TITLE OF PAPER 1 NATURAL SELECTION LEADS TO EVOLUTION. Author s Name. Kingsford High School

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1 TITLE OF PAPER 1 NATURAL SELECTION LEADS TO EVOLUTION Author s Name Kingsford High School

2 Title of Paper 2 Abstract Evolution remains one of the most controversial topics in biology, as it has been for the past 154 years, even before Darwin made his historic voyage on the H.M.S Beagle. Even before Darwin went to press with his manuscript On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, other men of science had begun putting forth their own theories regarding why organisms had the traits they possessed. These ranged from profound to absurd. After a lengthy study and the collection of an abundance of data, Darwin contented himself with the idea that, while there were holes in his theory of evolution by natural selection, it was quite apparent that offspring inherited traits from both parents, and those that inherited traits most fit for survival were the ones who remained in the running to pass these traits on to their own offspring. Today, there is an abundance of evidence supporting this, regardless of how many scientists, theologians, or other scholarly persons refute evolution by natural selection. Keywords: biochemistry, biogeography, embryology, homologous, vestigial

3 Title of Paper 3 Thesis Paper Title Goes Here Astonishingly, ninety-nine percent of the genes of chimpanzees and humans are identical ( Human Life from Evolution to Self-Evolution, 2005). The previous certainty is just one of the abundant pieces of evidence that help scientists in coming closer to determining the intricate origins of life. The extremely controversial topic of human genesis has raised much debate for centuries. Maybe humans are not meant to understand all of the details behind how life first came to be. Nonetheless, advancements in technology have allowed scientists to come closer than ever to the answers behind the countless number of questions about human origins. Based on observations, research, and the laws of math and science, it can be concluded that evolution is the process by which life came to be and evolved into the organisms living today. Evolution can be defined as, All the changes that have formed life on Earth from the earliest beginnings to the diversity that characterizes it today (Modern Biology, 2002). Evolution is responsible for the formation of our whole universe, the development of life on earth, and the changes in the first microorganisms to result in all living things today. A naturalist on the ship H.M.S. Beagle for five years, a man by the name of Charles Darwin sparked interest among people around the world about the theory of evolution in Darwin s distinguished book published in that year titled, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, details many pieces of evidence that support the theory of evolution. Over time, a profusion of points of evidence have been identified (Modern Biology, 2002). The amount of evidence discovered that supports evolution today is extremely multitudinous. Main points of indication include the fossil record, biogeography, embryology, vestigial structures, comparative anatomy, comparative biochemistry, and cultural evolution. One of the most convincing issues of evidence involves the fossil record. Fossils are traces of

4 Title of Paper 4 long-dead organisms (Modern Biology, 2002). Many of the organisms preserved as fossils were buried under many layers of mud or sand that later turned into rock. Researchers date fossils by using various dating methods. Measuring the amounts of certain radioactive isotopes in a fossil is a popular way scientists determine the age of fossils. Paleontologists have found enough fossils to create a fairly complete record that chronicles the history of life on earth (Templeton, 2002). The fossil record shoes the progression from the first simple organisms to the complex organisms that live today. The fossil record indicates that quite a few species have become extinct, and that species living today were not always in existence. Trilobites and sea scorpions have completely disappeared in the fossil record. Evolutionary change and speciation are shown in the fossil record also. No mammals lived before 250 million years ago, but many reptiles did live back in that time period. Mammals first appeared in the fossil record around 200 million years ago. Transitional forms have been found that existed in between the two time periods. The transitional forms included animals that had characteristics of both mammals and reptiles. The skeletal structures of the transitional forms resembled both modern mammals and reptiles. The whole process of transition occurred quite gradually (Templeton, 2002). Measurements of radioactive decay indicate that the Earth is billions of years old, allowing for the slow process of evolution (Quammen, 2009). The idea of biogeography is also an important factor in the fossil record and evolution. Biogeography is the study of the geographical dispersal of fossils and living organisms. The fossil record indicates that new organisms arise in areas where similar forms already existed. Modern armadillos closely resemble the now extinct glyptodont. Today, armadillos appear in North and South America. In the past, glyptodonts lived in the Americas (Modern

5 Title of Paper 5 Biology,2002). Biogeographic evidence indicates that organisms evolve and go through evolution. Embryology is also an aspect of science that points to evolution as the process of how life first came about. Embryology is the study of the way organisms develop during the early stages of life (Templeton, 2002). Development of embryos of organisms includes quite a few strange events that can be explained by the evolution of the organism from other related species. For example, most all vertebrate embryos are extremely alike when first developing (Modern Biology, 2002). Many more examples of embryology have been discovered by scientists. Embryos of mammals pass through various stages that resemble embryological stages of reptiles. Interestingly, the larvae of moths, flies, and beetles resemble one another more than any of them resemble their own parents. In fact, Darwin stated, the embryo is the animal in its less modified state and that state reveals the structure of its progenitor (Quammen, 2009). Evidence acquired from the research of vestigial structures is yet another reason to prove why evolution is the answer to how life began. Vestigial structures are the useless remains of organs that were at one point useful in an evolutionary ancestor. As an example, many species of animals that live in caves are blind but still have eyes. These eyes evolved from ancestors that had properly functioning eyes. Apparently, no pressure has been exerted on the cave-dwelling organisms to lose the eyes. A cave dwelling organism s fitness is not affected if its vision is damaged, because eyes are useless in such a dark environment (Templeton, 2002). Yet another example of vestigial structures involves the bone structure of whales. A collection of sperm whales have bone-supported bumps and vestigial leg bones. The previous information indicates that whales most likely descended from an ancestor that lived on land. Many of the genes required to produce hind legs have been unchanged in the genome of whales. The genes must be

6 Title of Paper 6 slightly turned on, thus creating vestigial hind legs. Vestigial structures have even been located in humans. The human tailbone is an example of a vestigial structure. Although it has no apparent use or advantage in people, the tailbone is homologous to the tails of other vertebrate species that are functional. The appearance of vestigial structures in organisms displays evolutionary history due to the usually turned-off genes found in the organisms (Modern Biology, 2002). The field of molecular biochemistry can also provide information that supports the idea of evolution. The structures of molecules and amino acid sequences in all living organisms are miraculously similar. Complex DNA and RNA constructions are found in all living organisms. Cellular processes, such as the Krebs cycle, operate similarly in all living organisms. Atoms rotate the same way in the same configuration in these processes (R. Lawton, personal communication, January 4, 2010). The drastic resemblance in the steps of such processes is a sign that there is a common ancestor to all living things. Enzymes in mammals are virtually identical, and the same goes for enzymes in insects. Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells. Scientists know many of the specific amino acids and their sequences in hemoglobin molecules of numerous animals. As yet another example, hemoglobin in animals and chlorophyll in plants are strikingly similar in relation to the processes the molecules carry out (Lawton). Information that is shown as a result of studying molecular biology and chemistry can help to verify any presumptions made from the fossil record about evolution (Modern Biology, 2002). Additionally, the aspect of predictability in the theory of evolution proves the idea beyond a reasonable doubt. Scientists can actually predict elements of relationships between living organisms. If an organism was placed on an island, scientists today can make extremely accurate predictions as to how the organism would eventually evolve to its new environment.

7 Title of Paper 7 Darwin himself had made predictions about various animals and plants that he observed while on his long voyage. Predictions have been made about the cicada bug s appearance, behavior, and locations as the bugs go through new life cycles. Based on heredity and evolution, scientists predictions about the bugs continue to be almost flawless. The characteristic of predictability that evolution holds is a perfect point of evidence to prove its validity (Lawton). Comparative anatomy can be referred to as the comparison of the makeup of structures in different organisms. The study of comparative anatomy has contributed greatly to the development of the theory of evolution. Comparisons can often lead to how evolution occurred (Templeton, 2002). The beaks of the finches that Darwin observed on the Galapagos Islands display this field of science. Each of the beaks on the birds of the different islands had just slight differences. These differences occurred due to the fact that one original species of birds was split up, and each new bird evolved to be able to survive best in its new environment. The close similarity in the genetic codes and bone structure of the finches confirms that the birds descended from a single ancestral species (Ridley, 2009). Homologous features are similar properties that originated in an original shared ancestor. The forelimbs of the penguin, alligator, bat, and human are extremely similar in skeletal structure and originate in the same structures in embryos. The existence of homologous features in two different species demonstrates that the species did share a recent common ancestor (Modern Biology, 2002). Humans have also evolved culturally over time. This can be studied in relation to how communication abilities have increased drastically along with the ability to express oneself. Ideas and knowledge preserved in books has become more complex. Written language has grown immensely. The new computer technology wave coming in may even be assisting in the

8 Title of Paper 8 evolution of humans. The study of the evolution of culture is just as important as the physical evolution of organisms ( Human Life from Evolution to Self-Evolution, 2005). Critics of the theory of evolution may believe in creationism, the belief that the universe and living organisms were created from certain acts of divine creation such as in biblical accounts ( Voices for Creation, 1997). Evolution provides a far better explanation as to how living organisms came about. Although the fossil record is incomplete, various other forms of evidence for evolution can take the place of the missing links of the fossil record. Scientists have diligently researched the true mechanisms of evolution. Natural selection and mutations are clearly the ways by which evolution occurs (Huxley, 1953). Although experiments can be done to prove the theory of evolution, no experiments can be performed to prove the theory of creationism. Because no experiment can be executed to prove creationism, creationists must result to disproving evolution. Attempting to falsify a theory is often an extremely difficult task to take on, especially in the case of evolution (Lawton). Conclusions can be made based on observations, research, and the laws of math and science that evolution is the process by which life came to be and evolved into the organisms living today. Numerous amounts of evidence have been found to indicate that evolution is the process by which living organisms came into existence and evolved into modern humans. Fossil records, biogeography, embryology, vestigial structures, comparative anatomy, comparative biochemistry, and cultural developments assist scientists in proving evolution to be true (Templeton, 2009). Although humans are coming closer than ever to the solutions behind how life was created, a countless number of questions and topics still remain unanswered and unexplored.

9 Title of Paper 1 References Human Life from Evolution to Self Evolution. (2005). Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Princeton, NJ. Huxley, Julian. (1953) Evolution in Action. New York, New York: Harper and Row Publishers. Modern Biology. (2002) Austin, TX: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Quammen, David. (Feb. 2009) Darwin s First Clues National Geographic. Quammen, David. (November 2004). Was Darwin Wrong: No. The evidence for evolution is overwhelming. National Geographic. Retrieved from < Ridley, Matt. (Feb. 2009) Modern Darwin. National Geographic. Templeton, Alan R. (2002). Evolution. The World Book Encyclopedia. Volume 6. Chicago; WorldBook, Inc. Voices for Creation. (1997). NMU Public Broadcasting Service. Staff.