Lecture 2: Probability
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1 Lecture 2: Probability
2 Statistical Paradigms Statistical Estimator Method of Estimation Output Data Complexity Prior Info Classical Cost Function Analytical Solution Point Estimate Simple No Maximum Likelihood Probability Theory Numerical Optimization Point Estimate Intermediate No Bayesian Probability Theory Sampling Probability Distribution Complex Yes The unifying principal for this course is statistical estimation based on probability
3 Overview Basic probability Joint, marginal, conditional probability Bayes Rule Random variables Probability distribution Discrete Continuous Moments One could spend ½ a semester on this alone...
4 Example White-breasted fruit dove (Ptilinopus rivoli) Yellow-bibbed fruit dove (Ptilinopus solomonensis)
5 Events S Sc R 2 9 Rc 18 3 Pr(A) = probability that event A occurs Pr(R) =? Pr(Rc) =? Pr(S) =? Pr(Sc) =?
6 Events S Sc R 2 9 Rc 18 3 Pr(A) = probability that event A occurs Pr(R) = 11/32 Pr(Rc) = 21/32 Pr(S) = 20/32 Pr(Sc) = 12/32
7 Events S Sc R 2 9 Pr(R) = 11/32 Rc 18 3 Pr(Rc) = 21/32 Pr(S) = 20/32 Pr(Sc) = 12/32 32 Joint Probability Pr(A,B) = probability that both A and B occur Pr(R,Sc) =? Pr(S,Rc) =? Pr(R,S) =? Pr(Rc,Sc) =?
8 Events S Sc R 2 9 Pr(R) = 11/32 Rc 18 3 Pr(Rc) = 21/32 Pr(S) = 20/32 Pr(Sc) = 12/32 32 Joint Probability Pr(A,B) = probability that both A and B occur Pr(R,Sc) = 9/32 Pr(S,Rc) = 18/32 Pr(R,S) = 2/32 Pr(Rc,Sc) = 3/32
9 Events S Sc R 2 9 Pr(R) = 11/32 Rc 18 3 Pr(Rc) = 21/32 Pr(S) = 20/32 Pr(Sc) = 12/32 32 Pr(A or B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) Pr(A,B) = 1 Pr(neither) Pr(R or S) =?
10 Events S Sc R 2 9 Pr(R) = 11/32 Rc 18 3 Pr(Rc) = 21/32 Pr(S) = 20/32 Pr(Sc) = 12/32 32 Pr(A or B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) Pr(A,B) = 1 Pr(neither) Pr(R or S) = 11/ /32 2/32 = 29/32 = 32/32 3/32 = 29/32
11 Events S Sc R 2 9 Pr(R) = 11/32 Rc 18 3 Pr(Rc) = 21/32 Pr(S) = 20/32 Pr(Sc) = 12/32 32 If Pr(A,B) = Pr(A) Pr(B) then A and B are independent Pr(R,S) = Pr(R) Pr(S)??
12 Events S Sc R 2 9 Pr(R) = 11/32 Rc 18 3 Pr(Rc) = 21/32 Pr(S) = 20/32 Pr(Sc) = 12/32 32 If Pr(A,B) = Pr(A) Pr(B) then A and B are independent = 2/32 = Pr(R,S) Pr(R) Pr(S) = 11/32 20/32 = 0.215
13 Events S Sc R 2 9 Pr(R) = 11/32 Rc 18 3 Pr(Rc) = 21/32 Pr(S) = 20/32 Pr(Sc) = 12/32 32 Conditional Probability Pr(A B) = Probability of A given B occurred Pr(A B) = Pr(A,B) / Pr(B) Pr(B A) = Pr(B,A) / Pr(A) Pr(R S) =?
14 Events S Sc R 2 9 Pr(R) = 11/32 Rc 18 3 Pr(Rc) = 21/32 Pr(S) = 20/32 Pr(Sc) = 12/32 32 Conditional Probability Pr(B A) = Pr(B,A) / Pr(A) Pr(A B) = Pr(A,B) / Pr(B) Pr(R S) = Pr(R,S) / Pr(S) = (2/32) / (20/32) = 2/20
15 Events S Sc R 2 9 Pr(R) = 11/32 Rc 18 3 Pr(Rc) = 21/32 Pr(S) = 20/32 Pr(Sc) = 12/32 32 Conditional Probability Pr(B A) = Pr(B,A) / Pr(A) Pr(A B) = Pr(A,B) / Pr(B) Pr(S R) = Pr(S,R) / Pr(R) = (2/32) / (11/32) = 2/11
16 Events S Sc R 2 9 Pr(R) = 11/32 Rc 18 3 Pr(Rc) = 21/32 Pr(S) = 20/32 Pr(Sc) = 12/32 32 Joint = Conditional Marginal Pr(B A) = Pr(B, A) / Pr(A) Pr(B, A) = Pr(B A) Pr(A) Pr(S, R) = Pr(S R) Pr(R) 2/32 = (2/11) (11/32)
17 Events S Sc R 2 9 Pr(R) = 11/32 Rc 18 3 Pr(Rc) = 21/32 Pr(S) = 20/32 Pr(Sc) = 12/32 32 Pr(B) = S Pr(B,A i ) Pr(R) =? Marginal Probability
18 Events S Sc Marginal R 2 9 Pr(R) = 11/32 Rc 18 3 Pr(Rc) = 21/32 Marginal Pr(S) = 20/32 Pr(Sc) = 12/32 32 Pr(B) = S Pr(B, A i ) Marginal Probability Pr(R) = Pr(R, S) + Pr(R, Sc) = 2/32 + 9/32 = 11/32
19 Events S Sc R 2 9 Pr(R) = 11/32 Rc 18 3 Pr(Rc) = 21/32 Pr(S) = 20/32 Pr(Sc) = 12/32 32 Marginal Probability Pr(B) = S Pr(B,A i ) Pr(B) = S Pr(B A i ) Pr(A i ) Pr(R) =?
20 Events S Sc Marginal R 2 9 Pr(R) = 11/32 Rc 18 3 Pr(Rc) = 21/32 Marginal Pr(S) = 20/32 Pr(Sc) = 12/32 32 Marginal Probability Pr(B) = S Pr(B A i ) Pr(A i ) Pr(R) = Pr(R S) Pr(S) + Pr(R Sc) Pr(Sc) = 2/20 20/32 + 9/12 12/32 = 2/32 + 9/32 = 11/32
21 Conditional Probability Pr(B A) = Pr(B,A) / Pr(A) Pr(A B) = Pr(A,B) / Pr(B)
22 Conditional Probability Pr(B A) = Pr(B,A) / Pr(A) Pr(A B) = Pr(A,B) / Pr(B) Pr(A,B) = Pr(B A) Pr(A) Pr(B,A) = Pr(A B) Pr(B)
23 Conditional Probability Pr(B A) = Pr(B,A) / Pr(A) Pr(A B) = Pr(A,B) / Pr(B) Pr(A,B) = Pr(B A) Pr(A) Pr(B,A) = Pr(A B) Pr(B) Joint = Conditional x Marginal
24 Conditional Probability Pr(B A) = Pr(B,A) / Pr(A) Pr(A B) = Pr(A,B) / Pr(B) Pr(A,B) = Pr(B A) Pr(A) Pr(B,A) = Pr(A B) Pr(B) Joint = Conditional x Marginal Competition: Best mnemonic
25 Conditional Probability Pr(B A) = Pr(B,A) / Pr(A) Pr(A B) = Pr(A,B) / Pr(B) Pr(A,B) = Pr(B A) Pr(A) Pr(B,A) = Pr(A B) Pr(B) Pr(A B) Pr(B) = Pr(B A) Pr(A)
26 Conditional Probability Pr(B A) = Pr(B,A) / Pr(A) Pr(A B) = Pr(A,B) / Pr(B) Pr(A,B) = Pr(B A) Pr(A) Pr(B,A) = Pr(A B) Pr(B) Pr(A B) Pr(B) = Pr(B A) Pr(A) Pr(A B) = Pr(B A) Pr(A) / Pr(B) BAYES RULE
27 Events S Sc R 2 9 Pr(R) = 11/32 Rc 18 3 Pr(Rc) = 21/32 Pr(S) = 20/32 Pr(Sc) = 12/32 32 Bayes Rule Pr(A B) = Pr(B A) Pr(A) / Pr(B) Pr(R S) = Pr(S R) Pr(R) / Pr(S) = (2/11) (11/32) / (20/32) = 2/20
28 BAYES RULE: alternate form Pr(A B) = Pr(B A) Pr(A) / Pr(B) Pr(A B) = Pr(B A) Pr(A) / SPr(B,A i ) Pr(A B) = Pr(B A) Pr(A) / (SPr(B A i ) Pr(A i ) ) Normalizing Constant
29 Monty Hall Problem
30 Monty Hall Problem P 1 = 1/3 P 2 = 1/3 P 3 = 1/3
31 Monty Hall Problem P 1 open 3 =? P 2 open 3 =? P 3 open 3 =?
32 Monty Hall Problem open 3 P 1 open 3 P 2 open 3 P 3
33 Monty Hall Problem open 3 P 1 = 1/2 open 3 P 2 = 1 open 3 P 3 = 0
34 Monty Hall Problem P 1 open 3 = 1/3 P 2 open 3 = 2/3 P 3 open 3 = 0
35 Monty Hall Problem
36
37 BAYES RULE: alternate form Pr(A B) = Pr(B A) Pr(A) / Pr(B) Pr(A B) = Pr(B A) Pr(A) / (SPr(B A) Pr(A) ) Factoring probabilities: Pr(A,B,C) = Pr(A B,C)Pr(B,C) = Pr(A B,C)P(B C)Pr(C)
38 BAYES RULE: alternate form Pr(A B) = Pr(B A) Pr(A) / Pr(B) Pr(A B) = Pr(B A) Pr(A) / (SPr(B A) Pr(A) ) Factoring probabilities: Pr(A,B,C) = Pr(A B,C)Pr(B,C) = Pr(A B,C)P(B C)Pr(C) Joint = Conditional x Marginal
39 Random Variables a variable that can take on more than one value, in which the values are determined by probabilities Pr(Z = z k ) = p k given: 0 p k 1 Random variables can be continuous or discrete
40 Discrete random variables z k can only take on discrete values (typically integers) We can define two important and interrelated functions probability mass function (pmf): f(z) = Pr(Z = z k ) = p k where S f(z) = 1 (if not met, is just a density fcn) Cumulative distribution function (cdf): F(z) = Pr(Z z k ) = S f(z) summed up to k 0 F(z) 1 but can be infinite in z
41 Example For the set {1,2,3,4,5,6} f(z) = Pr(Z = z k ) = {1/6,1/6,1/6,1/6,1/6,1/6} F(z) = Pr(Z z k )= {1/6,2/6,3/6,4/6,5/6,6/6} For z < 1, f(z) = 0, F(z) = 0 For z > 6, f(z) = 0, F(z) = 1
42 Continuous Random Variables z is Real (though can still be bound) Cumulative distribution function (cdf): F(z) = Pr(Z z) where 0 F(z) 1 Pr(Z = z) is infinitely small Pr(z Z z + dz) = Pr(Z z+dz) Pr(Z z) = F(z+dz) F(z) Probability density function (pdf): f(z) = df/dz f(z) 0 but NOT bound by 1
43 Continuous Random Variables f is derivative of F F is integral of f z dz Pr z Z z dz = f z z ANY function that meets these rules (positive, integrate to 1) Wednesday we will be going over a number of standard number of distributions and discussing their interpretation/application.
44 Example: exponential distribution f z = exp z F z =1 exp z Where z 0 What are the values of F(z) and f(z): At z = 0? As z? What do F(z) and f(z) look like?
45 Exponential Exp x = exp x f(z) At z = 0 f(z) = l F(z) = 0 As z f(z) = 0 F(z) = 1 F(z)
46 E [ x]=1/λ Moments of probability distributions E[x n ]= x n f x dx E[ ] = Expected value First moment (n=1) = mean Example: exponential E [ x]= x f (x)dx= 0 = x exp( λ x) λ 0 x λ exp( λ x) λ exp( λ x)
47 Properties of means E[c] = c E[x + c] = E[x] + c E[cx] = c E[x] E[x+y] = E[x] + E[y] (even if X is not independent of Y) E(xy) = E[x]E[Y] E[g(x)]!= g(e[x]) only if independent Jensen's Inequality
48 Central Moments E[ x E[ x] n ]= x E[ x] n f x dx Second Central Moment = Variance = s 2
49 Var ax =a 2 Var X Var X b =Var X Properties of variance Var X Y =Var X Var Y 2Cov X,Y Var ax by =a 2 Var X b 2 Var Y 2abCov X,Y Var X = Var X i 2 i j Cov X i, X j Var X =Var E[ X Y ] E[Var X Y ]
50 Distributions and Probability all the same properties apply to random variables Pr A, B joint distribution Pr A B = Pr A, B Pr B conditional distribution Pr A = Pr A B i Pr B i marginal distribution Pr A B = Pr B A Pr A Pr B Baye's Rule
51 Looking forward... Use probability distributions to: Quantify the match between models and data Represent uncertainty about model parameters Partition sources of process variability
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