Standard Level Physics

Transcription

1 A Correlation of Standard Level Physics to the Syllabus Physics Standard Level

2 Table of Contents Topic 1: Measurements and uncertainties... 3 Topic 2: Mechanics... 5 Topic 3: Thermal physics... 8 Topic 4: Waves Topic 5: Electricity and magnetism Topic 6: Circular motion and gravitation Topic 7: Atomic, nuclear and particle physics Topic 8: Energy production Option A: Relativity Option B: Engineering physics Option C: Imaging Option D: Astrophysics Copyright 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliate(s). All rights reserved. 2

3 Topic 1: Measurements and uncertainties 1.1 Measurements in physics Essential idea: Since 1948, the Système International d Unités (SI) has been used as the preferred language of science and technology across the globe and reflects current best measurement practice. U1. Fundamental and derived SI units SE: 7-8 U2. Scientific notation and metric SE: 5 multipliers U3. Significant figures SE: 5 U4. Orders of magnitude SE: 5 U5. Estimation SE: 5-6 A1. Using SI units in the correct format for SE: 5-8 all required measurements, final answers to calculations and presentation of raw and processed data A2. Using scientific notation and metric SE: 5 multipliers A3. Quoting and comparing ratios, values SE: 7, 29, 31 and approximations to the nearest order of magnitude A4. Estimating quantities to an appropriate SE: 5, number of significant figures G1. SI unit usage and information can be SE: 7-8 found at the website of Bureau International des Poids et Mesures G2. Students will not need to know the definition of SI units except where explicitly stated in the relevant topics in this guide G3. Candela is not a required SI unit for this course G4. Guidance on any use of non-si units SE: 7-8 such as ev, MeV c -2, ly and pc will be provided in the relevant topics in this guide G5. Further guidance on how scientific SE: 5, 7-8 notation and significant figures are used in examinations can be found in the Teacher support material 3

4 1.2 Uncertainties and errors Essential idea: Scientists aim towards designing experiments that can give a true value from their measurements, but due to the limited precision in measuring devices, they often quote their results with some form of uncertainty. U1. Random and systematic errors SE: U2. Absolute, fractional and percentage SE: 11-12, 23-24, uncertainties U3. Error bars SE: 19, U4. Uncertainty of gradient and intercepts SE: 22-23, 33 A1. Explaining how random and systematic SE: 10-11, errors can be identified and reduced A2. Collecting data that include absolute SE: 11-12, 23-24, and/or fractional uncertainties and stating these as an uncertainty range (expressed as: best estimate ± uncertainty range) A3. Propagating uncertainties through SE: calculations involving addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and raising to a power A4. Determining the uncertainty in SE: 22-23, 29, 33 gradients and intercepts G1. Analysis of uncertainties will not be expected for trigonometric or logarithmic functions in examinations G2. Further guidance on how uncertainties, SE: 14-16, 19, error bars and lines of best fit are used in examinations can be found in the Teacher support material 1.3 Vectors and scalars Essential idea: Some quantities have direction and magnitude, others have magnitude only, and this understanding is the key to correct manipulation of quantities. This sub-topic will have broad applications across multiple fields within physics and other sciences. U.1 Vector and scalar quantities SE: 25 U.2 Combination and resolution of vectors SE: A.1 Solving vector problems graphically and SE: 25-28, algebraically G.1 Resolution of vectors will be limited to two perpendicular directions G.2 Problems will be limited to addition and subtraction of vectors and the multiplication and division of vectors by scalars 4

5 Topic 2: Mechanics 2.1 Motion Essential idea: Motion may be described and analysed by the use of graphs and equations. U.1 Distance and displacement SE: 36 U.2 Speed and velocity SE: 36 U.3 Acceleration SE: U.4 Graphs describing motion SE: U.5 Equations of motion for uniform SE: 41-42, acceleration U.6 Projectile motion SE: U.7 Fluid resistance and terminal speed SE: 52 A.1 Determining instantaneous and SE: 37-39, 41-43, 46-47, average values for velocity, speed and acceleration A.2 Solving problems using equations of SE: 42-43, 44-45, motion for uniform acceleration A.3 Sketching and interpreting motion SE: 45-47, graphs A.4 Determining the acceleration of free-fall SE: 44-45, 88 experimentally A.5 Analysing projectile motion, including SE: 49-52, 88 the resolution of vertical and horizontal components of acceleration, velocity and displacement A.6 Qualitatively describing the effect of SE: 44, 52, 88 fluid resistance on falling objects or projectiles, including reaching terminal speed G.1 Calculations will be restricted to those neglecting air resistance G.2 Projectile motion will only involve SE: problems using a constant value of g close to the surface of the Earth G.3 The equation of the path of a projectile will not be required 5

6 2.2 Forces Essential idea: Classical physics requires a force to change a state of motion, as suggested by Newton in his laws of motion. U.1 Objects as point particles SE: U.2 Free-body diagrams SE: U.3 Translational equilibrium SE: U.4 Newton s laws of motion SE: 58 U.5 Solid friction SE: A.1 Representing forces as vectors SE: 53-54, A.2 Sketching and interpreting free-body SE: 55-56, diagrams A.3 Describing the consequences of SE: 56, 68, 87 Newton s first law for translational equilibrium A.4 Using Newton s second law SE: 62-65, quantitatively and qualitatively A.5 Identifying force pairs in the context of SE: 67-68, Newton s third law A.6 Solving problems involving forces and SE: 54-55, 61, 87, 89 determining resultant force A.7 Describing solid friction (static and SE: dynamic) by coefficients of friction G.1 Students should label forces using SE: 55, 57 commonly accepted names or symbols (for example: weight or force of gravity or mg) G.2 Free-body diagrams should show scaled SE: vector lengths acting from the point of application G.3 Examples and questions will be limited to constant mass G.4 mg should be identified as weight SE: 57 G.5 Calculations relating to the determination of resultant forces will be restricted to one- and two-dimensional situations 6

7 2.3 Work, energy and power Essential idea: The fundamental concept of energy lays the basis upon which much of science is built. U.1 Kinetic energy SE: 78 U.2 Gravitational potential energy SE: 78 U.3 Elastic potential energy SE: U.4 Work done as energy transfer SE: U.5 Power as rate of energy transfer SE: U.6 Principle of conservation of energy SE: 78 U.7 Efficiency SE: 81, 85 A.1 Discussing the conservation of total SE: 78, energy within energy transformations A.2 Sketching and interpreting force SE: distance graphs A.3 Determining work done including cases SE: 74-76, 80-81, where a resistive force acts A.4 Solving problems involving power SE: 84-85, A.5 Quantitatively describing efficiency in SE: 81, 85, energy transfers G.1 Cases where the line of action of the SE: force and the displacement are not parallel should be considered G.2 Examples should include force distance SE: graphs for variable forces 2.4 Momentum and impulse Essential idea: Conservation of momentum is an example of a law that is never violated. U.1 Newton s second law expressed in SE: terms of rate of change of momentum U.2 Impulse and force time graphs SE: 62, U.3 Conservation of linear momentum SE: U.4 Elastic collisions, inelastic collisions and SE: explosions 7

8 A.1 Applying conservation of momentum in SE: 69-71, simple isolated systems including (but not limited to) collisions, explosions, or water jets A.2 Using Newton s second law SE: 62-65, 68, quantitatively and qualitatively in cases where mass is not constant A.3 Sketching and interpreting force time SE: graphs A.4 Determining impulse in various SE: contexts including (but not limited to) car safety and sports A.5 Qualitatively and quantitatively SE: 68-70, 89 comparing situations involving elastic collisions, inelastic collisions and explosions G.1 Students should be aware that F = ma is SE: equivalent of F = p/ t only when mass is constant G.2 Solving simultaneous equations involving conservation of momentum and energy in collisions will not be required G.3 Calculations relating to collisions and explosions will be restricted to one-dimensional situations G.4 A comparison between energy involved SE: in inelastic collisions (in which kinetic energy is not conserved) and the conservation of (total) energy should be made Topic 3: Thermal physics 3.1 Thermal concepts Essential idea: Thermal physics deftly demonstrates the links between the macroscopic measurements essential to many scientific models with the microscopic properties that underlie these models. U.1 Molecular theory of solids, liquids and SE: gases U.2 Temperature and absolute temperature SE: U.3 Internal energy SE: U.4 Specific heat capacity SE: 106 U.5 Phase change SE: U.6 Specific latent heat SE: 109 8

9 A.1 Describing temperature change in SE: terms of internal energy A.2 Using Kelvin and Celsius temperature SE: scales and converting between them A.3 Applying the calorimetric techniques of SE: 111, specific heat capacity or specific latent heat experimentally A.4 Describing phase change in terms of SE: , 121 molecular behaviour A.5 Sketching and interpreting phase SE: 110, 121 change graphs A.6 Calculating energy changes involving SE: , 109, 111, specific heat capacity and specific latent heat of fusion and vaporization G.1 Internal energy is taken to be the total SE: intermolecular potential energy + the total random kinetic energy of the molecules G.2 Phase change graphs may have axes of SE: 110 temperature versus time or temperature versus energy G.3 The effects of cooling should be SE: 111 understood qualitatively but cooling correction calculations are not required 3.2 Modelling a gas Essential idea: The properties of ideal gases allow scientists to make predictions of the behaviour of real gases. U.1 Pressure SE: 114 U.2 Equation of state for an ideal gas SE: 119 U.3 Kinetic model of an ideal gas SE: U.4 Mole, molar mass and the Avogadro SE: constant U.5 Differences between real and ideal SE: 112, 120 gases 9

10 A.1 Solving problems using the equation of SE: , 123 state for an ideal gas and gas laws A.2 Sketching and interpreting changes of SE: , 123 state of an ideal gas on pressure volume, pressure temperature and volume temperature diagrams A.3 Investigating at least one gas law SE: , 123 experimentally G.1 Students should be aware of the SE: 112 assumptions that underpin the molecular kinetic theory of ideal gases G.2 Gas laws are limited to constant volume, constant temperature, constant pressure and the ideal gas law G.3 Students should understand that a real SE: 120 gas approximates to an ideal gas at conditions of low pressure, moderate temperature and low density Topic 4: Waves 4.1 Oscillations Essential idea: A study of oscillations underpins many areas of physics with simple harmonic motion (shm), a fundamental oscillation that appears in various natural phenomena. U.1 Simple harmonic oscillations SE: U.2 Time period, frequency, amplitude, SE: displacement and phase difference U.3 Conditions for simple harmonic motion SE: 142 A.1 Qualitatively describing the energy SE: , 177 changes taking place during one cycle of an oscillation A.2 Sketching and interpreting graphs of SE: , 177 simple harmonic motion examples G.1 Graphs describing simple harmonic SE: motion should include displacement time, velocity time, acceleration time and acceleration displacement G.2 Students are expected to understand SE: the significance of the negative sign in the relationship: a -x 10

11 4.2 Travelling waves Essential idea: There are many forms of waves available to be studied. A common characteristic of all travelling waves is that they carry energy, but generally the medium through which they travel will not be permanently disturbed. U.1 Travelling waves SE: U.2 Wavelength, frequency, period and SE: 154 wave speed U.3 Transverse and longitudinal waves SE: 154, U.4 The nature of electromagnetic waves SE: U.5 The nature of sound waves SE: 167 A.1 Explaining the motion of particles of a SE: , , medium when a wave passes through it for both transverse and longitudinal cases A.2 Sketching and interpreting SE: , , displacement distance graphs and displacement time graphs for transverse and longitudinal waves A.3 Solving problems involving wave speed, SE: 155, frequency and wavelength A.4 Investigating the speed of sound SE: 170 experimentally G.1 Students will be expected to derive c = SE: f G.2 Students should be aware of the order SE: of magnitude of the wavelengths of radio, microwave, infra-red, visible, ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma rays 11

12 4.3 Wave characteristics Essential idea: All waves can be described by the same sets of mathematical ideas. Detailed knowledge of one area leads to the possibility of prediction in another. U.1 Wavefronts and rays SE: U.2 Amplitude and intensity SE: 154, 172 U.3 Superposition SE: 153 U.4 Polarization SE: 155, 176 A.1 Sketching and interpreting diagrams SE: 162, 177 involving wavefronts and rays A.2 Solving problems involving amplitude, SE: 155, , intensity and the inverse square law A.3 Sketching and interpreting the SE: 153, superposition of pulses and waves A.4 Describing methods of polarization SE: 155, 176, 182 A.5 Sketching and interpreting diagrams SE: , 176, 182 illustrating polarized, reflected and transmitted beams A.6 Solving problems involving Malus s law SE: 176, 182 G.1 Students will be expected to calculate SE: the resultant of two waves or pulses both graphically and algebraically G.2 Methods of polarization will be restricted to the use of polarizing filters and reflection from a non-metallic plane surface 4.4 Wave behaviour Essential idea: Waves interact with media and each other in a number of ways that can be unexpected and useful. U.1 Reflection and refraction SE: , U.2 Snell s law, critical angle and total SE: , 174 internal reflection U.3 Diffraction through a single-slit and SE: 164 around objects U.4 Interference patterns SE: 165, 175 U.5 Double-slit interference SE: 175 U.6 Path difference SE:

13 A.1 Sketching and interpreting incident, SE: 155, , 177 reflected and transmitted waves at boundaries between media A.2 Solving problems involving reflection at SE: 173 a plane interface A.3 Solving problems involving Snell s law, SE: 164, 174 critical angle and total internal reflection A.4 Determining refractive index SE: experimentally A.5 Qualitatively describing the diffraction SE: 164, 175 pattern formed when plane waves are incident normally on a single-slit A.6 Quantitatively describing double-slit SE: 175 interference intensity patterns G.1 Quantitative descriptions of refractive index are limited to light rays passing between two or more transparent media. If more than two media, only parallel interfaces will be considered G.2 Students will not be expected to derive the double-slit equation G.3 Students should have the opportunity SE: 165, 175 to observe diffraction and interference patterns arising from more than one type of wave 4.5 Standing waves Essential idea: When travelling waves meet they can superpose to form standing waves in which energy may not be transferred. U.1 The nature of standing waves SE: , U.2 Boundary conditions SE: U.3 Nodes and antinodes SE: 157 A.1 Describing the nature and formation of SE: 157, standing waves in terms of superposition A.2 Distinguishing between standing and SE: 157, travelling waves A.3 Observing, sketching and interpreting SE: , , standing wave patterns in strings and pipes A.4 Solving problems involving the SE: 159, 170, frequency of a harmonic, length of the standing wave and the speed of the wave 13

14 G.1 Students will be expected to consider SE: the formation of standing waves from the superposition of no more than two waves G.2 Boundary conditions for strings are: SE: two fixed boundaries; fixed and free boundary; two free boundaries G.3 Boundary conditions for pipes are: two SE: closed boundaries; closed and open boundary; two open boundaries G.4 For standing waves in air, explanations will not be required in terms of pressure nodes and pressure antinodes G.5 The lowest frequency mode of a SE: 158, 168 standing wave is known as the first harmonic G.6 The terms fundamental and overtone will not be used in examination questions Topic 5: Electricity and magnetism 5.1 Electric fields Essential idea: When charges move an electric current is created. U.1 Charge SE: 186 U.2 Electric field SE: 187 U.3 Coulomb s law SE: 189 U.4 Electric current SE: U.5 Direct current (dc) SE: 193 U.6 Potential difference SE: A.1 Identifying two forms of charge and the SE: 188 direction of the forces between them A.2 Solving problems involving electric SE: 189 fields and Coulomb s law A.3 Calculating work done in an electric SE: field in both joules and electronvolts A.4 Identifying sign and nature of charge SE: 193 carriers in a metal A.5 Identifying drift speed of charge carriers SE: 194 A.6 Solving problems using the drift speed SE: 194 equation A.7 Solving problems involving current, SE: , potential difference and charge 14

15 G.1 Students will be expected to apply SE: 189 Coulomb s law for a range of permittivity values 5.2 Heating effect of electric currents Essential idea: One of the earliest uses for electricity was to produce light and heat. This technology continues to have a major impact on the lives of people around the world. U.1 Circuit diagrams SE: U.2 Kirchhoff s circuit laws SE: 212 U.3 Heating effect of current and its SE: , consequences U.4 Resistance expressed as R = V/I SE: 195 U.5 Ohm s law SE: 195 U.6 Resistivity SE: U.7 Power dissipation SE: A.1 Drawing and interpreting circuit SE: , diagrams A.2 Identifying ohmic and non-ohmic SE: , conductors through a consideration of the V/I characteristic graph A.3 Solving problems involving potential SE: 195, , difference, current, charge, Kirchhoff s circuit laws, power, resistance and resistivity A.4 Investigating combinations of resistors in parallel and series circuits SE: , A.5 Describing ideal and non-ideal SE: , 223 ammeters and voltmeters A.6 Describing practical uses of potential SE: 204, 214 divider circuits, including the advantages of a potential divider over a series resistor in controlling a simple circuit A.7 Investigating one or more of the factors SE: , that affect resistance experimentally 15

16 G.1 The filament lamp should be described SE: 196, 203 as a non-ohmic device; a metal wire at a constant temperature is an ohmic device G.2 The use of non-ideal voltmeters is confined to voltmeters with a constant but finite resistance G.3 The use of non-ideal ammeters is confined to ammeters with a constant but non-zero resistance G.4 Application of Kirchhoff s circuit laws will be limited to circuits with a maximum number of two source-carrying loops 5.3 Electric cells Essential idea: Electric cells allow us to store energy in a chemical form. U.1 Cells SE: U.2 Internal resistance SE: 198 U.3 Secondary cells SE: 198, 207 U.4 Terminal potential difference SE: 198 U.5 Electromotive force (emf) SE: 198 A.1 Investigating practical electric cells SE: 198, 201, 207, (both primary and secondary) A.2 Describing the discharge characteristic SE: , 201, of a simple cell (variation of terminal potential difference with time) A.3 Identifying the direction of current flow SE: 198, 207 required to recharge a cell A.4 Determining internal resistance SE: 206, experimentally A.5 Solving problems involving emf, internal SE: , resistance and other electrical quantities G.1 Students should recognize that the SE: terminal potential difference of a typical practical electric cell loses its initial value quickly, has a stable and constant value for most of its lifetime, followed by a rapid decrease to zero as the cell discharges completely 16

17 5.4 Magnetic effects of electric currents Essential idea: The effect scientists call magnetism arises when one charge moves in the vicinity of another moving charge. U.1 Magnetic fields SE: 207 U.2 Magnetic force SE: 219 A.1 Determining the direction of force on a SE: charge moving in a magnetic field A.2 Determining the direction of force on a SE: 219 current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field A.3 Sketching and interpreting magnetic SE: field patterns A.4 Determining the direction of the SE: 218 magnetic field based on current direction A.5 Solving problems involving magnetic SE: 220 forces, fields, current and charges G.1 Magnetic field patterns will be restricted to long straight conductors, solenoids, and bar magnets Topic 6: Circular motion and gravitation 6.1 Circular motion Essential idea: A force applied perpendicular to its displacement can result in circular motion. U.1 Period, frequency, angular SE: 126 displacement and angular velocity U.2 Centripetal force SE: 127 U.3 Centripetal acceleration SE: A.1 Identifying the forces providing the SE: , 138 centripetal forces such as tension, friction, gravitational, electrical, or magnetic A.2 Solving problems involving centripetal SE: 127, force, centripetal acceleration, period, frequency, angular displacement, linear speed and angular velocity A.3 Qualitatively and quantitatively SE: , describing examples of circular motion including cases of vertical and horizontal circular motion G.1 Banking will be considered qualitatively only 17

18 6.2 Newton s law of gravitation Essential idea: The Newtonian idea of gravitational force acting between two spherical bodies and the laws of mechanics create a model that can be used to calculate the motion of planets. U.1 Newton s law of gravitation SE: U.2 Gravitational field strength SE: 134 A.1 Describing the relationship between SE: , gravitational force and centripetal force A.2 Applying Newton s law of gravitation to SE: 134, the motion of an object in circular orbit around a point mass A.3 Solving problems involving gravitational SE: , force, gravitational field strength, orbital speed and orbital period A.4 Determining the resultant gravitational SE: 135, 139 field strength due to two bodies G.1 Newton s law of gravitation should be SE: extended to spherical masses of uniform density by assuming that their mass is concentrated at their centre G.2 Gravitational field strength at a point is SE: 134 the force per unit mass experienced by a small point mass at that point G.3 Calculations of the resultant gravitational field strength due to two bodies will be restricted to points along the straight line joining the bodies Topic 7: Atomic, nuclear and particle physics 7.1 Discrete energy and radioactivity Essential idea: In the microscopic world energy is discrete. U.1 Discrete energy and discrete energy SE: 233 levels U.2 Transitions between energy levels SE: U.3 Radioactive decay SE: 242, U.4 Fundamental forces and their SE: 239, 254 properties U.5 Alpha particles, beta particles and SE: gamma rays U.6 Half-life SE: 249 U.7 Absorption characteristics of decay SE: particles U.8 Isotopes SE:

19 U.9 Background radiation SE: A.1 Describing the emission and absorption SE: , 264, 267 spectrum of common gases A.2 Solving problems involving atomic SE: 234, , 267 spectra, including calculating the wavelength of photons emitted during atomic transitions A.3 Completing decay equations for alpha SE: , and beta decay A.4 Determining the half-life of a nuclide SE: 249, 265 from a decay curve A.5 Investigating half-life experimentally (or SE: , 265 by simulation) G.1 Students will be required to solve SE: problems on radioactive decay involving only integral numbers of half-lives G.2 Students will be expected to include the SE: neutrino and antineutrino in beta decay equations 7.2 Nuclear reactions Essential idea: Energy can be released in nuclear decays and reactions as a result of the relationship between mass and energy. U.1 The unified atomic mass unit SE: 238 U.2 Mass defect and nuclear binding energy SE: U.3 Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion SE: A.1 Solving problems involving mass defect SE: , and binding energy A.2 Solving problems involving the energy SE: , released in radioactive decay, nuclear fission and nuclear fusion A.3 Sketching and interpreting the general SE: 241, shape of the curve of average binding energy per nucleon against nucleon number G.1 Students must be able to calculate SE: 240 changes in terms of mass or binding energy G.2 Binding energy may be defined in terms SE: of energy required to completely separate the nucleons or the energy released when a nucleus is formed from its nucleons 19

20 7.3 The structure of matter Essential idea: It is believed that all the matter around us is made up of fundamental particles called quarks and leptons. It is known that matter has a hierarchical structure with quarks making up nucleons, nucleons making up nuclei, nuclei and electrons making up atoms and atoms making up molecules. In this hierarchical structure, the smallest scale is seen for quarks and leptons (10 18 m). U.1 Quarks, leptons and their antiparticles SE: 253, , 262 U.2 Hadrons, baryons and mesons SE: 253, 256 U.3 The conservation laws of charge, SE: baryon number, lepton number and strangeness U.4 The nature and range of the strong SE: 254 nuclear force, weak nuclear force and electromagnetic force U.5 Exchange particles SE: 254 U.6 Feynman diagrams SE: 255 U.7 Confinement SE: 260 U.8 The Higgs boson SE: 263 A.1 Describing the Rutherford-Geiger- SE: Marsden experiment that led to the discovery of the nucleus A.2 Applying conservation laws in particle SE: , 268 reactions A.3 Describing protons and neutrons in SE: , 262, 268 terms of quarks A.4 Comparing the interaction strengths of SE: 254 the fundamental forces, including gravity A.5 Describing the mediation of the SE: 254, fundamental forces through exchange particles A.6 Sketching and interpreting simple SE: , 269 Feynman diagrams A.7 Describing why free quarks are not SE: 260, observed G.1 A qualitative description of the standard SE: model is required 20

21 Topic 8: Energy production 8.1 Energy sources Essential idea: The constant need for new energy sources implies decisions that may have a serious effect on the environment. The finite quantity of fossil fuels and their implication in global warming has led to the development of alternative sources of energy. This continues to be an area of rapidly changing technological innovation. U.1 Specific energy and energy density of SE: 274 fuel sources U.2 Sankey diagrams SE: 273, U.3 Primary energy sources SE: U.4 Electricity as a secondary and versatile SE: form of energy U.5 Renewable and non-renewable energy SE: , sources A.1 Solving specific energy and energy SE: 274, 277 density problems A.2 Sketching and interpreting Sankey SE: 273, diagrams A.3 Describing the basic features of fossil SE: 276, 278, 281, 284, 286, fuel power stations, nuclear power stations, wind generators, pumped storage hydroelectric systems and solar power cells A.4 Solving problems relevant to energy SE: 277, 280, , 286, transformations in the context of these generating systems A.5 Discussing safety issues and risks SE: , associated with the production of nuclear power A.6 Describing the differences between SE: , photovoltaic cells and solar heating panels G.1 Specific energy has units of J kg 1 ; SE: 274 energy density has units of J m 3 G.2 The description of the basic features of SE: nuclear power stations must include the use of control rods, moderators and heat exchangers G.3 Derivation of the wind generator SE: equation is not required but an awareness of relevant assumptions and limitations is required 21

22 G.4 Students are expected to be aware of SE: new and developing technologies which may become important during the life of this guide 8.2 Thermal energy transfer Essential idea: For simplified modelling purposes the Earth can be treated as a black-body radiator and the atmosphere treated as a grey-body. U.1 Conduction, convection and thermal SE: 104 radiation U.2 Black-body radiation SE: U.3 Albedo and emissivity SE: 250, 295, 299 U.4 The solar constant SE: 292, 299 U.5 The greenhouse effect SE: 295 U.6 Energy balance in the Earth surface SE: atmosphere system A.1 Sketching and interpreting graphs SE: 291, showing the variation of intensity with wavelength for bodies emitting thermal radiation at different temperatures A.2 Solving problems involving the Stefan SE: , 303 Boltzmann law and Wien s displacement law A.3 Describing the effects of the Earth s SE: 296, atmosphere on the mean surface temperature A.4 Solving problems involving albedo, SE: , 303 emissivity, solar constant and the Earth s average temperature G.1 Discussion of conduction and convection will be qualitative only G.2 Discussion of conduction is limited to intermolecular and electron collisions G.3 Discussion of convection is limited to simple gas or liquid transfer via density differences G.4 The absorption of infrared radiation by SE: greenhouse gases should be described in terms of the molecular energy levels and the subsequent emission of radiation in all directions G.5 The greenhouse gases to be considered SE: are CH 4, H 2 O, CO 2 and N 2 O. It is sufficient for students to know that each has both natural and man-made origins. 22

23 G.6 Earth s albedo varies daily and is SE: 295 dependent on season (cloud formations) and latitude. The global annual mean albedo will be taken to be 0.3 (30%) for Earth. Option A: Relativity Core topics A.1 The beginnings of relativity Essential idea: Einstein s study of electromagnetism revealed inconsistencies between the theory of Maxwell and Newton s mechanics. He recognized that both theories could not be reconciled and so choosing to trust Maxwell s theory of electromagnetism he was forced to change longcherished ideas about space and time in mechanics. U.1 Reference frames SE: U.2 Galilean relativity and Newton s SE: postulates concerning time and space U.3 Maxwell and the constancy of the speed SE: of light U.4 Forces on a charge or current SE: A.1 Using the Galilean transformation SE: , 334 equations A.2 Determining whether a force on a SE: charge or current is electric or magnetic in a given frame of reference A.3 Determining the nature of the fields SE: , 332 observed by different observers G.1 Maxwell s equations do not need to be described G.2 Qualitative treatment of electric and SE: magnetic fields as measured by observers in relative motion. Examples will include a charge moving in a magnetic field or two charged particles moving with parallel velocities. Students will be asked to analyse these motions from the point of view of observers at rest with respect to the particles and observers at rest with respect to the magnetic field. 23

24 A.2 Lorentz transformations Essential idea: Observers in relative uniform motion disagree on the numerical values of space and time coordinates for events, but agree with the numerical value of the speed of light in a vacuum. The Lorentz transformation equations relate the values in one reference frame to those in another. These equations replace the Galilean transformation equations that fail for speeds close to that of light. U.1 The two postulates of special relativity SE: 312 U.2 Clock synchronization SE: 315 U.3 The Lorentz transformations SE: U.4 Velocity addition SE: U.5 Invariant quantities (spacetime interval, SE: 314, 317, proper time, proper length and rest mass) U.6 Time dilation SE: U.7 Length contraction SE: 319 U.8 The muon decay experiment SE: A.1 Using the Lorentz transformations to SE: , 335 describe how different measurements of space and time by two observers can be converted into the measurements observed in either frame of reference A.2 Using the Lorentz transformation SE: , 335 equations to determine the position and time coordinates of various events A.3 Using the Lorentz transformation SE: , 335 equations to show that if two events are simultaneous for one observer but happen at different points in space, then the events are not simultaneous for an observer in a different reference frame A.4 Solving problems involving velocity SE: addition A.5 Deriving the time dilation and length SE: , 335 contraction equations using the Lorentz equations A.6 Solving problems involving time dilation SE: , 332 and length contraction A.7 Solving problems involving the muon SE: decay experiment 24

25 G.1 Problems will be limited to one dimension G.2 Derivation of the Lorentz transformation equations will not be examined G.3 Muon decay experiments can be used SE: as evidence for both time dilation and length contraction A.3 Spacetime diagrams Essential idea: Spacetime diagrams are a very clear and illustrative way to show graphically how different observers in relative motion to each other have measurements that differ from each other. U.1 Spacetime diagrams SE: U.2 Worldlines SE: U.3 The twin paradox SE: A.1 Representing events on a spacetime SE: diagram as points A.2 Representing the positions of a moving SE: particle on a spacetime diagram by a curve (the worldline) A.3 Representing more than one inertial SE: , reference frame on the same spacetime diagram A.4 Determining the angle between a SE: 327 worldline for specific speed and the time axis on a spacetime diagram A.5 Solving problems on simultaneity and SE: 329, kinematics using spacetime diagrams A.6 Representing time dilation and length SE: 329, contraction on spacetime diagrams A.7 Describing the twin paradox SE: A.8 Resolving of the twin paradox through SE: spacetime diagrams G.1 Examination questions will refer to SE: spacetime diagrams; these are also known as Minkowski diagrams G.2 Quantitative questions involving spacetime diagrams will be limited to constant velocity G.3 Spacetime diagrams can have t or ct on SE: the vertical axis G.4 Examination questions may use units in SE: which c = 1 25

26 Option B: Engineering physics Core topics B.1 Rigid bodies and rotational dynamics Essential idea: The basic laws of mechanics have an extension when equivalent principles are applied to rotation. Actual objects have dimensions and they require the expansion of the point particle model to consider the possibility of different points on an object having different states of motion and/or different velocities. U.1 Torque SE: U.2 Moment of inertia SE: U.3 Rotational and translational equilibrium SE: U.4 Angular acceleration SE: U.5 Equations of rotational motion for SE: uniform angular acceleration U.6 Newton s second law applied to angular SE: motion U.7 Conservation of angular momentum SE: A.1 Calculating torque for single forces and SE: , 370 couples A.2 Solving problems involving moment of SE: 342, 346, 351, 370 inertia, torque and angular acceleration A.3 Solving problems in which objects are in SE: , 370 both rotational and translational equilibrium A.4 Solving problems using rotational SE: , 371 quantities analogous to linear quantities A.5 Sketching and interpreting graphs of SE: 347, 371 rotational motion A.6 Solving problems involving rolling SE: without slipping G.1 Analysis will be limited to basic geometric shapes G.2 The equation for the moment of inertia SE: of a specific shape will be provided when necessary G.3 Graphs will be limited to angular displacement time, angular velocity time and torque time 26

27 B.2 Thermodynamics Essential idea: The first law of thermodynamics relates the change in internal energy of a system to the energy transferred and the work done. The entropy of the universe tends to a maximum. U.1 The first law of thermodynamics SE: 360 U.2 The second law of thermodynamics SE: U.3 Entropy SE: 369 U.4 Cyclic processes and pv diagrams SE: 365 U.5 Isovolumetric, isobaric, isothermal and SE: adiabatic processes U.6 Carnot cycle SE: U.7 Thermal efficiency SE: A.1 Describing the first law of SE: 360, thermodynamics as a statement of conservation of energy A.2 Explaining sign convention used when SE: 360 stating the first law of thermodynamics as Q = U + W A.3 Solving problems involving the first law SE: , of thermodynamics A.4 Describing the second law of SE: thermodynamics in Clausius form, Kelvin form and as a consequence of entropy A.5 Describing examples of processes in SE: 369 terms of entropy change A.6 Solving problems involving entropy SE: changes A.7 Sketching and interpreting cyclic SE: , processes A.8 Solving problems for adiabatic SE: 361, , 372 processes for monatomic gases using pv 5/3 = constant A.9 Solving problems involving thermal SE: efficiency G.1 If cycles other than the Carnot cycle are SE: used quantitatively, full details will be provided G.2 Only graphical analysis will be required SE: 360 for determination of work done on a pv diagram when pressure is not constant 27

28 Option C: Imaging Core topics C.1 Introduction to imaging Essential idea: The progress of a wave can be modelled via the ray or the wavefront. The change in wave speed when moving between media changes the shape of the wave. U.1 Thin lenses SE: U.2 Converging and diverging lenses SE: U.3 Converging and diverging mirrors SE: U.4 Ray diagrams SE: , , , 389, 391, U.5 Real and virtual images SE: 377 U.6 Linear and angular magnification SE: 383, U.7 Spherical and chromatic aberrations SE: A.1 Describing how a curved transparent SE: 376, interface modifies the shape of an incident wavefront A.2 Identifying the principal axis, focal point SE: , , , and focal length of a simple converging or diverging lens on a scaled diagram A.3 Solving problems involving not more SE: , than two lenses by constructing scaled ray diagrams A.4 Solving problems involving not more SE: than two curved mirrors by constructing scaled ray diagrams A.5 Solving problems involving the thin lens SE: , , , equation, linear magnification and angular magnification A.6 Explaining spherical and chromatic SE: aberrations and describing ways to reduce their effects on images 28

29 G.1 Students should treat the passage of SE: 376 light through lenses from the standpoint of both rays and wavefronts G.2 Curved mirrors are limited to spherical and parabolic converging mirrors and spherical diverging mirrors G.3 Only thin lenses are to be considered in this topic G.4 The lens-maker s formula is not required G.5 Sign convention used in examinations SE: 377 will be based on real being positive (the realis-positive convention) C.2 Imaging instrumentation Essential idea: Optical microscopes and telescopes utilize similar physical properties of lenses and mirrors. Analysis of the universe is performed both optically and by using radio telescopes to investigate different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. U.1 Optical compound microscopes SE: U.2 Simple optical astronomical refracting SE: telescopes U.3 Simple optical astronomical reflecting SE: telescopes U.4 Single-dish radio telescopes SE: 402 U.5 Radio interferometry telescopes SE: 403 U.6 Satellite-borne telescopes SE: A.1 Constructing and interpreting ray SE: , diagrams of optical compound microscopes at normal adjustment A.2 Solving problems involving the angular SE: 396, magnification and resolution of optical compound microscopes A.3 Investigating the optical compound SE: microscope experimentally A.4 Constructing or completing ray SE: diagrams of simple optical astronomical refracting telescopes at normal adjustment A.5 Solving problems involving the angular SE: 400 magnification of simple optical astronomical telescopes A.6 Investigating the performance of a SE: 399 simple optical astronomical refracting telescope experimentally 29

30 A.7 Describing the comparative SE: performance of Earth-based telescopes and satellite-borne telescopes G.1 Simple optical astronomical reflecting telescope design is limited to Newtonian and Cassegrain mounting G.2 Radio interferometer telescopes should SE: 403 be approximated as a dish of diameter equal to the maximum separation of the antennae G.3 Radio interferometry telescopes refer to SE: 405 array telescopes C.3 Fibre optics Essential idea: Total internal reflection allows light or infrared radiation to travel along a transparent fibre. However, the performance of a fibre can be degraded by dispersion and attenuation effects. U.1 Structure of optic fibres SE: U.2 Step-index fibres and graded-index SE: 405 fibres U.3 Total internal reflection and critical SE: angle U.4 Waveguide and material dispersion in SE: optic fibres U.5 Attenuation and the decibel (db) scale SE: A.1 Solving problems involving total internal SE: , reflection and critical angle in the context of fibre optics A.2 Describing how waveguide and material SE: , dispersion can lead to attenuation and how this can be accounted for A.3 Solving problems involving attenuation SE: , A.4 Describing the advantages of fibre SE: 406 optics over twisted pair and coaxial cables G.1 Quantitative descriptions of attenuation SE: are required and include attenuation per unit length G.2 The term waveguide dispersion will be SE: used in examinations. Waveguide dispersion is sometimes known as modal dispersion. 30

31 Option D: Astrophysics Core topics D.1 Stellar quantities Essential idea: One of the most difficult problems in astronomy is coming to terms with the vast distances between stars and galaxies and devising accurate methods for measuring them. U.1 Objects in the universe SE: U.2 The nature of stars SE: 415 U.3 Astronomical distances SE: U.4 Stellar parallax and its limitations SE: 419 U.5 Luminosity and apparent brightness SE: A.1 Identifying objects in the universe SE: A.2 Qualitatively describing the equilibrium SE: 415 between pressure and gravitation in stars A.3 Using the astronomical unit (AU), light SE: year (ly) and parsec (pc) A.4 Describing the method to determine SE: 419, distance to stars through stellar parallax A.5 Solving problems involving luminosity, SE: , apparent brightness and distance G.1 For this course, objects in the universe SE: include planets, comets, stars (single and binary), planetary systems, constellations, stellar clusters (open and globular), nebulae, galaxies, clusters of galaxies and super clusters of galaxies G.2 Students are expected to have an SE: awareness of the vast changes in distance scale from planetary systems through to super clusters of galaxies and the universe as a whole 31

32 D.2 Stellar characteristics and stellar evolution Essential idea: A simple diagram that plots the luminosity versus the surface temperature of stars reveals unusually detailed patterns that help understand the inner workings of stars. Stars follow well-defined patterns from the moment they are created out of collapsing interstellar gas, to their lives on the main sequence and to their eventual death. U.1 Stellar spectra SE: U.2 Hertzsprung Russell (HR) diagram SE: U.3 Mass luminosity relation for main SE: 428 sequence stars U.4 Cepheid variables SE: 424 U.5 Stellar evolution on HR diagrams SE: 426 U.6 Red giants, white dwarfs, neutron stars SE: and black holes U.7 Chandrasekhar and Oppenheimer SE: Volkoff limits A.1 Explaining how surface temperature SE: , may be obtained from a star s spectrum A.2 Explaining how the chemical SE: , composition of a star may be determined from the star s spectrum A.3 Sketching and interpreting HR diagrams SE: 426, A.4 Identifying the main regions of the HR SE: , diagram and describing the main properties of stars in these regions A.5 Applying the mass luminosity relation SE: 428, A.6 Describing the reason for the variation SE: 429, 442 of Cepheid variables A.7 Determining distance using data on SE: 429, 442 Cepheid variables A.8 Sketching and interpreting evolutionary SE: , paths of stars on an HR diagram A.9 Describing the evolution of stars off the SE: main sequence A.10 Describing the role of mass in stellar SE: , 432, evolution 32

33 G.1 Regions of the HR diagram are restricted to the main sequence, white dwarfs, red giants, super giants and the instability strip (variable stars), as well as lines of constant radius G.2 HR diagrams will be labelled with SE: 426 luminosity on the vertical axis and temperature on the horizontal axis G.3 Only one specific exponent (3.5) will be SE: 428 used in the mass luminosity relation G.4 References to electron and neutron SE: degeneracy pressures need to be made D.3 Cosmology Essential idea: The Hot Big Bang model is a theory that describes the origin and expansion of the universe and is supported by extensive experimental evidence. U.1 The Big Bang model SE: U.2 Cosmic microwave background (CMB) SE: 440 radiation U.3 Hubble s law SE: 436 U.4 The accelerating universe and redshift SE: (z) U.5 The cosmic scale factor (R) SE: 437 A.1 Describing both space and time as SE: originating with the Big Bang A.2 Describing the characteristics of the SE: 440, 443 CMB radiation A.3 Explaining how the CMB radiation is SE: 440, 443 evidence for a Hot Big Bang A.4 Solving problems involving z, R and SE: 436, 438, 443 Hubble s law A.5 Estimating the age of the universe by SE: 438, 439 assuming a constant expansion rate G.1 CMB radiation will be considered to be SE: 440 isotropic with T 2.76K G.2 For CMB radiation a simple explanation SE: 440 in terms of the universe cooling down or distances (and hence wavelengths) being stretched out is all that is required G.3 A qualitative description of the role of SE: 436 type Ia supernovae as providing evidence for an accelerating universe is required 33