Chapter 24-Flowering Plant and Animal Coevolution
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1 Chapter 24-Flowering Plant and Animal Coevolution
2 coevolutionary plant-animal associations alliances that have influenced the evoluton of both partners.
3 These examples show that plants have acquired traits that are attractive to particular animals, and the animals behavior has evolved in ways that benefit plants.
4 -Fleshy fruits are evolutionary products of plant-animal dispersal relationships.
5 Flowering plant-animal coevolution interactions are important in agriculture
6 The production of crops such as apples, cherries, and other fruits rely on bee pollinators.
7 Co-evolution is important in global ecology The continued existence of most flowering plants depends on appropriate pollinators or dispersal agents.
8 Some plants rely on only a single species of pollinator or dispersal agent.
9 Some plants rely on only a single species of pollinator or dispersal agent. If the population of a single pollinator or dispersal agent declines or becomes extinct: -the plants are more vulnerable to extinction
10 Some plants rely on only a single species of pollinator or dispersal agent. If the population of a single pollinator or dispersal agent declines or becomes extinct: -the plants are more vulnerable to extinction -the population of any animals that rely on the plants for food may also decrease or become extinct.
11 Ex: Brighamia, a Hawaiian flowering plant
12 This plant has stopped reproducing naturally because the specific pollinator has become extinct.
13 It is important to understand the processes of pollination, dispersal, and coevolutionary interactions for:
14 It is important to understand the processes of pollination, dispersal, and coevolutionary interactions for: -preservation of endangered plant and animal species -restoration of damaged or altered habitats -maintaining global biodiversity
15 Pollination If pollination is accomplished and pollen and stigma are compatible, a pollen grain will germinate to form a pollen tube. The sperm cells are then transported to egg cells within ovules in the ovary.
16 Pollination The flower is an adaptation that increases the efficiency of pollination.
17 Most angiosperms produce bisexual flowers.
18 Most angiosperms produce bisexual flowers. Bisexual flowers are comprised of: -pollen-producing stamens -ovule-containing carpels.
19 Bisexual flowers are both common and ancient. The oldest living groups of flowering plants (Amborella and some water lilies) have bisexual flowers.
20 Reproductive strategies Some plants are self-fertile, and capable of selfpollination and self-fertilization.
21 Reproductive strategies Self-pollination (selfing) occurs when pollen is transferred to the stigma of the same plant.
22 Reproductive strategies Self-pollination (selfing) occurs when pollen is transferred to the stigma of the same plant. Selfing results in reduced genetic diversity of the offspring compared to cross-pollination.
23 Reproductive strategies Many plants are capable of selfing, including many weedy species.
24 Reproductive strategies- Self pollination Disadvantages reduced genetic diversity Advantages only a single plant is required for pollination less energy low population densities plants that invade new or disturbed habitats.
25 Reproductive strategies Some common plants generally reproduce by selfing, including beans, peas, and tomatoes.
26 Reproductive strategies A few extreme examples of self-pollinating plants produce flowers that never open. Almost all self-pollinating plants have flowers that are less showy than their cross-pollinating relatives.
27 Reproductive strategies Almost all self-pollinating plants have flowers that are less showy than their cross-pollinating relatives.
28 Reproductive strategies Cross-pollination (outbreeding) mating of sperm and egg from genetically different organisms of the same species.
29 Reproductive strategies- Cross-pollination Disadvantages energy expenditure Advantages increased genetic diversity
30 Reproductive strategies Many plants have mechanisms to increase the chance of cross-pollination even though they may be capable of self-pollination.
31 The most obvious mechanism to insure crosspollination is the separation of the sexes into different individuals (dioecious plants). The willows are dioecious, with separate male and female plants.
32 Self-pollination can be prevented (or greatly reduced) in monoecious plants by various factors including: 1) Different timing of production of pollen and the receptivity of the stigma
33 Self-pollination can be prevented (or greatly reduced) in monoecious plants by various factors including: 1) Different timing of production of pollen and the receptivity of the stigma 2) A genetic system that prevents the elongation of the pollen tube on a stigma of the same plant (selfincompatibility)
34 A flower s own pollen can begin to grow through the style toward the ovary. Enzymes produced within the pollen tube destroy pollen-tube RNA, which causes the tube to stop growing.
35 Self-pollination can be prevented (or greatly reduced) in monoecious plants by various factors including: 1) Different timing of production of pollen and the receptivity of the stigma 2) A genetic system that prevents the elongation of the pollen tube on a stigma of the same plant (selfincompatibility) 3) A genetic system that prevents genes expressed in cells at the stigma surface allow genetically distinct pollen from flowers of the same species, but not genetically identical pollen
36
37 These early roadblocks prevent the formation of unhealthy, inbred embryos, allowing eggs the change to successfully outbreed.
38 A number of plants do not require pollination at all to produce seeds.
39 Apomixis is the general term for this type of reproduction, where no fusion of egg and sperm nuclei occurs.
40 Although there are showy flowers produced, pollen is not actually involved in seed production and offspring are clones of the single parent plant.
41 In many plants, pollination is affected by vectors. A vector is some factor, either biotic or abiotic, that transfers the pollen from one flower to another.
42 Different flowers have features that adapt them to pollination by different types of vectors.
43 Different flowers have features that adapt them to pollination by different types of vectors. The set of flower and pollen traits that adapt a plant for pollination by a particular vector is its pollination syndrome.
44 This system almost always includes some kind of reward for the vector, such as nectar or pollen. Nectar is typically rich in sugar and pollen has high protein content.
45
46 Flower color Beetles, flies and bats are generally not attracted by flower color.
47 Flower color Beetles, flies and bats are generally not attracted by flower color. Plants pollinated by these vectors have dull colored flowers.
48 Flower color Wind pollinated flowers often lack petals.
49 Flower color Visual pollinators often prefer different colors.
50 Flower color Visual pollinators often prefer different colors. Bee flowers are often blue (and generally ultraviolet), whereas bird flowers are red or orange.
51 Nectar guides Nectar guides are generally present on bee and butterfly flowers.
52 Nectar guides Patterns on flowers act somewhat like a bull s eye guiding the pollinator to the nectar reward.
53 Nectar guides In some bee flowers, the nectar guides are most visible with UV light. Bees can see in the UV spectrum.
54 Odor Pollinators that are not attracted by colors are usually attracted by strong odors.
55 Odor Moths forage at night.
56 Odor They can pick out pale or white flowers, but they are strongly attracted to sweet odors.
57 Nectar and Pollen Most biotic vectors are rewarded with nectar.
58 Nectar and Pollen The nectar is usually hidden so that only the vector with special structures can access the nectar.
59 Nectar and Pollen spur Nasturtium This feature is best seen in butterfly and moth flowers, where nectar often is in deep spurs that require a long proboscis to access.
60 Nectar and Pollen Pollen is another reward for vectors, but the amount varies among the flower types.
61 Nectar and Pollen Beetle and bat flowers typically have the most pollen reward.
62 Flower shape Flower shape is also quite different for each type of pollinating vector.
63 Beetle Flowers Beetle flowers are typically not very colorful and lack nectar guides and nectaries.
64 Beetle Flowers The flower is regular, with a dish shape. There is abundant pollen and numerous stamens and pistils.
65 Beetle Flowers The beetles are attracted to the flower by the abundant pollen and can often eat significant portions of the flower.
66 Fly Flowers The main feature of fly flowers is their stench of putrid meat. This attracts the flies without requiring a reward.
67 Fly Flowers The largest flowers are fly flowers found in the tropics.
68 Bee Flowers Bee flowers come in many colors and shapes, but they do not have spurs that are found in butterfly and moth flowers. Abundant high-sugar nectar is normal.
69 Butterfly and Moth Flowers These two flower types often have similar tubular shapes, but butterfly flowers are adapted to the visual foraging of butterflies and moth flowers are adapted to the nighttime foraging of moths.
70 Butterfly and Moth Flowers These two flower types often have similar tubular shapes, but butterfly flowers are adapted to the visual foraging of butterflies and moth flowers are adapted to the nighttime foraging of moths.
71 Bird Flowers Bird flowers are often pendant (hang downward) and tubular.
72 The bird vectors have long, thin beaks to access the nectar. Bird Flowers Bird flowers are often pendant (hang downward) and tubular.
73 Bat Flowers Bat flowers are fairly common in the tropics.
74 Bat Flowers Bat flowers are fairly common in the tropics. Most are pendant, large flowers that open at night.
75 Wind Flowers Wind pollinated flowers are not showy, produce massive amounts of pollen, and have the anthers and stigmas exserted (emergent from the flower)
76 Water is also a pollen vector in a few plants. Vallisneria male and female flowers
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