chronic effects of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs,

20 9 acetylsalicylic acid and diclofenac have also been reported: Renal lesions were observed at 5 µg/l in humans 43 and 1µg/L for sub-cellular effects. 44 An exposure to β-blockers (propranolol) showed reduced reproduction in Ceriodaphnia dubia at 250 μg/l and in Hyalella azteca at 100 μg/l. 45 In addition, β blockers consist of selective and nonselective blockers; however, the specific receptors can act as non-selective blocking receptors, where the toxicity and risk assessment are of concern. 46 Overall, each risk assessment was mainly dependent on the amount of substance consumed, degradation, and toxicity (acute and/or chronic). 23 In addition, ecotoxicological effects from bio- 23, 47 accumulation were also reported. One of the biggest challenges in the risk assessments for daily consumption of these OWCs was that they generally occur as mixtures of compounds, with a median of four compounds and a maximum of 31 compounds per site. 11 Previously, a study of mixtures of drinking water contaminants was recommended using VOCs, pesticides and nitrates in the United States stream water. 48 However, the current emerging unregulated organic contaminants are not yet considered in mixture effects and have to be assessed as a mixture for adverse health effects from drinking water contamination. 48, 49 Risk assessments and evaluations of toxicological effects of compound mixtures are difficult to perform; compounds can easily degrade or transform into compounds that can be more 23, 50 toxic than their precursor. A previous study showed increased estrogenicities measured from the concentrations of estrogenic compounds in water samples, which suggests the presence of unknown estrogenic compounds and/or additive effects of mixtures at low concentrations. 51 Similarly Hernando et al. showed toxic effects even at low concentration levels (ng/l or µg/l) of pharmaceutical compounds and/or their

21 10 metabolites including antibiotics and steroids. 52 Therefore, mixture effects as well as the accumulation of degradation compounds make an overall risk assessment difficult based solely on studies that report only measured concentrations of target analytes. 1.2 Target Compounds of Interest More and more OWCs have been recognized as new, emerging contaminants with environmental impact. 53 For drinking waters, uses including pharmaceuticals, antibiotics, steroid hormones and PFCs have been identified as in need of characterization as unregulated drinking water contaminants. Table 1.1 shows a list of twenty target compounds as well as their chemical structure and nomenclature Prescription and non-prescription drugs Prescription and non-prescription drugs were selected based on a list of OWCs by USGS. Notably, the antidiabetic drug, metformin had the worldwide highest production number and was found in concentrations in the range of several 100 ng/l in sewage and surface waters in Germany. 54 Beta-blockers and anti-ulcer agents were among other therapeutic classes that have been frequently found in wastewater and surface water. Atenolol, metoprolol, propranolol, sotalol and ranitidine were the previously measured beta blockers and ulcer treatment drugs in influent and effluent wastewater. 46 Beta (β) blockers bind to β-adrenergic receptors and block activation by physiological agonists so they are used for treatment of hypertension, angina and other disorders of the cardiovascular system. The selective blocking receptor albuterol was chosen as a beta-2 adrenergic agent according to USGS selection. 1 The most frequently detected anti-ulcer drugs, cimetidine and ranitidine were also selected for this study. Their degradation products were also examined since the histamine H2-receptor antagonists were

22 11 susceptible to photochemical degradation. 21 β-blockers and anti-ulcer drugs were generally challenging analytically in their analysis due to their amine functionalities and basic sites on the molecules. 46 The non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, ibuprofen, which inhabits synthesis and release of prostaglandins via COX, was found in the environment as one of the more prevalent drugs. 23 It was also selected for this work. Overall, 14 of the selected compounds were prescription and non-prescription drugs, chosen based on the USGS study. These drugs included a broad therapeutic class of antidiabetic agent (Glucophage ), analgesic (Tylenol ) Beta2 Adrenergic agent, central nerve stimulant, antiulcer (Zantac ), anticoagulants, antidepressant, antianginal/antihypertensive (calcium channel blocker), and lipid regulating agent (cholesterol lowering). The detailed list of target compounds with their therapeutic classes was provided in Table Steroid hormones Hormones first became a focus of pharmaceuticals in the environment during the 1970s; however, scientific interest and public awareness grew in the mid nineties with interest in endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). 19 EDCs can be of either natural or synthetic origin and have the ability to interfere with the normal functioning of the 55, 56 endocrine system. Estradiol was widely studied because of its prevalence in drinking 57, 58 water sources at the lower ng/l-range. In addition, steroid hormones, testosterone and progesterone were selected based on USGS findings Antibiotics Another important group that has frequently been measured is antibiotics. In addition to growth hormones, antibiotics were often discovered in the run-off from

23 12 livestock facilities. 46 The concentrations in surface water and effluent from STPs were commonly found in ng/l-µg/l ranges. An increasing concern with antibiotics was the bacterial resistance to antibiotics and disinfectants that started to be detected in waste, surface, and ground water as well as sediment and soils. 19 Segura et al. 59 expressed concerns due to their potential contribution to the spread of antibiotic resistance in bacteria evaluated as potential environmental concerns. For this work, antibiotic chlortetracycline was selected for a further investigation in drinking water samples Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) are used for many important manufacturing and industrial applications including paper production, textile manufacturing, leather treatment, surfactant additives, coatings manufacture, and firefighting foams and equipment production. Most notably, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) has been used as a processing aid in the manufacture of Teflon. According to a previous study done in NJ public drinking water systems, 65% of the systems found PFOA at concentrations ranging from to 0.039µg/L. 36 Higher PFOA concentrations ranging 1.78 to 4.3 and from 0.4 to 3.9 µg/l were found in Little Hocking, Ohio and Lubeck, West Virginia, respectively. 60 For this work, PFOA and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) were selected as the most abundant PFCs with potential adverse health effects. 1.3 Analytical Methodology An increasing number of studies and laboratories have started to analyze pharmaceuticals, antibiotics, steroid hormones and perfluorinated compounds found in environmental samples. However, it is difficult to compare and/or evaluate their concentrations across the globe without standard analytical methods. For instance, it was

24 13 difficult to determine whether the improvement in sensitivity and reliability is due to different analytical techniques or true differences in measurements. In this work, the current analytical methodologies for trace analysis of pharmaceuticals, hormones and PFCs were reviewed for potential variability and improvement Sample preparation Environmental water concentrations of organic wastewater contaminants (OWCs) mainly, pharmaceuticals, antibiotics, steroid hormones, and PFCs were typically found at trace levels of ng/l-µg/l. 61 These levels of target compounds often require extraction and concentration prior to instrumental analysis. Solid phase extraction (SPE) is one of the most widely used sample preparation techniques for environmental aqueous samples. Although liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) is traditionally used, SPE was determined to be a preferable alternative to LLE because both clean-up and extraction are performed simultaneously. Principally in SPE, an aqueous sample is passed through an SPE sorbent and based on the analyte s affinity for the sorbent will either be retained or passed through the sorbent. SPE cartridges packed with reversed phase material (alkyl-modified silica and polymer based) were often used to extract pharmaceutical compounds. 62 In this work, Yoon et al. 63 examined several different types of reversed-phase SPE cartridges demonstrating good recoveries for PFOA and PFOS. A mixed mode material with reverse phase properties was also used as the optimal SPE sorbent for the broad range of 46, 62, 64, 65 pharmaceuticals and other OWCs. A mixed mode- reverse phase SPE sorbent (Oasis HLB by Waters, Milford, MA) showed the highest recoveries even without ph 16, 66, 67 adjustment. In a few studies, a mixed cation-exchange sorbent (Oasis MCX) was selected to be used at acidic ph (1.5-2) for extraction of acidic, basic and neutral

25 14 compounds since the cation exchanger binds the basic compounds in the ionized form 64, 68 and the reversed phase can retain acidic and neutral compounds. Oasis MCX sorbents showed overall less extraction efficiency than HLB sorbents and often required a ph adjustment. 61 Solid phase microextraction (SPME) was also a good alternative to SPE in analysis of environmental water samples. SPME is based on the partition equilibrium of the analyte between the samples and a sorbent and has the benefit of being a solvent-free and one-step extraction technique. 69 In previous work, an SPME method was optimized to increase the extractable number of drinking water contaminants and reduce sample preparation steps, time, and cost as well as sample volume. 3 However, no great success was reported for optimal detections of target OWCs including pharmaceuticals with SPME, suggesting SPME procedures are still limited in scope of method manipulation because there is a limited choice of sorbent coatings on the market for selectivity of various analyte properties Previous analytical methods: GC-MS Previously, a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used to determine semi-volatile organic compounds in various environmental samples (e.g. soil, air, water) in an enhancement of EPA method The GC-MS method was also able to detect pesticides including organochlorine pesticides, organophosphorus pesticides, and nitrogen containing pesticides as well as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and 3, 71 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Few earlier studies used GC-MS methods to determine pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) with applicability, 65, 70 sensitivity and cost-effectiveness in environmental laboratories. For analysis of PPCPs, DB5, DB5 MS or HP5 MS GC columns (Agilent Technology, Palo Alto, CA,

26 15 USA) of a 30 m x 0.25 mm x 0.25 µm size was generally used in GC. Helium was used as a carrier gas and 1-3 µl extracts were injected into GC using split/splitless injector. GC temperature was generally programmed in the range of ºC with a typical run time of min. 65, 72 However, these GC-MS methods were not directly applicable to non-volatile (e.g., majority of pharmaceuticals) and thermally liable compounds (e.g. certain perfluorinated compounds), which required derivatization prior to GC analysis. 70 Figure 1.2 was created based on previous reviews by Pietrogrande and Basaglia 70 and Fatta et al., 64 which described typical analytical procedures for analysis of OWCs mainly pharmaceuticals in aqueous samples. For the detection of these broad ranges of target compounds, the derivatization technique seemed time consuming and insufficient due to various physical and chemical properties of these compounds that may be affected. A previous study showed side-reactions that were observed under different derivatization conditions Current analytical methods: LC-MS Despite the merit of GC procedures, liquid chromatography (LC) showed more widespread applicability. It has been one of the most reliable methods to analyze pharmaceuticals, personal care products and other organic compounds from 61, 62, 65 environmental matrices. LC separations are achieved based on mobile phase solvents and stationary phase column with the necessary analytes retention. In order to improve separation, various characteristics of the LC column s properties, and the composition for aqueous and organic mobile phase, including their ph/buffering conditions were developed and optimized. Recently, ultra performance LC (UPLC) was introduced for separating organic pollutants with its use of a high pressure system with a

27 16 sub-2 µm particle size column. The UPLC methods offered improvements in sensitivity 74, 75, 76 and low volume samples in analysis of pharmaceutical residue in water samples. Based on PFOA/S analysis, UPLC methods showed more than 2 fold- improved sensitivity over conventional HPLC methods. 63 LC procedures were often coupled with various conventional detectors such as UV, fluorescence and mass spectrometry (MS) for qualitative and quantitative analysis. Camacho-Muñoz et al. 61 showed the simultaneous determination of 16 of the most common pharmaceutical compounds in influent and effluent wastewater and surface water using HPLC with diode array and fluorescence detectors. However, UV and fluorescence methods still require a secondary detector (e.g., MS) for accurate determination of target analytes as well as for confirmation purposes. 77 On the other hand, a LC-MS with an atmospheric pressure ionization source has gained great popularity because of its applicability and compatibility for the broad characteristics of 64, 65, 78 pharmaceuticals and other OWCs. Electrospray (ESI) ionization has been widely used as an interface between an LC and an MS. Another soft ionization technique, atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) was previously studied for pharmaceuticals although relatively few analyses were done with APCI as compared to ESI. 79 While APCI as the ion source is believed to be less sensitive to matrix effects, Zhao and Metcalf 80 showed a signal enhancement in neutral pharmaceuticals using APCI suggesting it may still be required to eliminate and/or compensate for matrix effects. The decision between positive or negative mode for the selection of ESI or APCI is generally made by their chemical properties (e.g. acidic/basic) while amphoteric compounds and nitrogen and oxygen

28 17 containing compounds were typically ionized effectively in either mode. The eluant composition and extracted sample matrix may also affect the final decision of whether ESI or APCI in positive or negative mode is to be used. 79 Depending upon the ionization mode/condition, fragmentation patterns may be different due to the functional elements of a molecule that stabilize a positive or a negative charge. Switching between positive and negative ion mode within one analytical run was performed with an ESI interface 81, 82, 83 showing improvements for the multi-residue (class) analysis. Recently, a method for determination of five pharmaceuticals with ESI using polarity (+/-) switching was introduced. 84 The switching polarity was therefore examined for simultaneous determination of 20 OWCs in this work. An ion trap-ms technique has also been optimized with its unique ability to acquire full-scan mass spectra using MS 2 and MS n for target OWCs. The sensitivities in different IT-MS methods (i.e. full scan, selected ion monitoring and MS 2 ) were compared in the analysis of PFOA and PFOS. 63 A single-stage quadrupole MS was not generally considered adequate for the detection of trace levels of OWCs. 79 A triple-quadrupole and ion-trap mass spectrometers were preferred for sensitive drinking water analysis. More sensitive and reliable analysis for pharmaceuticals and other OWCs are currently done using a quadrupole-linear ion trap MS and time-of- flight. 85 With the advent of a new linear IT instrument (LTQ, Thermo Fisher), an enhanced instrumental detection performance was compared with a previous IT instrument (LCQ, Thermo Fisher). 63 In IT methods, MS 2 data using data-depending scanning (DDS) was advantageous especially with the identification of unknown degradation products found in some pharmaceutical compounds. The usage of DDS in LC-MS 2 produced clean product ion mass spectra

29 18 without prior knowledge of the precursor ion. 86 However, a potential drawback of DDS was a loss of sensitivity in the quantification analysis because non-targeted MS/MS spectra were competing with each other. In this work, details of LC, ESI and MS conditions were addressed for target OWCs in environmental water samples according to their own physical and chemical properties as well as experimental trial and error. Also the potential degradation products of pharmaceuticals (e.g. cimetidine, ranitidine) were identified using DDS. 1.4 Background Contaminations and Matrix Effects The current analytical methods using SPE and LC-MS/MS are continuously being optimized to lower the detection limits of target analytes. 87 The perfluorinated compounds (PFOA and PFOS) require detection at trace levels since these compounds were often found in low part per trillion concentrations in drinking water samples 90, 91, 92, 93, 94. PFOA and PFOS were also detected in blank water samples for these 36, 88, 89, potential reasons: 1) PFOA and PFOS are persistent and abundant in many industrial and consumer products including laboratory materials made up with PTFE. 95, 96 2) They are major by-products and/or end-products of perfluorinated compounds and resist 95, 96 degradation via oxidation, hydrolysis, or reduction under biotic and abiotic condition 3) Lower detection limits allow detection both in environmental and laboratory contaminants. A previous study also showed the detection of procedural and instrumental contamination from PFOA and PFOS. 97 The sources of these background contaminants were identified as coming from: reagent solvents, SPE cartridges, liners, and tubing and HPLC instrument parts. The optimized methods however avoid background contaminations with PFOA/S by eliminating the SPE steps. 63

30 19 The matrix effects are another challenge. They may affect ionization performance and result in an erroneous quantification by LC-MS. Co-extracted materials or even coeluted target compounds that interfered with the ionization of a target analyte were often observed. 79 Recommendations for reducing matrix effects included using various extraction protocols with selective conditions, but are not always possible due to the broad range of target analytes with different physicochemical properties. 64 Other recommendations included using a lower flow rate, but at a loss of extraction efficiency. 98, Water Treatment Process for Target OWC (Pharmaceuticals) Removal Unfortunately, the majority of OWCs are not effectively eliminated or decreased by current wastewater treatment prior to becoming drinking water supply source. 11 Particularly, OWCs in surface- and groundwater are transported and delivered to our domestic tap water without complete removals. 100 Great efforts at removing OWCs are being done at stages of wastewater treatment plants but the elimination of these OWCs 18, 57, 72 prior to becoming drinking water are not yet achieved. Two pharmaceuticals; ibuprofen and diclofenac with the highest and lowest percent removal of 92% + 8% and 26% + 17%, respectively, via several wastewater treatment plants in Finland 101 were reported. Previously, aerobic treatment using activated sludge showed the most favorable wastewater treatment for some pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) mainly anti-inflammatories and antibiotics. 57 The overall removal efficiencies of anti-inflammatory and the antibiotic sulfamethoxazole were reported at % and 60%, respectively. 57 This study showed that the pre-treatment and primary sedimentation steps were not effective removal

31 20 methods for the PPCPs. 57 Instead, degradation and adsorption of contaminants onto activated sludge were suggested as two main mechanisms for contaminant removal. 57 Similarly, removal of tetracyclines (antibiotics) was previously reported at a high of 80-85% removal by different activated sludges. 102 Ozonation, however, did not affect the removal efficiencies of PPCPs during anaerobic digestion in sludge. 103 Overall, removal studies showed a general agreement with removal of PPCPs (i.e., antibiotics and antiinflammatories) achieved more effectively with activated sludge or/and oxidation ditches than with other treatments including biological filters (e.g., trickling filter bed) or reed 18, 72 beds. More recent removal studies proposed advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) for the removal of residual pharmaceuticals from aqueous systems. 104 Yang et al. introduced a microwave enhanced Fenton- process to treat high concentration pharmaceutical wastewater. 105 Similarly, a degradation mechanism with mild solar photo-fenton and TiO 2 was studied for OWCs including pharmaceuticals at low concentrations. 106 Photo- Fenton was by far more effective than TiO 2 for degrading acetaminophen, antipyrine, atrazine, caffeine, diclofenac, isoproturon, progesterone, sulfamethoxazole, and triclosan. However, the drawback of the photo-fenton was observed with a formation of radical scavengers such as carbonate species (CO 2-3 and HCO - 3 ) that compete with organic contaminants for hydroxyl radical reactions and decrease the degradation efficiencies. Although there are fewer numbers of drinking water treatment steps than of wastewater treatment, Ternes et al. investigated filtration with granular activated carbon (GAC) and ozonation (0.5-3 mg/l) for the major elimination of pharmaceuticals in treatment of a drinking water. 107

32 21 Potential removal methods for target OWCs and their adaptations toward domestic household systems were studied in this work Activated carbon/brita filtration Granular activated carbon (GAC) filtration was primarily studied as one of the most effective system in removing pharmaceuticals. 107 GAC adsorbs many organic pollutants in which concentrations of adsorbed contaminants equilibrate with concentrations in influent in the liquid-phase. 108 The packed-bed granular activated carbon (GAC) was previously recognized as a Best Available Technology for treating numerous organic pollutants by U.S. EPA. Westerhoff et al. 108 showed substantial removal of endocrine-disruptors, and pharmaceuticals and personal care products (EDC/PPCPs) using powder activated carbon (PAC) and/or ozone systems. Octanolwater partition coefficients served as a reasonable indicator for removal. The exception was also reported with EDC/PPCPs in protonated or deprotonated forms at tested ph conditions as well as heterocyclic or aromatic nitrogen containing compounds (caffeine, pentoxifylline). 108 Brita is a well known household water filtration system using by activated carbon and ion exchange resin. The water filter system in Brita is comprised of a cartridge with a mix of a weakly acidic exchange resin and a silverized granular activated charcoal. 109 Based on manufacture recommendations and previous studies, it reduced lead, copper, mercury, cadmium, and toxicity from metals, and chlorine, which 109, 110 also improved water s taste and odor. Overall, Brita filtration was selected as a good candidate to test for the reduction/removal of OWCs in domestic household systems.

33 Oxidation process While biological wastewater treatment showed insufficient removal of pharmaceuticals, advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) were on the other hand, recommended to treat pharmaceutical wastewater samples. 105 One of the most widely distributed AOPs was photolysis that uses the interaction between artificial or natural light and the target molecules. 104 Unfortunately, PFOA and PFOS have the strongest carbon-fluoride bonds in organic chemistry and theoretically were not subject to 35, 96 photolysis. Fenton s oxidation or Fenton-like reactions that mainly are used for chemical oxidation demand (COD) removal, and UV 254 photolysis was previously 104, 105 suggested to remove pharmaceuticals in surface water and industrial effluents. One of drawbacks of this treatment included a need for dissolved ions to be recovered from the treated solution, requiring an additional procedure. 106 Ozonation on the other hand, was another AOP that was a good candidate to treat OWCs. Fundamentally, ozone is a strong oxidant process that either decomposes in water to form stronger oxidizing agents than ozone (i.e. hydroxyl radical) or reacts selectively with certain functional groups of 104, 111, 112, 113 target molecules through an electrophilic mechanism. Based on these mechanisms, EDC/PPCPs showed transformation to oxidative byproducts. Steroids containing phenolic moieties (e.g. estradiol) were oxidized more efficiently with ozone than those without aromatic or phenolic moieties. 108 The major removal mechanism for two pharmaceuticals, gemfibrozil and ibuprofen, was previously observed with ozonation. 108 Therefore ozonation was another mechanism for treating the target OWCs of pharmaceuticals, antibiotics, steroid hormones and PFCs.

34 Microwave water-process A potential alternative and affordable treatment process for degrading OWCs is the household microwave oven. Microwave ovens use microwaves for dielectric heating. Microwaves have been increasing used in organic synthesis due to the innovative heating mechanism compared with conventional heating. 114 Unlike conventional heating, dielectric heating (microwave) does not rely on heat-transfer, rather the electrical field exists in the body of the sample surface, which allows energy to be rapidly transferred beyond the samples surface. 105 Microwave ovens were suggested for enhancing the degradation efficiency of high concentration pharmaceutical wastewater. 105 The microwave coupled AOP (MW/H 2 O 2 -AOP) treatment was also suggested with enhanced efficiency. 115 Notably, the usage of microwave ovens in domestic households were very high as the total number of consumer ovens in the U.S. was well over 100 million and the world total was estimated to be over 250 million. 116 The household microwave oven is therefore examined as a portable, effective and economic method for the potential removals of precursor OWCs by degradation efficacy. 1.6 References [1] Kolpin, D. W.; Furlong, E. T.; Meyer, M. T.; Thurman, E. M.; Zaugg, S. D.; Barber, L. B.; Buxton, H. T. Pharmaceuticals, hormones, and other organic wastewater contaminants in U.S. streams, : a national reconnaissance Environ.Sci.Technol. 2002, 36, [2] EPA Science Advisory Board Panel Report on PFOA, May [3] Stiles, R.; Yang, I.; Lippincott, R. L.; Murphy, E.; Buckley, B. Measurement of Drinking Water Contaminants by Solid Phase Microextraction Initially Quantified in Source Water Samples by the USGS Environmental Science & Technology. 2008, 42,

35 24 [4] EPA. Source Water Assessments; [5] EPA. State Source Water Assessment and Protection Programs Final Guidance; filter&document_type_id= , EPA 816-R [6] EPA. State Drinking Water Protection Web Sites Links; [7] Alley, W. M.; Reilly, T. L.; Franke, O. H. Sustainability of Ground-Water Resources U.S. Geological Survey Circular , [8] Barnes, K. K.; Kolpin, D. W.; Furlong, E. T.; Zaugg, S. D.; Meyer, M. T.; Barber, L. B. A national reconnaissance of pharmaceuticals and other organic wastewater contaminants in the United States I) Groundwater Sci.Total Environ. 2008, 402, [9] Kolpin, D. W.; Goolsby, D. A.; Thurman, E. M. Pesticides in near-surface aquifers: An assessment using highly sensitive analytical methods and tritium Journal of Environmental Quality. 1995, 24, [10] Christenson, S. Ground-water quality assessment of the Central Oklahoma aquifer: summary of investigations. In: Christenson JS, Scott, Havens, editors. Ground-water quality assessment of the Central Oklahoma aquifer, Oklahoma: Results of investigations: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 2357-A, 179 pp. 1998, 2357-A [11] Focazio, M. J.; Kolpin, D. W.; Barnes, K. K.; Furlong, E. T.; Meyer, M. T.; Zaugg, S. D.; Barber, L. B.; Thurman, M. E. A national reconnaissance for pharmaceuticals and other organic wastewater contaminants in the United States II) Untreated drinking water sources Sci.Total Environ. 2008, 402, [12] Bound, J. P.; Voulvoulis, N. Household disposal of pharmaceuticals as a pathway for aquatic contamination in the United kingdom Environ.Health Perspect. 2005, 113, [13] Kasprzyk-Hordern, B.; Dinsdale, R. M.; Guwy, A. J. The occurrence of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, endocrine disruptors and illicit drugs in surface water in South Wales, UK Water Res. 2008, 42, [14] Reemtsma, T.; Weiss, S.; Mueller, J.; Petrovic, M.; Gonzalez, S.; Barcelo, D.; Ventura, F.; Knepper, T. P. Polar pollutants entry into the water cycle by municipal wastewater: a European perspective Environ.Sci.Technol. 2006, 40,

36 25 [15] Lacey, C.; McMahon, G.; Bones, J.; Barron, L.; Morrissey, A.; Tobin, J. M. An LC MS method for the determination of pharmaceutical compounds in wastewater treatment plant influent and effluent samples Talanta. 2008, 75, [16] Petrovic, M.; Gros, M.; Barcelo, D. Multi-residue analysis of pharmaceuticals in wastewater by ultra-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry Journal of Chromatography A. 2006, 1124, [17] Loraine, G. A.; Pettigrove, M. E. Seasonal variations in concentrations of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in drinking water and reclaimed wastewater in southern California Environ.Sci.Technol. 2006, 40, [18] Kasprzyk-Hordern, B.; Dinsdale, R. M.; Guwy, A. J. The removal of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, endocrine disruptors and illicit drugs during wastewater treatment and its impact on the quality of receiving waters Water Res. 2009, 43, [19] Kummerer, K. Resistance in the environment J.Antimicrob.Chemother. 2004, 54, [20] Benotti, M. J.; Brownawell, B. J. Microbial degradation of pharmaceuticals in estuarine and coastal seawater Environmental Pollution. 2009, 157, [21] Latch, D. E.; Stender, B. L.; Packer, J. L.; Arnold, W. A.; McNeill, K. Photochemical fate of pharmaceuticals in the environment: cimetidine and ranitidine Environ.Sci.Technol. 2003, 37, [22] Andreozzi, R.; Raffaele, M.; Nicklas, P. Pharmaceuticals in STP effluents and their solar photodegradation in aquatic environment Chemosphere. 2003, 50, [23] Farré, M. l.; Pérez, S.; Kantiani, L.; Barceló, D. Fate and toxicity of emerging pollutants, their metabolites and transformation products in the aquatic environment TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry. 2008, 27, [24] Kinney, C. A.; Furlong, E. T.; Werner, S. L.; Cahill, J. D. Presence and distribution of wastewater-derived pharmaceuticals in soil irrigated with reclaimed water Environ.Toxicol.Chem. 2006, 25, [25] Buszka, P. M.; Yeskis, D. J.; Kolpin, D. W.; Furlong, E. T.; Zaugg, S. D.; Meyer, M. T. Waste-indicator and pharmaceutical compounds in landfill-leachate-affected ground water near Elkhart, Indiana, Bull.Environ.Contam.Toxicol. 2009, 82, [26] Khetan, S. K.; Collins, T. J. Human Pharmaceuticals in the Aquatic Environment: A Challenge to Green Chemistry Chem. Rev. 2007,

37 26 [27] Halling-Sørensen, B.; Nors Nielsen, S.; Lanzky, P. F.; Ingerslev, F.; Holten Lützhøft, H. C.; Jørgensen, S. E. Occurrence, fate and effects of pharmaceutical substances in the environment- A review Chemosphere. 1998, 36, [28] Hirsch, R.; Ternes, T.; Haberer, K.; Kratz, K. Occurrence of antibiotics in the aquatic environment Sci.Total Environ. 1999, 225, [29] FDA-CDER, Guidance for Industry-Environmental Assessment of Human Drugs and Biologics Applications. July 1998 CMC6 Revision 1. FDA Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Rockville (MD), USA; [30] CPMP, Draft discussion paper on environmental risk assessment of nongenetically modified (non-gmo) containing, medicinal products for human use. Committee for Proprietary Medicinal Products (CPMP), European Medicines Evaluation Agency (EMEA), London [31] Schulman, L. J.; Sargent, E. V.; Naumann, B. D.; Faria, E. C.; Dolan, D. G.; Wargo, J. P. A Human Health Risk Assessment of Pharmaceuticals in the Aquatic Environment Human & Ecological Risk Assessment. 2002, 8, 657. [32] Jones, O. A. H.; Voulvoulis, N.; Lester, J. N. Aquatic environmental assessment of the top 25 English prescription pharmaceuticals Water Res. 2002, 36, [33] Schwab, B. W.; Hayes, E. P.; Fiori, J. M.; Mastrocco, F. J.; Roden, N. M.; Cragin, D.; Meyerhoff, R. D.; D Aco, V. J.; Anderson, P. D. Human pharmaceuticals in US surface waters: A human health risk assessment Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. 2005, 42, [34] Cunningham, V. L.; Binks, S. P.; Olson, M. J. Human health risk assessment from the presence of human pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. 2009, 53, [35] Lau, C.; Anitole, K.; Hodes, C.; Lai, D.; Pfahles-Hutchens, A.; Seed, J. Perfluoroalkyl Acids: A Review of Monitoring and Toxicological Findings Toxicol.Sci. 2007, 99, [36] Post, G.; Louis, J.; Cooper, K.; Boros-Russo, B.; Lippincott, L. Occurrence and Potential Significance of Perfluorooctanoic Acids (PFOA) Detected in New Jeresey Public Drinking Water Systems Environ.Sci.Technol. 2009, 43, [37] Tashjian, D. H.; Teh, S. J.; Sogomonyan, A.; Hung, S. S. Bioaccumulation and chronic toxicity of dietary L-selenomethionine in juvenile white sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) Aquat.Toxicol. 2006, 79,

38 27 [38] Cevasco, A.; Urbatzka, R.; Bottero, S.; Massari, A.; Pedemonte, F.; Kloas, W.; Mandich, A. Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDC) with (anti)estrogenic and (anti)androgenic modes of action affecting reproductive biology of Xenopus laevis: II. Effects on gonad histomorphology Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Toxicology & Pharmacology. 2008, 147, [39] Hogan, N. S.; Duarte, P.; Wade, M. G.; Lean, D. R. S.; Trudeau, V. L. Estrogenic exposure affects metamorphosis and alters sex ratios in the northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens): Identifying critically vulnerable periods of development Gen.Comp.Endocrinol. 2008, 156, [40] Ekman, D. R.; Teng, Q.; Villeneuve, D. L.; Kahl, M. D.; Jensen, K. M.; Durhan, E. J.; Ankley, G. T.; Collette, T. W. Investigating Compensation and Recovery of Fathead Minnow (Pimephales promelas) Exposed to 17α-Ethynylestradiol with Metabolite Profiling Environ.Sci.Technol. 2008, [41] Parrott, J. L.; Blunt, B. R. Life-cycle exposure of fathead minnows (<I>Pimephales promelas</i>) to an ethinylestradiol concentration below 1 ng/l reduces egg fertilization success and demasculinizes males Environmental Toxicology. 2005, 20, [42] Länge, R.; Hutchinson, T. H.; Croudace, C. P.; Siegmund, F.; Schweinfurth, H.; Hampe, P.; Panter, G. H.; Sumpter, J. P. Effects of the synthetic estrogen 17αethinylestradiol on the life-cycle of the fathead minnow (pimephales promelas) Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 2001, 20, [43] Schlesinger, N. Management of Acute and Chronic Gouty Arthritis Drugs. 2004, 64, [44]Triebskorn, R.; Casper, H.; Heyd, A.; Eikemper, R.; Köhler, H. -.; Schwaiger, J. Toxic effects of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac: Part II. Cytological effects in liver, kidney, gills and intestine of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Aquatic Toxicology. 2004, 68, [45] Huggett, D. B.; Brooks, B. W.; Peterson, B.; Foran, C. M.; Schlenk, D. Toxicity of Select Beta Adrenergic Receptor-Blocking Pharmaceuticals (B-Blockers) on Aquatic Organisms Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 2002, 43, [46] Hernando, M. D.; Gómez, M. J.; Agüera, A.; Fernández-Alba, A. R. LC-MS analysis of basic pharmaceuticals (beta-blockers and anti-ulcer agents) in wastewater and surface water TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry. 2007, 26, [47] Fent, K.; Weston, A. A.; Caminada, D. Ecotoxicology of human pharmaceuticals Aquatic Toxicology. 2006, 76,

39 28 [48] Squillace, P. J.; Scott, J. C.; Moran, M. J.; Nolan, B. T.; Kolpin, D. W. VOCs, pesticides, nitrate, and their mixtures in groundwater used for drinking water in the United States Environ.Sci.Technol. 2002, 36, [49] Cleuvers, M. Mixture toxicity of the anti-inflammatory drugs diclofenac, ibuprofen, naproxen, and acetylsalicylic acid Ecotoxicol.Environ.Saf. 2004, 59, [50] Della Greca, M.; Fiorentino, A.; Iesce, M. R.; Isidori, M.; Nardelli, A.; Previtera, L.; Temussi, F. Identification of phototransformation products of prednisone by sunlight: Toxicity of the drug and its derivatives on aquatic organisms Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2003, 22, [51] Yu, C.; Chu, K. Occurrence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products along the West Prong Little Pigeon River in east Tennessee, USA Chemosphere. 2009, 75, [52] Hernando, M. D.; Mezcua, M.; Fernández-Alba, A. R.; Barceló, D. Environmental risk assessment of pharmaceutical residues in wastewater effluents, surface waters and sediments Talanta. 2006, 69, [53] Richardson, S. D. Water Analysis: Emerging Contaminants and Current Issues Anal. Chem. 2007, [54] Scheurer, M.; Sacher, F.; Brauch, H. J. Occurrence of the antidiabetic drug metformin in sewage and surface waters in Germany J.Environ.Monit. 2009, 11, [55] Beck, I. C.; Bruhn, R.; Gandrass, J.; Ruck, W. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of estrogenic compounds in coastal surface water of the Baltic Sea J.Chromatogr.A. 2005, 1090, [56] Beck, I. C.; Bruhn, R.; Gandrass, J. Analysis of estrogenic activity in coastal surface waters of the Baltic Sea using the yeast estrogen screen Chemosphere. 2006, 63, [57] Carballa, M.; Omil, F.; Lema, J. M.; Llompart, M.; García-Jares, C.; Rodríguez, I.; Gómez, M.; Ternes, T. Behavior of pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and hormones in a sewage treatment plant Water Res. 2004, 38, [58] Ternes, T. A.; Stumpf, M.; Mueller, J.; Haberer, K.; Wilken, R. -.; Servos, M. Behavior and occurrence of estrogens in municipal sewage treatment plants I. Investigations in Germany, Canada and Brazil Sci.Total Environ. 1999, 225, [59] Segura, P. A.; Francois, M.; Gagnon, C.; Sauve, S. Review of the occurrence of antiinfectives in contaminated wastewaters and natural and drinking waters Environ.Health Perspect. 2009, 117,

40 29 [60] Anderson-Mahoney, P.; Kotlerman, J.; Takhar, H.; Gray, D.; Dahlgren, J. Selfreported health effects among community residents exposed to perfluorooctanoate New Solutions. 2008, 18, [61] Camacho-Munoz, D.; Martin, J.; Santos, J. L.; Aparicio, I.; Alonso, E. An affordable method for the simultaneous determination of the most studied pharmaceutical compounds as wastewater and surface water pollutants J.Sep.Sci. 2009, 32, [62] Buchberger, W. W. Novel analytical procedures for screening of drug residues in water, waste water, sediment and sludge Anal.Chim.Acta. 2007, 593, [63] Yoon, M.; Lippincott, L.; Winnik, B.; Murphy E.; Buckley, B. A Comparison of Two Optimized Liquid-Chromatography-Ion Trap Mass Spectrometry Methods for Quantification of Perfluorooctanoic acid and Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid, Towards a Direct Analysis Method for Field Water Samples. Submitted to Journal of Separation Science Manuscript ID: jssc [64] Fatta, D.; Achilleos, A.; Nikolaou, A.; Meriç, S. Analytical methods for tracing pharmaceutical residues in water and wastewater TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry. 2007, 26, [65] Hao, C.; Zhao, X.; Yang, P. GC-MS and HPLC-MS analysis of bioactive pharmaceuticals and personal-care products in environmental matrices TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry. 2007, 26, [66] Gómez, M. J.; Petrović, M.; Fernández-Alba, A. R.; Barceló, D. Determination of pharmaceuticals of various therapeutic classes by solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry analysis in hospital effluent wastewaters Journal of Chromatography A. 2006, 1114, [67] Gros, M.; Petrovic, M.; Barcelo, D. Development of a multi-residue analytical methodology based on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for screening and trace level determination of pharmaceuticals in surface and wastewaters Talanta. 2006, 70, [68] Castiglioni, S.; Bagnati, R.; Calamari, D.; Fanelli, R.; Zuccato, E. A multiresidue analytical method using solid-phase extraction and high-pressure liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry to measure pharmaceuticals of different therapeutic classes in urban wastewaters Journal of Chromatography A. 2005, 1092, [69] J. Pawliszyn. Solid Phase Microextraction - Theory and Practice, ed.; Wiley- VCH,:New York, USA; [70] Pietrogrande, M. C.; Basaglia, G. GC-MS analytical methods for the determination of personal-care products in water matrices TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry. 2007, 26,

41 30 [71] Stiles, R. Extraction strategies for the detection of semi volatile organic contaminants in ground and treated waters in New Jersey / by Robert Stiles. Physical descrip: xiii, 288 leaves : ill. ; 29 cm. Dissertation note: Thesis (Ph. D.)--Rutgers University, 2005, [72] Kanda, R.; Griffin, P.; James, H. A.; Fothergill, J. Pharmaceutical and personal care products in sewage treatment works J.Environ.Monit. 2003, 5, [73] Shareef, A.; Angove, M. J.; Wells, J. D. Optimization of silylation using N-methyl- N-(trimethylsilyl)-trifluoroacetamide, N,O-bis-(trimethylsilyl)-trifluoroacetamide and N- (tert-butyldimethylsilyl)-n-methyltrifluoroacetamide for the determination of the estrogens estrone and 17α-ethinylestradiol by gas chromatography mass spectrometry Journal of Chromatography A. 2006, 1108, [74] Kasprzyk-Hordern, B.; Dinsdale, R. M.; Guwy, A. J. The effect of signal suppression and mobile phase composition on the simultaneous analysis of multiple classes of acidic/neutral pharmaceuticals and personal care products in surface water by solid-phase extraction and ultra performance liquid chromatography-negative electrospray tandem mass spectrometry Talanta. 2008, 74, [75] Kasprzyk-Hordern, B.; Dinsdale, R. M.; Guwy, A. J. Multiresidue methods for the analysis of pharmaceuticals, personal care products and illicit drugs in surface water and wastewater by solid-phase extraction and ultra performance liquid chromatographyelectrospray tandem mass spectrometry Anal.Bioanal Chem. 2008, 391, [76] Kasprzyk-Hordern, B.; Dinsdale, R. M.; Guwy, A. J. Multi-residue method for the determination of basic/neutral pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs in surface water by solidphase extraction and ultra performance liquid chromatography positive electrospray ionisation tandem mass spectrometry Journal of Chromatography A. 2007, 1161, [77] Bones, J.; Thomas, K.; Nesterenko, P. N.; Paull, B. On-line preconcentration of pharmaceutical residues from large volume water samples using short reversed-phase monolithic cartridges coupled to LC-UV-ESI-MS Talanta. 2006, 70, [78] Pedrouzo, M.; Borrull, F.; Marcé, R. M.; Pocurull, E. Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry for determining the presence of eleven personal care products in surface and wastewaters Journal of Chromatography A. 2009, 1216, [79] Jekel, M. and Reemtsma, T.; Wiley-VCH:2006; pp [80] Zhao, X.; Metcalfe, C. D. Characterizing and Compensating for Matrix Effects Using Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Ionization Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry: Analysis of Neutral Pharmaceuticals in Municipal Wastewater Anal Chem. 2008, 80, 2010.

42 31 [81] Leandro, C. C.; Hancock, P.; Fussell, R. J.; Keely, B. J. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography for the determination of pesticide residues in foods by tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry with polarity switching Journal of Chromatography A. 2007, 1144, [82] Williams, J. P.; Lock, R.; Patel, V. J.; Scrivens, J. H. Polarity switching accurate mass measurement of pharmaceutical samples using desorption electrospray ionization and a dual ion source interfaced to an orthogonal acceleration time-of-flight mass spectrometer Anal.Chem. 2006, 78, [83] Tolonen, A.; Uusitalo, J. Fast screening method for the analysis of total flavonoid content in plants and foodstuffs by high-performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry with polarity switching Rapid Commun.Mass Spectrom. 2004, 18, [84] Garcia-Ac, A.; Segura, P. A.; Gagnon, C.; Sauve, S. Determination of bezafibrate, methotrexate, cyclophosphamide, orlistat and enalapril in waste and surface waters using on-line solid-phase extraction liquid chromatography coupled to polarity-switching electrospray tandem mass spectrometry J.Environ.Monit. 2009, 11, [85] María Jesús Martínez Bueno; Ana Agüera; María José Gómez; María Dolores Hernando; Juan Francisco García-Reyes; Amadeo R. Fernández-Alba. Application of Liquid Chromatography/Quadrupole-Linear Ion Trap Mass Spectrometry and Time-of- Flight Mass Spectrometry to the Determination of Pharmaceuticals and Related Contaminants in Wastewater Anal. Chem. 2007, 79, [86] Decaestecker, T. N.; Coopman, E. M.; Van Peteghem, C. H.; Van Bocxlaer, J. F. Suitability testing of commercial solid-phase extraction sorbents for sample clean-up in systematic toxicological analysis using liquid chromatography (tandem) mass spectrometry Journal of Chromatography B. 2003, 789, [87] Wise, S. A.; Barcelo, D.; Garrigues, P.; Turle, R. Advances in analytical techniques for environmental analysis Anal.Bioanal Chem. 2006, 386, [88] Nakayama, S.; Strynar, M. J.; Helfant, L.; Egeghy, P.; Ye, X.; Lindstrom, A. B. Perfluorinated compounds in the Cape Fear Drainage Basin in North Carolina Environ.Sci.Technol. 2007, 41, [89] Rostkowski, P.; Yamashita, N.; So, I. M.; Taniyasu, S.; Lam, P. K.; Falandysz, J.; Lee, K. T.; Kim, S. K.; Khim, J. S.; Im, S. H.; Newsted, J. L.; Jones, P. D.; Kannan, K.; Giesy, J. P. Perfluorinated compounds in streams of the Shihwa Industrial Zone and Lake Shihwa, South Korea Environ.Toxicol.Chem. 2006, 25, [90] Skutlarek, D.; Exner, M.; Farber, H. Perfluorinated surfactants in surface and drinking waters Environ.Sci.Pollut.Res.Int. 2006, 13,

43 32 [91] Loos, R.; Wollgast, J.; Huber, T.; Hanke, G. Polar herbicides, pharmaceutical products, perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), and nonylphenol and its carboxylates and ethoxylates in surface and tap waters around Lake Maggiore in Northern Italy Anal.Bioanal Chem. 2007, 387, [92] Orata, F.; Quinete, N.; Werres, F.; Wilken, R. D. Determination of perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonate in Lake Victoria Gulf water Bull.Environ.Contam.Toxicol. 2009, 82, [93] Takagi, S.; Adachi, F.; Miyano, K.; Koizumi, Y.; Tanaka, H.; Mimura, M.; Watanabe, I.; Tanabe, S.; Kannan, K. Perfluorooctanesulfonate and perfluorooctanoate in raw and treated tap water from Osaka, Japan Chemosphere. 2008, 72, [94] Ericson, I.; Nadal, M.; van Bavel, B.; Lindstrom, G.; Domingo, J. L. Levels of perfluorochemicals in water samples from Catalonia, Spain: is drinking water a significant contribution to human exposure? Environ.Sci.Pollut.Res.Int. 2008, 15, [95] Wallington, T. J.; Hurley, M. D.; Xia, J.; Wuebbles, D. J.; Sillman, S.; Ito, A.; Penner, J. E.; Ellis, D. A.; Martin, J.; Mabury, S. A.; Nielsen, O. J.; Sulbaek Andersen, M. P. Formation of C7F15COOH (PFOA) and other perfluorocarboxylic acids during the atmospheric oxidation of 8:2 fluorotelomer alcohol Environ.Sci.Technol. 2006, 40, [96] Ellis, D. A., Moody, C. A. and Mabury, S. A. In Nielson,A.; Springer- Verlag:Heidelberg, Germany, 2002; [97] Van Leeuwen, S. P. J.; Karrman, A.; Bavel, B. V.; Boer, J. D.; Lindstrom, G. Struggle for quality in determination of perfluorinated contaminants in environmental and human samples Environmental Science & Technology. 2006, 40, [98] Gangl, E. T.; Annan, M.; Spooner, N.; Vouros, P. Reduction of Signal Suppression Effects in ESI-MS Using a Nanosplitting Device Anal. Chem. 2001, 73, [99] Kloepfer, A.; Quintana, J. B.; Reemtsma, T. Operational options to reduce matrix effects in liquid chromatography electrospray ionisation-mass spectrometry analysis of aqueous environmental samples J. Chromatogr. A. 2005, 1067, [100] Stackelberg, P. E.; Furlong, E. T.; Meyer, M. T.; Zaugg, S. D.; Henderson, A. K.; Reissman, D. B. Persistence of pharmaceutical compounds and other organic wastewater contaminants in a conventional drinking-water-treatment plant Sci.Total Environ. 2004, 329, [101] Lindqvist, N.; Tuhkanen, T.; Kronberg, L. Occurrence of acidic pharmaceuticals in raw and treated sewages and in receiving waters Water Res. 2005, 39,

44 33 [102] Kim, S.; Eichhorn, P.; Jensen, J. N.; Weber, A. S.; Aga, D. S. Removal of antibiotics in wastewater: Effect of hydraulic and solid retention times on the fate of tetracycline in the activated sludge process Environ.Sci.Technol. 2005, 39, [103] Carballa, M.; Manterola, G.; Larrea, L.; Ternes, T.; Omil, F.; Lema, J. M. Influence of ozone pre-treatment on sludge anaerobic digestion: Removal of pharmaceutical and personal care products Chemosphere. 2007, 67, [104] Klavarioti, M.; Mantzavinos, D.; Kassinos, D. Removal of residual pharmaceuticals from aqueous systems by advanced oxidation processes Environ.Int. 2009, 35, [105] Yang, Y.; Wang, P.; Shi, S.; Liu, Y. Microwave enhanced Fenton-like process for the treatment of high concentration pharmaceutical wastewater J.Hazard.Mater. 2009, 168, [106] Klamerth, N.; Miranda, N.; Malato, S.; Agüera, A.; Fernández-Alba, A. R.; Maldonado, M. I.; Coronado, J. M. Degradation of emerging contaminants at low concentrations in MWTPs effluents with mild solar photo-fenton and TiO2 Catalysis Today. 2009, 144, [107] Ternes, T. A.; Meisenheimer, M.; McDowell, D.; Sacher, F.; Brauch, H. J.; Haist- Gulde, B.; Preuss, G.; Wilme, U.; Zulei-Seibert, N. Removal of pharmaceuticals during drinking water treatment Environ.Sci.Technol. 2002, 36, [108] Westerhoff, P.; Yoon, Y.; Snyder, S.; Wert, E. Fate of endocrine-disruptor, pharmaceutical, and personal care product chemicals during simulated drinking water treatment processes Environ.Sci.Technol. 2005, 39, [109] Gulson, B. L.; Sheehan, A.; Giblin, A. M.; Chiaradia, M.; Conradt, B. The efficiency of removal of lead and other elements from domestic drinking waters using a bench-top water filter system Sci.Total Environ. 1997, 196, [110] Brita User s guide; [111] Mantzavinos, D.; Psillakis, E. Enhancement of biodegradability of industrial wastewaters by chemical oxidation pre-treatment JCTB. 2004, 79, 431. [112] Dantas, R. F.; Canterino, M.; Marotta, R.; Sans, C.; Esplugas, S.; Andreozzi, R. Bezafibrate removal by means of ozonation: primary intermediates, kinetics, and toxicity assessment Water Res. 2007, 41, [113] Dantas, R. F.; Contreras, S.; Sans, C.; Esplugas, S. Sulfamethoxazole abatement by means of ozonation J.Hazard.Mater. 2008, 150,

45 34 [114] Nüchter, M.; Ondruschka, B.; Bonrath, W.; Gum, A. Microwave assisted synthesis a critical technology overview Green Chem. 2004, [115] Kenge, A. A.; Liao, P. H.; Lo, K. V. Factors affecting microwave-enhanced advanced oxidation process for sewage sludge treatment Journal of Environmental Science and Health. 2009, 44, [116] Osepchuk, J. M. Microwave Power Applications IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques. 2002, 50,

46 35 Figure 1.1 Environmental pathways of drinking water contamination from human and veterinary drugs Production vfdf Human drug/usage Body: metabolism Disposal Veterinary drug/usage: Animal husbandry Toilet Sink/toilet Household waste Pharmacy Manure WWTP Biological/chemical degradation Removed as sludge Biosolids spread on land Landfill Ground water Treated leachate discharged to rivers Soil River, creek Surface water Drinking water

47 36 Figure 1.2 Typical analytical procedures for the analysis of target OWCs (especially pharmaceuticals) in aqueous samples Filtration/preser vation (e.g. acidification) Extraction (LLE, SPE, SPME) Clean-up (solvent exchange, SPE) GC-MS GC-MS n Derivatization (on-line or off-line): methylation, silylation, pentafluorobenzylation LC-MS LC-MS n

48 37 Table 1.1 Twenty compounds of interest Target analytes Classification Mol. Mass (g/mol) Chemical formula Chemical structure Metformin Antidiabetic agent (e.g.glucophage) C 4 H 11 N 5 Albuterol Beta2 Adrenergic agent C 13 H 21 NO 3 Acetaminophen Analgesic (Tylenol) C 8 H 9 NO 2 Cimetidine Gastrointestinal agent C 10 H 16 N 6 S

49 38 Ranitidine Antiulcer (Zantac) C 13 H 22 N 4 O 3 S Codeine Analgesic C 18 H 21 NO 3 L-Cotinine Central Nervous System stimulant (a metabolite of nicotine) C 10 H 12 N 2 O

50 39 Methylphenidate CNS Agent C 14 H 19 NO 2 PFOS Perfluorinated chemical (fluorosurfactant) C 8 HF 17 O 3 S Caffeine CNS stimulant C 8 H 10 N 4 O 2

51 40 Fluoxetine Antidepressant C 17 H 18 F 3 NO Chlortetracycline Antibiotic * C 22 H 23 ClN 2 O 8 (CTC-HCl)

52 41 Cis-Diltiazem Antianginal; antihypertensive (calcium channel blocker) C 22 H 26 N 2 O 4 S PFOA Perfluorinated chemical (fluoropolymer) C 8 HF 15 O 2 Ibuprofen Anti-inflammatory (e.g. Advil) C 13 H 18 O 2

53 42 Warfarin Anticoagulant C 19 H 16 O 4 Testosterone Steroid hormone C 19 H 28 O 2 Gemfibrozil Lipid regulating agent (cholesterol lowering) C 15 H 22 O 3

54 43 Estradiol Steroid hormone; Endocrine and metabolic agent C 18 H 24 O 2 Progesterone Steroid hormone C 21 H 30 O 2