HSC CHEMISTRY. Marilyn Schell Margaret Hogan

Transcription

1 SC CEMISTRY Marilyn Schell Margaret ogan

2 2007 First published 2007 Reprinted 2007 (twice), 2008, 2009 Private Bag 7023 Marrickville NSW 1475 Australia Tel: (02) Fax: (02) All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of. ABN

3 Contents Introduction Verbs to Watch v vi Dot Points Production of Materials The Acidic Environment Chemical Monitoring and Management Industrial Chemistry Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation vii ix xi xiii xv Questions Production of Materials 1 The Acidic Environment 45 Chemical Monitoring and Management 101 Industrial Chemistry 157 Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation 207 Answers Production of Materials 251 The Acidic Environment 273 Chemical Monitoring and Management 299 Industrial Chemistry 325 Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation 345 Appendix Data Sheet 361 Periodic Table 362 Dot Point SC Chemistry iii Contents

4 Notes Contents iv Dot Point SC Chemistry

5 Introduction What the book includes syllabus for the following topics in the Year 12 Chemistry course: Also included are typical experimental results for students to analyse if the third column of the syllabus indicates Format of the book The book has been formatted in the following way: 1. Main topic statement (column 1 of syllabus) 1.1etc Syllabus requirement from columns 2 and worth in an examination. As a rough rule, every two lines of answer might be worth one mark. Note that in chemistry involved is worth only one mark. ow to use the book You may have done work in addition to this with your teacher as extension work. Obviously this is not covered, but you may need to know this additional work for your school exams. spend more time revising later, and allow you to spend your study time more productively. Dot Point SC Chemistry v Introduction

6 account/account for State reasons for, report on, give an account of, narrate a series of events or transactions. Verbs to Watch distinguish Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different from, note difference between things. analyse Identify components and the relationships among them, draw out and relate implications. apply Use, utilise, employ in a particular situation. appreciate Make a judgement about the value of something. assess results or size. calculate clarify Make clear or plain. classify Arrange into classes, groups or categories. compare Show how things are similar and different. construct Make, build, put together items or arguments. contrast Show how things are different or opposite. critically (analyse/evaluate) Add a degree or level of accuracy, depth, knowledge deduce Draw conclusions. demonstrate Show by example. describe Provide characteristics and features. discuss Identify issues and provide points for and against. evaluate Make a judgement based on criteria. examine explain Relate cause and effect, make the relationship between things evident, provide why and/or how. extract Choose relevant and/or appropriate details. extrapolate Infer from what is known. identify Recognise and name. interpret Draw meaning from. investigate justify Support an argument or conclusion. outline Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features. predict Suggest what may happen based on available data. propose Put forward (a point of view, idea, argument, suggestion etc) for consideration or action. recall Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences. recommend Provide reasons in favour. recount Retell a series of events. summarise Express concisely the relevant details. synthesise Put together various elements to make a whole. Verbs to Watch vi Dot Point SC Chemistry

7 Production of Materials Dot Point Page Dot Point Page 1. Energy and raw materials 2 from fossil fuels 1.1 Ethylene (ethene) from petroleum 2 Alkanes and alkenes with bromine water 1.4 Ethylene as a monomer Polymers, e.g. polyethylene Industrial production of polyethylene Modelling polymerisation Vinyl chloride and styrene as monomers Properties and uses of 9 polystyrene and PVC 2. Materials from biomass Products of the petrochemical industry Development and use of a biopolymer Condensation polymers Formation of condensation polymers Cellulose 14 a condensation polymer in biomass 2.6 Cellulose a source 15 of commercial polymers 3. Ethanol use and manufacture Dehydration of ethanol ydrolysis of ethylene Modelling the dehydration 18 and hydrolysis of ethylene 3.4 Industrial production 19 of ethanol from sugar cane 3.5 Ethanol as a solvent Ethanol as a fuel 20 a renewable resource 3.7 Naming alkanols 21 Molar heats of combustion of alkanols 3.9 Calculating molar heat of combustion Ethanol as a car fuel Ethanol as an alternative fuel 25 Fermentation of glucose 3.13 Conditions for fermentation Chemistry of fermentation Energy from redox reactions 27 difference of metals in an electrolyte 4.3 Displacement of metals from solution Activity of metals and displacement Oxidation states Redox reactions in galvanic cells Construction of galvanic cells Components of galvanic cells Calculations using the redox table Chemistry and uses of batteries compared Nuclear chemistry Stable and radioactive isotopes Recent discoveries of elements Production of transuranic elements Production of commercial radioisotopes Detection of radiation Radioisotopes in industry and medicine Radioisotopes uses and properties 42 Answers to Production of Materials 251 Dot Point SC Chemistry vii Production of Materials

8 Notes Production of Materials viii Dot Point SC Chemistry

9 The Acidic Environment Dot Point Page Dot Point Page 1. Indicators 46 Natural indicators 1.2 Indicators colour changes Prepared indicators Acidic, basic or neutral Acidity/basicity of household substances Uses of indicators Acidic oxides and the atmosphere Periodic Table and acidity of oxides Solubility of carbon dioxide Calculating gas volumes 56 Decarbonation of a soft drink 2.8 Natural and industrial sources of sulfur 59 dioxide and nitrogen oxides 2.9 Chemical reactions that release 60 SO 2 and NO X 2.10 Formation and effects of acid rain Evidence for changes in atmospheric 61 oxides of sulfur and nitrogen 2.12 Industrial origins of oxides 62 of sulfur and nitrogen 3. Acids and p 63 Using p meters or probes 3.2 Acids as proton donors Common acids Naturally occurring acids and bases The p scale Concentrated and dilute acids Strong and weak acids Modelling acids 68 molecular nature and ionisation 3.10 Calculation of p Strong and weak acids ionisation Strong and weak acids calculating p Acids as food additives Acid/base theories Using secondary sources Development of ideas about acids and 73 bases Lavoisier, Davy and Arrhenius 4.4 Conjugate acids and bases Conjugate acid/base pairs 76 p of salt solutions 4.7 Explaining p of salts Amphiprotic substances Neutralisation as a proton 79 transfer reaction of a domestic substance using 4.13 Neutralisation in accidents Buffers Alkanols and alkanoic acids Melting and boiling points of 95 alkanols and alkanoic acids 5.4 Naming esters Esters occurrence, production and uses Esters uses in foods and cosmetics 99 Answers to The Acidic Environment 273 Dot Point SC Chemistry ix The Acidic Environment

10 Notes The Acidic Environment x Dot Point SC Chemistry

11 Chemical Monitoring and Management Dot Point Page Dot Point Page 1. The work of chemists The work of chemists Chemists roles and 103 chemical principles used 1.3 Collaboration between chemists Monitoring a chemical reaction Monitoring in industry 107 the aber process 2.1 Industrial uses of ammonia Synthesis of ammonia Synthesis of ammonia Synthesis of ammonia 108 an exothermic reaction 2.5 Reaction rate and temperature 109 principle 2.7 The aber process and pressure The aber process a balancing act Development of the aber process The aber process and catalysts Monitoring the aber process Chemical analysis Monitoring ions in substances we use Deducing ions present from test results 119 content of lawn fertiliser 3.5 Analysing reliability of results Atomic absorption spectroscopy Interpreting data from AAS analysis Atmospheric chemistry and ozone Composition and layered 129 structure of the atmosphere 4.2 Atmospheric pollutants Ozone in the atmosphere Formation of coordinate covalent bonds Coordinate covalent bonds 132 and Lewis structures 4.6 Allotropes of oxygen Oxygen allotropes properties Isomers of haloalkanes Modelling haloalkanes CFCs and halons in the atmosphere Changes in atmospheric 139 ozone concentrations 4.12 Destruction of atmospheric ozone Problems associated with use of CFCs Replacements for CFCs Monitoring the water supply Ions in water Monitoring water for heavy metals 150 and eutrophication 5.5 The local water supply Effectiveness of water management 154 Answers to Chemical Monitoring and 299 Management Dot Point SC Chemistry xi Chemical Monitoring and Management

12 Notes Chemical Monitoring and Management xii Dot Point SC Chemistry

13 Industrial Chemistry Dot Point Page Dot Point Page 1. Resources and replacements A natural resource (not a fossil fuel) Shrinking world resources Equilibrium and the 161 equilibrium constant 2.3 Effects of changes on Sulfuric acid Industrial uses of sulfuric acid Sulfuric acid ionisation Safety using sulfuric acid Transport and storage of sulfuric acid Extraction of sulfur Indusrial production of sulfuric acid Reaction conditions 174 production of SO 2 and SO 3 production of SO 2 and SO Industrial production of 2 SO chemistry and output Reactions of 2 SO Reactions of 2 SO an oxidising and dehydrating agent 4. Sodium hydroxide 179 Electrolysis of sodium chloride sodium chloride 4.4 Industrial production of sodium 183 hydroxide by electrolysis 4.5 The mercury, diaphragm and 184 membrane processes Fats and oils to make soap 190 An emulsion, properties and uses Soap as an emulsion 5.7 Soap structure and cleaning action Soap as an emulsion Anionic, cationic and Soaps and synthetic detergents Environmental impacts of 196 soaps and detergents 6. The Solvay process The Solvay process raw materials Uses of sodium carbonate The Solvay process 199 steps and chemistry 6.4 The Solvay process 201 environmental issues The Solvay process 6.6 Calculations involving 202 the Solvay process 6.7 Location of a chemical plant using 204 the Solvay process Answers to Industrial Chemistry 325 Dot Point SC Chemistry xiii Industrial Chemistry

14 Notes Industrial Chemistry xiv Dot Point SC Chemistry

15 Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation Dot Point Page Dot Point Page 1. The ocean as an electrolyte Minerals in oceans Electron transfer in redox reactions Redox reactions occur when ions 209 are free to move and electron transfer reactions 2. Ships of metal Rusting of iron Conditions for rusting 214 Corrosion of iron and steel 2.4 Composition and properties of steel Composition, properties and uses 219 of a range of steels 2.6 Iron and steel in ships Corrosion of active and 220 passivating metals 3. Electrolytic cells Electrolysis anode and 221 cathode reactions 3.2 Factors affecting electrolysis 224 Rate of electcrolysis 4. Corrosion in a marine environment istory of ship construction 227 materials used Corrosion rate of metals and alloys 4.3 Protection of metal hulls 228 Prevention of corrosion 4.5 Using the redox table 231 to predict corrosion 4.6 Cathodic protection Cathodic protection 233 chemistry and uses 4.8 Applications of cathodic protection Corrosion in a sunken ship Solubility of gases Solubility of gases and depth of oceans Temperature and corrosion rates 237 Rate of corrosion 5.6 Predicting corrosion rates at depth Corrosion at depth 241 corrosion and acidity 6.2 Acidity and corrosion rates Corrosion at depth Salvage, conservation and 245 restoration of artefacts 7.1 Artefacts from shipwrecks are saturated Evaporation of a saturated 245 solution from artefacts 7.3 Electrolysis to remove salts 246 from artefacts 7.4 Electrolysis to clean and stabilise 247 metal artefacts 7.5 Chemical procedures to clean, 247 preserve and stabilise artefacts 7.6 R in Australian projects Answers to Shipwrecks, Corrosion and 345 Conservation Dot Point SC Chemistry xv Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation

16 Notes Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation xvi Dot Point SC Chemistry

17 DOT POINT Production of Materials Dot Point SC Chemistry 1 Production of Materials

18 1. Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as ethylene, for the production of other substances. 1.1 Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some of the fractions from the Describe the composition of petroleum When petroleum undergoes distillation, fractions are produced. Identify some of these Use a diagram to show the industrial process of fractional distillation of petroleum. (c) Use a diagram to show the process of fractional distillation in the school laboratory. Production of Materials 2 Dot Point SC Chemistry

19 1.1.4 (a) Identify the IUPAC name for ethylene. Construct the structural formula for ethylene. (c) Outline the main source of ethylene Ethene is produced by the cracking of petroleum fractions. Describe the process of cracking. 1.2 Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double bond, is readily transformed into many useful products Complete the following: Ethylene (ethene) belongs to a homologous group of hydrocarbons called.... All alkenes have a... bond as their functional group. This is called a covalent bond because the carbon atoms... electrons. It is called a double bond because the... atoms share... pairs of (a) Complete the following table to summarise the differences between the three series of hydrocarbons, alkanes, alkenes and alkynes. omologous series General formula Functional group Alkane C n 2n C C Dot Point SC Chemistry 3 Production of Materials

20 Write molecular formulas for: (i) ethane... (ii) ethene... (iii) ethyne Ethane and ethene (ethylene) are both hydrocarbons, and they share a number of properties. molecules, they are both relatively insoluble in water, have low melting and boiling points and they both burn readily in air or oxygen. Despite these similarities, ethene is used much more extensively in industry than ethane. Account for this difference in use Alkanes such as ethane undergo substitution reactions. (a) What is meant by a substitution reaction? Alkenes such as ethene (ethylene) undergo addition reactions. (a) What is meant by an addition reaction? Production of Materials 4 Dot Point SC Chemistry

21 appropriate alkenes with the corresponding alkanes in bromine water Describe the test you would use to distinguish an alkane such as ethane from an alkene such (a) reactivities of appropriate alkenes with the corresponding alkanes in bromine water. Identify the chemicals you used and justify their choice. Explain one safety precaution necessary when carrying out this experiment. 1.4 Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made (c) Identify the term used to describe the process by which monomers are converted to a polymer. Dot Point SC Chemistry 5 Production of Materials

22 Classify each of the following as either a monomer or a polymer. (a) starch... glucose... (c) ethylene (ethene)... (d) polyethylene Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of this term (a) Identify the monomer used to manufacture the polymer called polyethylene. (c) Draw the structural formula for a part of a polyethylene molecule showing three monomer units joined together. 1.6 Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a commercially and industrially important polymer Justify the statement that polyethylene is a commercially important polymer. Production of Materials 6 Dot Point SC Chemistry

23 1.6.2 Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene (a) Explain what is meant by a free radical. Explain how the formation of an ethene free radical assists in the formation of a polymer (a) Identify the type of catalyst used in the industrial production of polyethylene. Describe the effect of this catalyst on the polymerisation process Dot Point SC Chemistry 7 Production of Materials

24 1.6.6 factors that would need to be continually monitored and explain why this process is important in the production of polyethylene During the production of polyethylene it is important to monitor temperature of the reaction vessel. Explain. 1.7 Analyse information from secondary sources such as computer simulations, molecular model kits or multimedia resources to model the polymerisation process Describe how you modelled the polymerisation process in class. by both their systematic and common names Complete the following table to summarise information about the monomers vinyl chloride and styrene. Common name of monomer Systematic name of monomer Formula of monomer Name of polymer Vinyl chloride Styrene (Vinyl benzene) Production of Materials 8 Dot Point SC Chemistry

25 1.9 Describe the uses of the polymers made from the above monomers in terms of their properties Use the following table to summarise some uses of the polymers made from the monomers vinyl chloride and styrene. Name of polymer Structure of polymer Uses Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Polystyrene Complete the following table to link the uses of the different forms of the polymers shown to properties that allow them to be used in these ways. Name of polymer PVC Use Flooring and carpet backing Property that determines this use PVC Sheets for roofs and skylights Polyethylene Natural gas pipes Coating steel pipes Polyethylene Plastic bags and Food containers Polyethylene Polystyrene Sheathing for wire cables used for phone and TV Disposable foam cups Polystyrene Surfboards Dot Point SC Chemistry 9 Production of Materials

26 1.9.3 Assess the impact of the development of the production of polymers on society and on the environment. Production of Materials 10 Dot Point SC Chemistry

27 2. Some scientists research the extraction of materials from biomass to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels. 2.1 Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds presently obtained from the petrochemical industry What is meant by the petrochemical industry? Identify 10 chemicals presently produced by the petrochemical industry Discuss the need for alternative sources of compounds presently manufactured by the petrochemical industry. 2.2 Use available evidence to gather and present data from secondary sources and analyse progress in the recent development and use of a named biopolymer. This analysis should name the or potential use of the polymer produced related to its properties (a) Identify a biopolymer which is produced commercially. Describe the structure of this polymer. Dot Point SC Chemistry 11 Production of Materials

28 (c) Identify and give the formula of the monomer(s) used to manufacture this named biopolymer. (d) Identify the source of the monomer(s) Analyse progress in the development of this biopolymer. (c) Identify uses of this biopolymer. (d) Identify properties of this biopolymer. (e) Choose one use of this biopolymer and relate this use to its properties. Production of Materials 12 Dot Point SC Chemistry

29 (f) Analyse progress in the uses of this biopolymer. 2.3 Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer and identify three examples. 2.4 Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed Compare condensation and addition reactions. Condensation reactions Addition reactions Both involve... joining to form a long chain molecule. No double bonds necessary No small molecule produced Dot Point SC Chemistry 13 Production of Materials

30 2.5 Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of a condensation polymer found as a major component of biomass (a) Describe the structure of glucose. Include a diagram in your answer. Describe the structure of cellulose. Include a diagram in your answer. (c) Explain why cellulose is a condensation polymer Cellulose is a condensation polymer found in biomass. Outline the importance of this compound. Production of Materials 14 Dot Point SC Chemistry

31 and discuss its potential as a raw material Explain why cellulose is a suitable raw material for the production of petrochemicals Discuss the potential of cellulose as a raw material in the manufacture of petrochemicals. Dot Point SC Chemistry 15 Production of Materials

32 2.7 Applied question Ethene is a starting point for the petrochemical industry. At the present time, ethene is produced from petroleum, however in the future it may be produced from cellulose in biomass. Compare and evaluate these two methods of ethene production. Production of Materials 16 Dot Point SC Chemistry

33 3. Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available from renewable resources such as plants. 3.1 Describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used (a) Write the structural formula of ethanol (a) What is meant by a dehydration reaction? (c) Describe the dehydration of ethanol Outline a reason for the use of a catalyst in the dehydration of ethanol. Dot Point SC Chemistry 17 Production of Materials

34 3.2 Describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production of ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used Describe the addition of water to ethylene to produce ethanol. 3.3 Process information from secondary sources such as molecular model kits, digital technologies Use structural formulas to model the following reactions: (a) dehydration of ethanol addition of water to ethylene Describe how you modelled one of the following reactions: Production of Materials 18 Dot Point SC Chemistry

35 3.4 Process information from secondary sources to summarise the processes involved in the industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane Outline the processes involved in the industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane organic biomass crush and grind dilute acid, e.g. Cl hydrolyse Process A more acid solid residue filtrate hydrolyse sugars in acid solution Ca(O) 2 to neutralise acid Process A solid residue, e.g. (CaSO 4 ) sugar solution Process B yeast or bacteria ethanol mixture carbon dioxide Process C ethanol byproducts and wastes Identify the processes that occur at: A... B... C... Dot Point SC Chemistry 19 Production of Materials

36 substances (a) Identify the type of bonding within a molecule of ethanol. Explain why ethanol is a polar molecule. (c) Identify the intermolecular forces between molecules of ethanol. (d) Use a diagram to show a hydrogen bond between atoms in adjacent ethanol molecules Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for polar and 3.6 Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a renewable resource Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel. Production of Materials 20 Dot Point SC Chemistry

37 Distinguish between the terms renew, reuse and recycle alkanols. Name of alkanol Molecular formula Structural formula Methanol O C C Propanol C 4 9 O Pentanol exanol C 7 15 O Octanol Dot Point SC Chemistry 21 Production of Materials

38 Show the structural formulas of: compare heats of combustion of at least three liquid alkanols per gram and per mole determine and compare heats of combustion of alkanols. Use a labelled diagram to show the method you used. (c) Comment on the accuracy of your results. Production of Materials 22 Dot Point SC Chemistry

39 (d) Suggest ways you could improve the accuracy of your results. (e) Explain one safety precaution you applied when carrying out this experiment The following table shows the heats of combustion for a number of fuels. (a) Complete the following table by calculating the heat of combustion in kj g 1 for each of the fuels shown. Fuel Formula eat of combustion (kj/mole) ydrogen Coke (carbon) C 393 Methane C Ethane C Propane C Methanol C 3 O 727 Ethanol C 2 5 O 1367 eat of combustion (kj/gram) Identify the fuel that would produce the most heat by the combustion of 1 g of fuel. (c) Consider which has the lower heat of combustion, ethanol or methanol. Using this information, which would be more expensive to use as a fuel? Dot Point SC Chemistry 23 Production of Materials

40 3.9.3 ethanol. They burned ethanol in a spirit burner, and used it to heat 100 ml of water, as shown in the diagram below. thermometer lid container water wick fuel, e.g. ethanol in spirit burner The results they obtained were: Initial temperature of 100 ml water = 22.6 C Final temperature of 100 ml water = 35.9 C Initial mass of spirit burner + ethanol = g Final mass of spirit burner + ethanol = g 3 J kg 1 1 Use these results to calculate the experimental molar heat of combustion of ethanol Process information from secondary sources to summarise the use of ethanol as an alternative car fuel, evaluating the success of current usage Describe and evaluate the use of ethanol as a fuel in cars Identify one secondary source you used to obtain this information and evaluate the validity of the information obtained from this source. Production of Materials 24 Dot Point SC Chemistry

41 3.11 Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of its use Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of its use. glucose and monitor mass changes mass changes. Dot Point SC Chemistry 25 Production of Materials

42 Identify a potential problem in the fermentation of glucose and outline the method you used to overcome this problem. (c) Explain any mass changes that occur during fermentation Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process Present information from secondary sources by writing a balanced equation for the fermentation of glucose to ethanol Production of Materials 26 Dot Point SC Chemistry

43 4. Oxidationreduction reactions are increasingly important as a source of energy. is produced Identify the conditions under which a galvanic cell is produced (a) Describe a galvanic cell that you set up. Identify any observations you made. in potential of different combinations of metals in an electrolyte solution (a) difference in potential of different combinations of metals in an electrolyte solution. Identify two combinations of metals that you used in this investigation. Identify the electrolytes you used. Dot Point SC Chemistry 27 Production of Materials

44 (c) For one of the pairs of metals used, draw a labelled diagram to show how you performed the experiment. (d) Outline one possible source of error in this investigation and describe how you could overcome this. (e) Outline one safety issue involved in the carrying out of this experiment and describe how you would handle this issue. salt bridge. 4.3 Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of electrons Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of electrons. 4.4 Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by other metals to the relative activity of metals Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by other metals to the relative activity of metals. Production of Materials 28 Dot Point SC Chemistry

45 4.4.2 List the following metals in order of activity from most active to least active: iron, magnesium, sodium, silver, zinc, lead, aluminium, calcium, copper (a) A series of solutions is set up and pieces of metal are placed in each solution as shown in the table below. Complete the table to show where displacement reactions will occur. Solution Metal added Any displacement reaction Calcium chloride Zinc Zinc chloride Calcium Lead chloride Magnesium Lead chloride Silver Which would cause the more vigorous displacement reaction, placing magnesium metal in zinc nitrate or in silver nitrate solution? Explain. (c) A piece of zinc is placed into a copper sulfate solution. The copper sulfate loses its blue colour, copper is deposited on the bottom of the beaker and the zinc disappears. What can you deduce about the relative reactivity of copper and zinc? 4.5 Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or gain of electrons Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or gain of electrons. (int: Show the connection between an increase or decrease in oxidation state and the processes of oxidation and reduction.) Dot Point SC Chemistry 29 Production of Materials

46 4.5.2 State the rules for working out oxidation states/numbers Identify the oxidation states of the following: (a) Iron in FeSO 4... Iron in FeCl 3... (c) Iron metal... (d) Oxygen in CO 2... (e) The nitrate ion NO Describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction reactions What is meant by a galvanic cell? (a) oxidation reduction (c) redox reaction (d) oxidant (e) reductant Production of Materials 30 Dot Point SC Chemistry

47 4.6.3 Explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction reactions Outline the construction of galvanic cells Add arrows to show: (ii) the movement of ions in the salt bridge zinc anode V copper cathode electrolyte, e.g. ZnSO 4 salt bridge Cu 2+ (aq) electrolyte, e.g. CuSO 4 Dot Point SC Chemistry 31 Production of Materials

48 4.8.1 (a) electrode electrolyte (c) anode (d) cathode (a) Identify the purpose of galvanic cells in society today. Production of Materials 32 Dot Point SC Chemistry

49 4.9 Solve problems and analyse information to calculate the potential E requirement of named electrochemical processes using tables of standard potentials and half equations (a) What is meant by a standard reduction potential? (a) What is meant by the redox table? Complete the following prose passage to describe the redox table. In the redox table, forward reactions are written as... reactions. The higher the reduction potential the more easily the species is.... Oxidations are shown by... the reactions and changing the sign. Oxidising agents are on the... side of the table, and they increase in strength as you move... the table. The strongest oxidising agent is.... Fluorine is most likely to accept... from another species, thus causing the oxidation of that species. Reducing agents are found on the right side of the table, the strongest reducing agent is at the... of the table. Dot Point SC Chemistry 33 Production of Materials

50 4.9.3 Potassium and barium are the strongest reducing agents, so they are the metals most likely to... electrons to another species, thus causing that species to be.... A metal higher in the redox series will displace a metal... from a solution of its ions. All metals above hydrogen will displace... from a solution of its ions. A reducing agent will react with an... agent lower in the table. (a) What is the reduction potential for Fe e Fe(s)?... Convert the following reduction reactions to oxidation reactions: (i) Al e Al(s) 1.68 V (ii) Cu e Cu(s) V (c) An iron electrode is placed in a beaker of aluminium sulfate solution. Another iron electrode is occurring. (d) A galvanic cell is set up containing a copper electrode in copper sulfate solution connected to a zinc electrode in zinc sulfate solution. Calculate the E potential for this cell if standard conditions apply. Production of Materials 34 Dot Point SC Chemistry

51 (a) Draw a diagram of either a dry cell OR a lead acid cell and describe its chemistry. Draw a diagram of either a button cell, fuel cell, vanadium redox cell, lithium cell OR a Dot Point SC Chemistry 35 Production of Materials

52 Cost and practicality Dry cell or lead acid cell Button cell, fuel cell, vanadium redox cell, lithium cell, OR Gratzel cell Impact on society Environmental impact Production of Materials 36 Dot Point SC Chemistry

53 Dot Point SC Chemistry 37 Production of Materials

54 4.11 Applied question During the 19th and 20th centuries, fossil fuels were our main source of energy. owever, there are problems with the use of these fuels today. It seems likely that renewable resources century as sources of energy. Discuss this statement.... Production of Materials 38 Dot Point SC Chemistry

55 5. Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials. 5.1 Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the conditions under which a nucleus is unstable Distinguish between a stable and a radioactive isotope. (c) Describe the conditions under which the nucleus of atoms is unstable Complete the following table to compare alpha, beta and gamma radiation. Structure Alpha radiation Beta radiation Gamma radiation Particles Consist of Electron from the nucleus Charge +2 Ionising ability Fair Penetration Poor (210 cm in air) Deflection in electric field Towards positive plate Dot Point SC Chemistry 39 Production of Materials

56 5.1.3 Label the three types of radiation shown in the following diagram as alpha, beta or gamma radiation. negatively charged field radioactive source positively charged field (a) Describe radioactive decay. 5.2 Process information from secondary sources to describe recent discoveries of elements Describe recent discoveries of elements Identify two recently discovered elements and outline their method of production. Production of Materials 40 Dot Point SC Chemistry

57 5.3 Describe how transuranic elements are produced (a) What is meant by a transuranic element? 5.4 Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced (a) Identify some commercial radioisotopes. Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced. Dot Point SC Chemistry 41 Production of Materials

58 5.5 Identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect radiation Identify instruments that can be used to detect radiation For two of the instruments named above, outline the processes involved (a) Identify one use of a named radioisotope in industry. Identify one use of a named radioisotope in medicine. 5.7 Describe the way in which the above named industrial and medical radioisotopes are used and explain their use in terms of their chemical properties (a) industrial radioisotope medical radioisotope Production of Materials 42 Dot Point SC Chemistry

59 5.7.2 its properties and medicine and medicine. Dot Point SC Chemistry 43 Production of Materials

60 Notes Production of Materials 44 Dot Point SC Chemistry

61 DOT POINT Answers Dot Point SC Chemistry 249 Answers

62 Notes Answers 250 Dot Point SC Chemistry

63 Production of Materials Petroleum consists of crude oil and natural gas. Petroleum contains a mixture of up to 300 hydrocarbons, as well as sulfur and nitrogen compounds Various, e.g. gases; petroleum ether; gasoline (petrol); kerosene; diesel; gas oil; lubrication oil and wax; bitumen (a) Process used to separate a mixture such as petroleum into its components, depending on the components having different boiling points. light gases fractionating column gasoline naptha kerosene gas oil lubricating oils hot crude oil residue (c) thermometer condenser water bath fractional distillation column water out hotplate water in mixture with porous pot (a) Ethene C = C (c) Petroleum and natural gas. In Europe and Japan, ethylene (ethene) is obtained from petroleum by fractional distillation to produce fractions, followed by the cracking of some of the fractions. In Australia and the USA, where natural gas is more readily available, we mostly pipe natural gas directly from its source and crack the ethane, propane and butane to obtain ethylene (ethene). Dot Point SC Chemistry 251 Production of Materials

64 1.1.5 Cracking is a process in which molecules of carbon compounds are broken down into smaller molecules with the help of heat and/or catalysts. Examples of cracking are: C (g) + 2 (g) C (g) + C 2 6 (g) alkenes, C=C, share, carbon, two, electrons (a) omologous series General formula Functional group Alkane C n 2n+2 C C Alkene C n 2n C=C Alkyne C n 2n 2 C C (i) C 2 6 (ii) C 2 4 (iii) C (a) A reaction in which an atom is substituted for another already in the molecule, e.g. a hydrogen atom may be replaced Various, e.g. light C C + Cl 2 Cl C C + Cl (a) A double bond is broken, and other atoms, or group of atoms, are added into the molecule. C C + 2 C C (c) C C + Cl 2 C C Cl Cl An alkene, such as ethene, will undergo an addition reaction, even in the dark, and the bromine water will change from Note: You must always state colour changes from to...; it is not enough to say the bromine water decolourises.) An alkane, such as ethane, will undergo a substitution reaction with bromine water, but this reaction is very slow and only occurs in the presence of light. This reaction may take several hours, or even days, to complete. Br 2 (g) + 2 O(l) + Alkene C Alkane light C C + OBr C C + 2 O C + Br 2 C C Br Br Br OR C C + OBr C C Br O Production of Materials 252 Dot Point SC Chemistry

65 1.3.2 temperature. This allows you to readily see colour changes. wearing protective clothing including gloves and safety glasses. These precautions are to avoid bromine water, cyclohexane and cyclohexene from coming into contact with the skin and eyes or being inhaled. Such precautions are essential as bromine water is toxic by all routes of exposure. It is a skin irritant, vapour irritant and it is corrosive (a) A monomer is a small molecule, such as ethylene (ethene). Many monomer molecules can be joined together to form a long chain molecule called a polymer. (c) A polymer is a large molecule consisting of a large number of identical small molecules (monomers) joined together, for example plastics, rubber, synthetic textiles, starch, cellulose, protein and DNA in our genes. Polymerisation Ethene is a small molecule. Many ethene molecules can be joined together to form a polymer such as polyethylene Monomers b, c Polymers a, d A long chain molecule that can be formed from an addition reaction involving many molecules of one or more monomers with double bonds (a) Ethylene (ethene) ethylene polyethylene (ethene) (polyethene) nc 2 =C catalyst 2 (where n is a large number) ( C C ) 2 2 n (c) C C C C C C Various in your answer you should include the following points: bottles, detergent containers, food containers and garbage bins. It can be used for these purposes as it is insoluble in water, inert, lightweight (low density), tough and strong. their contents; and light for ease of transport. wide range of commercial uses Initiation A chemical called an initiator starts (initiates) the reaction by opening the double bond of an ethylene (ethene) monomer. This forms an ethylene (ethene) free radical. Propagation The monomers join, to form a chain. Termination When free radical ethylene (ethene) chains combine, a complete polyethylene (polyethene) molecule is formed and the process stops (it is terminated) (a) A species with an unpaired outer shell electron. A free radical is very reactive because of the presence of an unpaired outer shell electron. Free radical ethene molecules readily join together Affects the rate of reaction and allows the process to be carried out at a lower temperature and pressure. physical properties such as density and stability to heat. Dot Point SC Chemistry 253 Production of Materials

66 1.6.5 monomers initiation breaks double bonds ethene free radicals propagation monomers join long chain molecules termination complete polymer Factors Various, e.g. molecular weight, density, type and amount of additives and purity of the product. properties and so they will continue to purchase the product The reaction is exothermic, so heat is constantly being released. This heat may make the polymer decompose as it is formed, decreasing the yield Various, e.g. you might have made models of ethene molecules, then broken the double bonds and joined them together Common name of monomer Systematic name of monomer Formula of monomer Name of polymer Vinyl chloride Chloroethene Polyvinylchloride (PVC) C = C Cl Styrene (Vinyl benzene) Ethenylbenzene C = C C 6 5 Polystyrene Name of polymer Structure of polymer Uses Various, e.g. Polyvinylchloride (PVC) Containers, blister packaging, vegetable oil bottles, electrical insulation, pipes and hoses, vinyl flooring, records, outdoor furniture, C C videos and credit cards Cl n Polystyrene C C C 6 5 n Fruit boxes, clothes hangers, packing foam, foam egg cartons, meat trays, compact disc and audiocassette cases, plastic cutlery, toys, surfboards and hot drink cups Name of polymer Use Property that determines this use PVC Flooring and carpet backing Soft and pliable Low static electricity Fire and water resistant PVC Polyethylene Polyethylene Polyethylene Sheets for roofs and skylights Natural gas pipes Coating steel pipes Plastic bags and food containers Sheathing for wire cables used for phone and TV Rigid and strong Will not dissolve in water or let water through Strong, insoluble in water igh resistance to chemical corrosion igh tensile strength Transparent or translucent Soft and flexible Insoluble in water Low reactivity with food Low density Electrical insulator Flexible Insoluble in water Polystyrene Disposable foam cups Relatively cheap Low density and keep their shape eat insulator Not chemically active Polystyrene Surfboards Cheap Low density Rigid Not chemically active Production of Materials 254 Dot Point SC Chemistry

67 1.9.3 Various. In your answer you should include the following: and polyvinyl chloride. production process initiation, polymerisation and termination. people, e.g. Plastic cups are cheaper, less dense and safer than those made of glass. If they break, they are less likely to cause damage especially to children. The use of plastic containers also helps to conserve beach sand as this is used in glass production. If they are made from a polymer which can be recycled, then they are also environmentally friendly. Early plastics could not be recycled which caused problems with their disposal and led to accumulation of wastes. The development of polymers has also led to the production of cheap, disposable articles suitable for medical uses, e.g. tubing and syringes. The use of these can greatly decrease the spread of infection among society, but has increased the problems of waste disposal. Recently, the development of biodegradable polymers has helped to decrease the problem of waste disposal. producing these chemicals, e.g. Vinyl chloride is the monomer used to manufacture PVC. This chemical irritates the eyes, skin and respiratory tract, causes liver damage and may be carcinogenic. It is highly toxic to marine life. Workers in industries using vinyl for leaks so as to avoid contamination of air or water. Some workers were affected adversely before the dangers of using these chemicals were realised. impact, e.g. has it had a slight impact or a huge impact on society and has it had a slight impact or a huge impact on the environment Industries that produce or use compounds which come from petroleum, e.g. production and use of fossil fuels, production of polymers, lubricating oils Various, e.g. petrol, aviation fuel, diesel, candle wax, road tar, ethene, polyethylene, polyvinylchloride, kerosene, lubricating oils, synthetic fabrics Various, e.g. in your answer you should include the following: run out within the next 100 years, some much sooner. fuels and petroleum gluten. Dot Point SC Chemistry 255 Production of Materials

68 2.2.2 (a) Various, e.g. Biopol Biopol C 3 C O = C O C 2 O C 3 C 2 C O = C O C 2 O (d) They occur naturally in bacteria such as Azobacter and Pseudomonas (a) Bacteria, e.g. Alcaligenes eutrophus. The polymer is presently produced industrially by bacteria (especially Alcaligenes eutrophus) growing in tanks with a E. coli, can be used to produce PA. The advantages are faster growth, better yields, easier recovery and the production of less extra waste biomass. Also cheaper substrates can be used to grow the bacteria, e.g. whey, molasses and agricultural wastes. than storing starch. Although these biopolymers are at present more expensive to produce than conventional plastics, they have the advantage of being biodegradable, thus allowing better waste management, and of being made from renewable crops rather than fossil fuels. The use of transgenic plants is expected to lower costs so this polymer becomes price (c) (d) (e) Various, e.g. a carrier for slow release of insecticides, herbicides or fertilisers; disposable containers for shampoo and cosmetics, and disposable items such as razors, rubbish bags, disposable nappies, fast food utensils and plastic plates. Similar to those of polypropylene, e.g. insoluble in water, permeable to oxygen, resistant to UV light, acids and bases, soluble in chlorinated hydrocarbons, high melting point, high tensile strength and more dense than water. It is also Various, e.g. medical applications such as the production of surgical pins and sutures. and no surgery is needed to remove them) and it is biocompatible (the body does not react to this polymer or reject it as a foreign object). (f) Uses of Biopol are varied, and more are continually being found. As it is biodegradable and biocompatible, it is increasingly used for medical applications and the production of items which previously presented a disposal problem. For medical applications, where biodegradability and biocompatability are important properties, there is often no A long chain compound formed when monomer molecules join together, forming a polymer, and releasing a small molecule such as water. Examples are cellulose, nylon, polyester, cotton, cellophane, dacron Various, e.g. O C 2 O O O O O O + O O O C 2 O + O O C 2 O O O O O O + O O O C 2 O + etc O O C 2 O O O O O O O C 2 O O O O O C 2 O O section of a cellulose molecule O O O O C 2 O O O Small monomer molecules each release one or more atoms and the molecules join at that point. The released atoms combine to form a new compound. For example, in the formation of cellulose, an and an O, released from adjoining monomers, combine to form a molecule of water. Production of Materials 256 Dot Point SC Chemistry

69 2.4.3 Condensation reactions Addition reactions Both involve monomers joining to form a long chain molecule. No double bonds necessary. Monomer has double bond which breaks during polymerisation. Polymer forms and also another small molecule. No small molecule produced O 6 ) is a ring structure. Five carbon atoms and one oxygen atom form the ring and O and groups protrude above and below the ring. It also has a C 2 group out of the ring. In solution the ring can open, forming a straight chain structure. 1 CO 6 C 2 O 5 2 CO O O 3 CO 4 O 1 4 CO O 5 CO O 6 glucose ring C 2 O Open chain structure 6 C 2 O 5 O 4 O 1 O O O glucose ring Cellulose is a very long polymer containing about 2000 to 8000 glucose molecules in long chains. These glucose molecules are strongly linked together by covalent bonds. ydrogen bonding between the chains makes cellulose chains linear, rigid, strong and resistant to chemical attack. O C 2 O O O O O C 2 O O O O O C 2 O O Section of a cellulose molecule O O O O O O C 2 O O Cellulose is a polymer of the sugar glucose. It makes up the cell walls of plants and is the most abundant carbohydrate on Earth. Cellulose is the main component of biomass and thus is a potentially important raw material for the production of synthetic polymers Also, being a major component of biomass, cellulose is a readily available renewable raw material for the production of petrochemicals Your answer should include the following points: of the world. of, so using them to make substances such as polymers is desirable. amounts and can be converted to petrochemicals thus reducing our reliance on petroleum. This is important as petroleum supplies are running out. Dot Point SC Chemistry 257 Production of Materials