Higher Level Physics
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- Louisa Knight
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1 A Correlation of Higher Level Physics to the Syllabus Physics Higher Level
2 Table of Contents Topic 1: Measurements and uncertainties... 3 Topic 2: Mechanics... 5 Topic 3: Thermal physics... 8 Topic 4: Waves Topic 5: Electricity and magnetism Topic 6: Circular motion and gravitation Topic 7: Atomic, nuclear and particle physics Topic 8: Energy production Topic 9: Wave phenomena Topic 10: Fields Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction Topic 12: Quantum and nuclear physics Option A: Relativity Option B: Engineering physics Option C: Imaging Option D: Astrophysics Copyright 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliate(s). All rights reserved. 2
3 Topic 1: Measurements and uncertainties 1.1 Measurements in physics Essential idea: Since 1948, the Système International d Unités (SI) has been used as the preferred language of science and technology across the globe and reflects current best measurement practice. U1. Fundamental and derived SI units SE: 7-8 U2. Scientific notation and metric SE: 5 multipliers U3. Significant figures SE: 5 U4. Orders of magnitude SE: 5 U5. Estimation SE: 5 A1. Using SI units in the correct format for SE: 5-7 all required measurements, final answers to calculations and presentation of raw and processed data A2. Using scientific notation and metric SE: 5 multipliers A3. Quoting and comparing ratios, values SE: 7, 29, 31 and approximations to the nearest order of magnitude A4. Estimating quantities to an appropriate SE: 5, number of significant figures G1. SI unit usage and information can be SE: 7-8 found at the website of Bureau International des Poids et Mesures G2. Students will not need to know the definition of SI units except where explicitly stated in the relevant topics in this guide G3. Candela is not a required SI unit for this course G4. Guidance on any use of non-si units SE: 7-8 such as ev, MeV c -2, ly and pc will be provided in the relevant topics in this guide G5. Further guidance on how scientific SE: 5, 7-8 notation and significant figures are used in examinations can be found in the Teacher support material 3
4 1.2 Uncertainties and errors Essential idea: Scientists aim towards designing experiments that can give a true value from their measurements, but due to the limited precision in measuring devices, they often quote their results with some form of uncertainty. U1. Random and systematic errors SE: U2. Absolute, fractional and percentage SE: 11-12, 23-24, uncertainties U3. Error bars SE: 19, U4. Uncertainty of gradient and intercepts SE: 22-23, 33 A1. Explaining how random and systematic SE: 10-11, errors can be identified and reduced A2. Collecting data that include absolute SE: 11-12, 23-24, and/or fractional uncertainties and stating these as an uncertainty range (expressed as: best estimate ± uncertainty range) A3. Propagating uncertainties through SE: calculations involving addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and raising to a power A4. Determining the uncertainty in SE: 22-23, 29, 33 gradients and intercepts G1. Analysis of uncertainties will not be expected for trigonometric or logarithmic functions in examinations G2. Further guidance on how uncertainties, SE: 14-16, 19, error bars and lines of best fit are used in examinations can be found in the Teacher support material 1.3 Vectors and scalars Essential idea: Some quantities have direction and magnitude, others have magnitude only, and this understanding is the key to correct manipulation of quantities. This sub-topic will have broad applications across multiple fields within physics and other sciences. U.1 Vector and scalar quantities SE: 25 U.2 Combination and resolution of vectors SE: A.1 Solving vector problems graphically and SE: 25-28, algebraically G.1 Resolution of vectors will be limited to two perpendicular directions G.2 Problems will be limited to addition and subtraction of vectors and the multiplication and division of vectors by scalars 4
5 Topic 2: Mechanics 2.1 Motion Essential idea: Motion may be described and analysed by the use of graphs and equations. U.1 Distance and displacement SE: 36 U.2 Speed and velocity SE: 36 U.3 Acceleration SE: U.4 Graphs describing motion SE: U.5 Equations of motion for uniform SE: 41-42, acceleration U.6 Projectile motion SE: U.7 Fluid resistance and terminal speed SE: 52 A.1 Determining instantaneous and SE: 37-39, 41-43, 46-47, average values for velocity, speed and acceleration A.2 Solving problems using equations of SE: 42-43, 44-45, motion for uniform acceleration A.3 Sketching and interpreting motion SE: 45-47, graphs A.4 Determining the acceleration of free-fall SE: 44-45, 88 experimentally A.5 Analysing projectile motion, including SE: 49-52, 88 the resolution of vertical and horizontal components of acceleration, velocity and displacement A.6 Qualitatively describing the effect of SE: 44, 52, 88 fluid resistance on falling objects or projectiles, including reaching terminal speed G.1 Calculations will be restricted to those neglecting air resistance G.2 Projectile motion will only involve SE: problems using a constant value of g close to the surface of the Earth G.3 The equation of the path of a projectile will not be required 5
6 2.2 Forces Essential idea: Classical physics requires a force to change a state of motion, as suggested by Newton in his laws of motion. U.1 Objects as point particles SE: U.2 Free-body diagrams SE: U.3 Translational equilibrium SE: U.4 Newton s laws of motion SE: 56 U.5 Solid friction SE: A.1 Representing forces as vectors SE: 53-54, A.2 Sketching and interpreting free-body SE: 55-56, diagrams A.3 Describing the consequences of SE: 56, 68, 87 Newton s first law for translational equilibrium A.4 Using Newton s second law SE: 62-65, 89 quantitatively and qualitatively A.5 Identifying force pairs in the context of SE: 67-68, Newton s third law A.6 Solving problems involving forces and SE: 54-55, 61, 87, 89 determining resultant force A.7 Describing solid friction (static and SE: dynamic) by coefficients of friction G.1 Students should label forces using SE: 53, 57 commonly accepted names or symbols (for example: weight or force of gravity or mg) G.2 Free-body diagrams should show scaled SE: vector lengths acting from the point of application G.3 Examples and questions will be limited to constant mass G.4 mg should be identified as weight SE: 57 G.5 Calculations relating to the determination of resultant forces will be restricted to one- and two-dimensional situations 6
7 2.3 Work, energy and power Essential idea: The fundamental concept of energy lays the basis upon which much of science is built. U.1 Kinetic energy SE: 78 U.2 Gravitational potential energy SE: 78 U.3 Elastic potential energy SE: U.4 Work done as energy transfer SE: U.5 Power as rate of energy transfer SE: U.6 Principle of conservation of energy SE: 78 U.7 Efficiency SE: 81, 85 A.1 Discussing the conservation of total SE: 78, energy within energy transformations A.2 Sketching and interpreting force SE: distance graphs A.3 Determining work done including cases SE: 74-76, 80-81, where a resistive force acts A.4 Solving problems involving power SE: 84-85, A.5 Quantitatively describing efficiency in SE: 81, 85, energy transfers G.1 Cases where the line of action of the SE: force and the displacement are not parallel should be considered G.2 Examples should include force distance SE: graphs for variable forces 2.4 Momentum and impulse Essential idea: Conservation of momentum is an example of a law that is never violated. U.1 Newton s second law expressed in SE: terms of rate of change of momentum U.2 Impulse and force time graphs SE: 62, U.3 Conservation of linear momentum SE: U.4 Elastic collisions, inelastic collisions and SE: explosions A.1 Applying conservation of momentum in SE: 69-71, simple isolated systems including (but not limited to) collisions, explosions, or water jets A.2 Using Newton s second law SE: 62-65, 68, quantitatively and qualitatively in cases where mass is not constant 7
8 A.3 Sketching and interpreting force time SE: graphs A.4 Determining impulse in various SE: contexts including (but not limited to) car safety and sports A.5 Qualitatively and quantitatively SE: 68-70, 89 comparing situations involving elastic collisions, inelastic collisions and explosions G.1 Students should be aware that F = ma is SE: equivalent of F = p/ t only when mass is constant G.2 Solving simultaneous equations involving conservation of momentum and energy in collisions will not be required G.3 Calculations relating to collisions and explosions will be restricted to one-dimensional situations G.4 A comparison between energy involved SE: in inelastic collisions (in which kinetic energy is not conserved) and the conservation of (total) energy should be made Topic 3: Thermal physics 3.1 Thermal concepts Essential idea: Thermal physics deftly demonstrates the links between the macroscopic measurements essential to many scientific models with the microscopic properties that underlie these models. U.1 Molecular theory of solids, liquids and SE: gases U.2 Temperature and absolute temperature SE: U.3 Internal energy SE: U.4 Specific heat capacity SE: 106 U.5 Phase change SE: U.6 Specific latent heat SE: 109 A.1 Describing temperature change in SE: terms of internal energy A.2 Using Kelvin and Celsius temperature SE: scales and converting between them A.3 Applying the calorimetric techniques of SE: 111, specific heat capacity or specific latent heat experimentally A.4 Describing phase change in terms of SE: , 121 molecular behaviour 8
9 A.5 Sketching and interpreting phase SE: 110, 121 change graphs A.6 Calculating energy changes involving SE: , 109, 111, specific heat capacity and specific latent heat of fusion and vaporization G.1 Internal energy is taken to be the total SE: intermolecular potential energy + the total random kinetic energy of the molecules G.2 Phase change graphs may have axes of SE: 110 temperature versus time or temperature versus energy G.3 The effects of cooling should be SE: 111 understood qualitatively but cooling correction calculations are not required 3.2 Modelling a gas Essential idea: The properties of ideal gases allow scientists to make predictions of the behaviour of real gases. U.1 Pressure SE: 114 U.2 Equation of state for an ideal gas SE: 119 U.3 Kinetic model of an ideal gas SE: U.4 Mole, molar mass and the Avogadro SE: constant U.5 Differences between real and ideal SE: 112, 120 gases A.1 Solving problems using the equation of SE: , 123 state for an ideal gas and gas laws A.2 Sketching and interpreting changes of SE: , 123 state of an ideal gas on pressure volume, pressure temperature and volume temperature diagrams A.3 Investigating at least one gas law SE: , 123 experimentally G.1 Students should be aware of the SE: 112 assumptions that underpin the molecular kinetic theory of ideal gases G.2 Gas laws are limited to constant volume, constant temperature, constant pressure and the ideal gas law 9
10 G.3 Students should understand that a real SE: 120 gas approximates to an ideal gas at conditions of low pressure, moderate temperature and low density Topic 4: Waves 4.1 Oscillations Essential idea: A study of oscillations underpins many areas of physics with simple harmonic motion (shm), a fundamental oscillation that appears in various natural phenomena. U.1 Simple harmonic oscillations SE: U.2 Time period, frequency, amplitude, SE: displacement and phase difference U.3 Conditions for simple harmonic motion SE: A.1 Qualitatively describing the energy SE: 151, 201 changes taking place during one cycle of an oscillation A.2 Sketching and interpreting graphs of SE: simple harmonic motion examples G.1 Graphs describing simple harmonic SE: motion should include displacement time, velocity time, acceleration time and acceleration displacement G.2 Students are expected to understand SE: 156 the significance of the negative sign in the relationship: a -x 4.2 Travelling waves Essential idea: There are many forms of waves available to be studied. A common characteristic of all travelling waves is that they carry energy, but generally the medium through which they travel will not be permanently disturbed. U.1 Travelling waves SE: U.2 Wavelength, frequency, period and SE: 163, , 169 wave speed U.3 Transverse and longitudinal waves SE: , U.4 The nature of electromagnetic waves SE: U.5 The nature of sound waves SE:
11 A.1 Explaining the motion of particles of a SE: , 170, 202 medium when a wave passes through it for both transverse and longitudinal cases A.2 Sketching and interpreting SE: , , displacement distance graphs and displacement time graphs for transverse and longitudinal waves A.3 Solving problems involving wave speed, SE: 165, , frequency and wavelength A.4 Investigating the speed of sound SE: 169, 207 experimentally G.1 Students will be expected to derive c = SE: f G.2 Students should be aware of the order SE: 186 of magnitude of the wavelengths of radio, microwave, infra-red, visible, ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma rays 4.3 Wave characteristics Essential idea: All waves can be described by the same sets of mathematical ideas. Detailed knowledge of one area leads to the possibility of prediction in another. U.1 Wavefronts and rays SE: U.2 Amplitude and intensity SE: 165, 186 U.3 Superposition SE: U.4 Polarization SE: 200 A.1 Sketching and interpreting diagrams SE: 173, involving wavefronts and rays A.2 Solving problems involving amplitude, SE: , intensity and the inverse square law A.3 Sketching and interpreting the SE: , , superposition of pulses and waves A.4 Describing methods of polarization SE: 166, 200 A.5 Sketching and interpreting diagrams SE: , 200 illustrating polarized, reflected and transmitted beams A.6 Solving problems involving Malus s law SE: 200,
12 G.1 Students will be expected to calculate SE: , the resultant of two waves or pulses both graphically and algebraically G.2 Methods of polarization will be restricted to the use of polarizing filters and reflection from a non-metallic plane surface 4.4 Wave behaviour Essential idea: Waves interact with media and each other in a number of ways that can be unexpected and useful. U.1 Reflection and refraction SE: U.2 Snell s law, critical angle and total SE: internal reflection U.3 Diffraction through a single-slit and SE: around objects U.4 Interference patterns SE: 189, 191, 195 U.5 Double-slit interference SE: U.6 Path difference SE: A.1 Sketching and interpreting incident, SE: 166, , 197, reflected and transmitted waves at boundaries between media A.2 Solving problems involving reflection at SE: 188, a plane interface A.3 Solving problems involving Snell s law, SE: 187, critical angle and total internal reflection A.4 Determining refractive index SE: experimentally A.5 Qualitatively describing the diffraction SE: 189, pattern formed when plane waves are incident normally on a single-slit A.6 Quantitatively describing double-slit SE: , interference intensity patterns G.1 Quantitative descriptions of refractive index are limited to light rays passing between two or more transparent media. If more than two media, only parallel interfaces will be considered G.2 Students will not be expected to derive the double-slit equation G.3 Students should have the opportunity SE: 176, 189, to observe diffraction and interference patterns arising from more than one type of wave 12
13 4.5 Standing waves Essential idea: When travelling waves meet they can superpose to form standing waves in which energy may not be transferred. U.1 The nature of standing waves SE: , U.2 Boundary conditions SE: , U.3 Nodes and antinodes SE: , A.1 Describing the nature and formation of SE: , 179, standing waves in terms of superposition A.2 Distinguishing between standing and SE: 163, , travelling waves A.3 Observing, sketching and interpreting SE: , , 207 standing wave patterns in strings and pipes A.4 Solving problems involving the SE: , , 207 frequency of a harmonic, length of the standing wave and the speed of the wave G.1 Students will be expected to consider SE: , the formation of standing waves from the superposition of no more than two waves G.2 Boundary conditions for strings are: SE: two fixed boundaries; fixed and free boundary; two free boundaries G.3 Boundary conditions for pipes are: two SE: closed boundaries; closed and open boundary; two open boundaries G.4 For standing waves in air, explanations will not be required in terms of pressure nodes and pressure antinodes G.5 The lowest frequency mode of a SE: 169, 179 standing wave is known as the first harmonic G.6 The terms fundamental and overtone will not be used in examination questions Topic 5: Electricity and magnetism 5.1 Electric fields Essential idea: When charges move an electric current is created. U.1 Charge SE: 212 U.2 Electric field SE: 212 U.3 Coulomb s law SE: 214 U.4 Electric current SE: U.5 Direct current (dc) SE: 220 U.6 Potential difference SE:
14 A.1 Identifying two forms of charge and the SE: 213 direction of the forces between them A.2 Solving problems involving electric SE: 214 fields and Coulomb s law A.3 Calculating work done in an electric SE: 215 field in both joules and electronvolts A.4 Identifying sign and nature of charge SE: carriers in a metal A.5 Identifying drift speed of charge carriers SE: 220 A.6 Solving problems using the drift speed SE: 220 equation A.7 Solving problems involving current, SE: , , 270 potential difference and charge G.1 Students will be expected to apply SE: 214 Coulomb s law for a range of permittivity values 5.2 Heating effect of electric currents Essential idea: One of the earliest uses for electricity was to produce light and heat. This technology continues to have a major impact on the lives of people around the world. U.1 Circuit diagrams SE: U.2 Kirchhoff s circuit laws SE: U.3 Heating effect of current and its SE: , 223 consequences U.4 Resistance expressed as R = V/I SE: 221 U.5 Ohm s law SE: 221 U.6 Resistivity SE: U.7 Power dissipation SE: 227 A.1 Drawing and interpreting circuit SE: , , diagrams A.2 Identifying ohmic and non-ohmic SE: , conductors through a consideration of the V/I characteristic graph A.3 Solving problems involving potential SE: 217, , , , difference, current, charge, Kirchhoff s circuit laws, power, resistance and resistivity A.4 Investigating combinations of resistors SE: , in parallel and series circuits A.5 Describing ideal and non-ideal SE: , 270 ammeters and voltmeters 14
15 A.6 Describing practical uses of potential SE: 239, 271 divider circuits, including the advantages of a potential divider over a series resistor in controlling a simple circuit A.7 Investigating one or more of the factors SE: , 270 that affect resistance experimentally G.1 The filament lamp should be described SE: , 228 as a non-ohmic device; a metal wire at a constant temperature is an ohmic device G.2 The use of non-ideal voltmeters is confined to voltmeters with a constant but finite resistance G.3 The use of non-ideal ammeters is confined to ammeters with a constant but non-zero resistance G.4 Application of Kirchhoff s circuit laws will be limited to circuits with a maximum number of two source-carrying loops 5.3 Electric cells Essential idea: Electric cells allow us to store energy in a chemical form. U.1 Cells SE: 223 U.2 Internal resistance SE: 224 U.3 Secondary cells SE: 224 U.4 Terminal potential difference SE: 224 U.5 Electromotive force (emf) SE: 224 A.1 Investigating practical electric cells SE: , , 275 (both primary and secondary) A.2 Describing the discharge characteristic SE: 224, of a simple cell (variation of terminal potential difference with time) A.3 Identifying the direction of current flow SE: 224 required to recharge a cell A.4 Determining internal resistance SE: 224, 270 experimentally A.5 Solving problems involving emf, internal SE: , resistance and other electrical quantities 15
16 G.1 Students should recognize that the SE: 224 terminal potential difference of a typical practical electric cell loses its initial value quickly, has a stable and constant value for most of its lifetime, followed by a rapid decrease to zero as the cell discharges completely 5.4 Magnetic effects of electric currents Essential idea: The effect scientists call magnetism arises when one charge moves in the vicinity of another moving charge. U.1 Magnetic fields SE: 242 U.2 Magnetic force SE: 244 A.1 Determining the direction of force on a SE: , charge moving in a magnetic field A.2 Determining the direction of force on a SE: 244, current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field A.3 Sketching and interpreting magnetic SE: field patterns A.4 Determining the direction of the SE: 243 magnetic field based on current direction A.5 Solving problems involving magnetic SE: 245, forces, fields, current and charges G.1 Magnetic field patterns will be restricted to long straight conductors, solenoids, and bar magnets 16
17 Topic 6: Circular motion and gravitation 6.1 Circular motion Essential idea: A force applied perpendicular to its displacement can result in circular motion. U.1 Period, frequency, angular SE: 126 displacement and angular velocity U.2 Centripetal force SE: 127 U.3 Centripetal acceleration SE: A.1 Identifying the forces providing the SE: , centripetal forces such as tension, friction, gravitational, electrical, or magnetic A.2 Solving problems involving centripetal SE: 127, 144, 147 force, centripetal acceleration, period, frequency, angular displacement, linear speed and angular velocity A.3 Qualitatively and quantitatively SE: , 144, 147 describing examples of circular motion including cases of vertical and horizontal circular motion G.1 Banking will be considered qualitatively only 6.2 Newton s law of gravitation Essential idea: The Newtonian idea of gravitational force acting between two spherical bodies and the laws of mechanics create a model that can be used to calculate the motion of planets. U.1 Newton s law of gravitation SE: U.2 Gravitational field strength SE: A.1 Describing the relationship between SE: , 147 gravitational force and centripetal force A.2 Applying Newton s law of gravitation to SE: , 147 the motion of an object in circular orbit around a point mass A.3 Solving problems involving gravitational SE: , 136, 143, 145, 147 force, gravitational field strength, orbital speed and orbital period A.4 Determining the resultant gravitational SE: , 147 field strength due to two bodies 17
18 G.1 Newton s law of gravitation should be SE: 138 extended to spherical masses of uniform density by assuming that their mass is concentrated at their centre G.2 Gravitational field strength at a point is SE: 134 the force per unit mass experienced by a small point mass at that point G.3 Calculations of the resultant gravitational field strength due to two bodies will be restricted to points along the straight line joining the bodies Topic 7: Atomic, nuclear and particle physics 7.1 Discrete energy and radioactivity Essential idea: In the microscopic world energy is discrete. U.1 Discrete energy and discrete energy SE: 281, 285, levels U.2 Transitions between energy levels SE: 285 U.3 Radioactive decay SE: 300 U.4 Fundamental forces and their SE: 314, 316, 320 properties U.5 Alpha particles, beta particles and SE: gamma rays U.6 Half-life SE: 308 U.7 Absorption characteristics of decay SE: particles U.8 Isotopes SE: U.9 Background radiation SE: 309 A.1 Describing the emission and absorption SE: , spectrum of common gases A.2 Solving problems involving atomic SE: 286, 293, 328 spectra, including calculating the wavelength of photons emitted during atomic transitions A.3 Completing decay equations for alpha SE: , and beta decay A.4 Determining the half-life of a nuclide SE: 308, 329 from a decay curve A.5 Investigating half-life experimentally (or SE: , 329 by simulation) 18
19 G.1 Students will be required to solve SE: 310 problems on radioactive decay involving only integral numbers of half-lives G.2 Students will be expected to include the SE: 305 neutrino and antineutrino in beta decay equations 7.2 Nuclear reactions Essential idea: Energy can be released in nuclear decays and reactions as a result of the relationship between mass and energy. U.1 The unified atomic mass unit SE: U.2 Mass defect and nuclear binding energy SE: U.3 Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion SE: A.1 Solving problems involving mass defect SE: , and binding energy A.2 Solving problems involving the energy SE: , , released in radioactive decay, nuclear fission and nuclear fusion A.3 Sketching and interpreting the general SE: 299, 327 shape of the curve of average binding energy per nucleon against nucleon number G.1 Students must be able to calculate SE: changes in terms of mass or binding energy G.2 Binding energy may be defined in terms SE: of energy required to completely separate the nucleons or the energy released when a nucleus is formed from its nucleons 19
20 7.3 The structure of matter Essential idea: It is believed that all the matter around us is made up of fundamental particles called quarks and leptons. It is known that matter has a hierarchical structure with quarks making up nucleons, nucleons making up nuclei, nuclei and electrons making up atoms and atoms making up molecules. In this hierarchical structure, the smallest scale is seen for quarks and leptons (10 18 m). U.1 Quarks, leptons and their antiparticles SE: , , U.2 Hadrons, baryons and mesons SE: , U.3 The conservation laws of charge, SE: , baryon number, lepton number and strangeness U.4 The nature and range of the strong SE: 313 nuclear force, weak nuclear force and electromagnetic force U.5 Exchange particles SE: 314 U.6 Feynman diagrams SE: 315, U.7 Confinement SE: 320 U.8 The Higgs boson SE: 323 A.1 Describing the Rutherford-Geiger- SE: , Marsden experiment that led to the discovery of the nucleus A.2 Applying conservation laws in particle SE: , 330 reactions A.3 Describing protons and neutrons in SE: 313, , terms of quarks A.4 Comparing the interaction strengths of SE: 314, 316, 321 the fundamental forces, including gravity A.5 Describing the mediation of the SE: 314, 316 fundamental forces through exchange particles A.6 Sketching and interpreting simple SE: 315 Feynman diagrams A.7 Describing why free quarks are not SE: 320 observed G.1 A qualitative description of the standard SE: 322 model is required 20
21 Topic 8: Energy production 8.1 Energy sources Essential idea: The constant need for new energy sources implies decisions that may have a serious effect on the environment. The finite quantity of fossil fuels and their implication in global warming has led to the development of alternative sources of energy. This continues to be an area of rapidly changing technological innovation. U.1 Specific energy and energy density of SE: 336 fuel sources U.2 Sankey diagrams SE: 335, , 341 U.3 Primary energy sources SE: U.4 Electricity as a secondary and versatile SE: form of energy U.5 Renewable and non-renewable energy SE: 335, sources A.1 Solving specific energy and energy SE: 336, 339 density problems A.2 Sketching and interpreting Sankey SE: 335, , 341 diagrams A.3 Describing the basic features of fossil SE: , , fuel power stations, nuclear power stations, wind generators, pumped storage hydroelectric systems and solar power cells A.4 Solving problems relevant to energy SE: , transformations in the context of these generating systems A.5 Discussing safety issues and risks SE: , associated with the production of nuclear power A.6 Describing the differences between SE: , 362 photovoltaic cells and solar heating panels G.1 Specific energy has units of J kg 1 ; SE: 336 energy density has units of J m 3 G.2 The description of the basic features of SE: nuclear power stations must include the use of control rods, moderators and heat exchangers G.3 Derivation of the wind generator SE: 348 equation is not required but an awareness of relevant assumptions and limitations is required 21
22 G.4 Students are expected to be aware of SE: new and developing technologies which may become important during the life of this guide 8.2 Thermal energy transfer Essential idea: For simplified modelling purposes the Earth can be treated as a black-body radiator and the atmosphere treated as a grey-body. U.1 Conduction, convection and thermal SE: 104, 356 radiation U.2 Black-body radiation SE: U.3 Albedo and emissivity SE: 357 U.4 The solar constant SE: 361 U.5 The greenhouse effect SE: 357 U.6 Energy balance in the Earth surface SE: atmosphere system A.1 Sketching and interpreting graphs SE: 353, showing the variation of intensity with wavelength for bodies emitting thermal radiation at different temperatures A.2 Solving problems involving the Stefan SE: , 365 Boltzmann law and Wien s displacement law A.3 Describing the effects of the Earth s SE: , 365 atmosphere on the mean surface temperature A.4 Solving problems involving albedo, SE: , 365 emissivity, solar constant and the Earth s average temperature G.1 Discussion of conduction and convection will be qualitative only G.2 Discussion of conduction is limited to intermolecular and electron collisions G.3 Discussion of convection is limited to simple gas or liquid transfer via density differences G.4 The absorption of infrared radiation by SE: 355, 357 greenhouse gases should be described in terms of the molecular energy levels and the subsequent emission of radiation in all directions G.5 The greenhouse gases to be considered SE: 355 are CH 4, H 2 O, CO 2 and N 2 O. It is sufficient for students to know that each has both natural and man-made origins. 22
23 G.6 Earth s albedo varies daily and is SE: 357 dependent on season (cloud formations) and latitude. The global annual mean albedo will be taken to be 0.3 (30%) for Earth. Additional higher level (AHL) 60 hours Topic 9: Wave phenomena 9.1 Simple harmonic motion Essential idea: The solution of the harmonic oscillator can be framed around the variation of kinetic and potential energy in the system. U.1 The defining equation of SHM SE: U.2 Energy changes SE: A.1 Solving problems involving acceleration, SE: 153, , velocity and displacement during simple harmonic motion, both graphically and algebraically A.2 Describing the interchange of kinetic SE: and potential energy during simple harmonic motion A.3 Solving problems involving energy SE: 160 transfer during simple harmonic motion, both graphically and algebraically A.1 Contexts for this sub-topic include the SE: 150, 153 simple pendulum and a mass-spring system 9.2 Single-slit diffraction Essential idea: Single-slit diffraction occurs when a wave is incident upon a slit of approximately the same size as the wavelength. U.1 The nature of single-slit diffraction SE: A.1 Describing the effect of slit width on the SE: 190, 204 diffraction pattern A.2 Determining the position of first SE: , 191, 204 interference minimum A.3 Qualitatively describing single-slit SE: 190, 204 diffraction patterns produced from white light and from a range of monochromatic light frequencies 23
24 G.1 Only rectangular slits need to be considered G.2 Diffraction around an object (rather than through a slit) does not need to be considered in this sub-topic (see Physics sub-topic 4.4) G.3 Students will be expected to be aware SE: of the approximate ratios of successive intensity maxima for single-slit interference patterns G.4 Calculations will be limited to a determination of the position of the first minimum for single-slit interference patterns using the approximation equation 9.3 Interference Essential idea: Interference patterns from multiple slits and thin films produce accurately repeatable patterns. U.1 Young s double-slit experiment SE: U.2 Modulation of two-slit interference SE: 194 pattern by one-slit diffraction effect U.3 Multiple slit and diffraction grating SE: 195 interference patterns U.4 Thin film interference SE: A.1 Qualitatively describing two-slit SE: 194, , 206 interference patterns, including modulation by one-slit diffraction effect A.2 Investigating Young s double-slit SE: 194, , 206 experimentally A.3 Sketching and interpreting intensity SE: 194, 204 graphs of double-slit interference patterns A.4 Solving problems involving the SE: 197 diffraction grating equation A.5 Describing conditions necessary for SE: 198 constructive and destructive interference from thin films, including phase change at interface and effect of refractive index A.6 Solving problems involving interference SE: 198 from thin films 24
25 G.1 Students should be introduced to SE: , 197, 200 interference patterns from a variety of coherent sources such as (but not limited to) electromagnetic waves, sound and simulated demonstrations G.2 Diffraction grating patterns are restricted to those formed at normal incidence G.3 The treatment of thin film interference is confined to parallel-sided films at normal incidence G.4 The constructive interference and SE: 198 destructive interference formulae listed below and in the data booklet apply to specific cases of phase changes at interfaces and are not generally true Constructive intereference: 2dn = (m + 1/2) Destructive intereference: 2dn = m 9.4 Resolution Essential idea: Resolution places an absolute limit on the extent to which an optical or other system can separate images of objects. U.1 The size of a diffracting aperture SE: 191 U.2 The resolution of simple SE: monochromatic two-source systems A.1 Solving problems involving the Rayleigh SE: 192, 207 criterion for light emitted by two sources diffracted at a single slit A.2 Resolvance of diffraction gratings SE: 197 G.1 Proof of the diffraction grating resolvance equation is not required 9.5 Doppler effect Essential idea: The Doppler effect describes the phenomenon of wavelength/frequency shift when relative motion occurs. U.1 The Doppler effect for sound waves and SE: light waves A.1 Sketching and interpreting the Doppler SE: , effect when there is relative motion between source and observer A.2 Describing situations where the SE: , 199, Doppler effect can be utilized 25
26 A.3 Solving problems involving the change SE: 183, , in frequency or wavelength observed due to the Doppler effect to determine the velocity of the source/observer G.1 For electromagnetic waves, the SE: 199 approximate equation should be used for all calculations G.2 Situations to be discussed should SE: 199 include the use of Doppler effect in radars and in medical physics, and its significance for the red-shift in the light spectra of receding galaxies Topic 10: Fields 10.1 Describing fields Essential idea: Electric charges and masses each influence the space around them and that influence can be represented through the concept of fields. U.1 Gravitational fields SE: U.2 Electrostatic fields SE: U.3 Electric potential and gravitational SE: , , 215, potential U.4 Field lines SE: 135, 213, 216 U.5 Equipotential surfaces SE: , 216 A.1 Representing sources of mass and SE: 135, , , 217 charge, lines of electric and gravitational force, and field patterns using an appropriate symbolism A.2 Mapping fields using potential SE: , 140, A.3 Describing the connection between SE: , 140, 216, equipotential surfaces and field lines G.1 Electrostatic fields are restricted to the radial fields around point or spherical charges, the field between two point charges and the uniform fields between charged parallel plates G.2 Gravitational fields are restricted to the radial fields around point or spherical masses and the (assumed) uniform field close to the surface of massive celestial bodies and planetary bodies G.3 Students should recognize that no work SE: 137, 213, 218 is done in moving charge or mass on an equipotential surface 26
27 10.2 Fields at work Essential idea: Similar approaches can be taken in analysing electrical and gravitational potential problems. U.1 Potential and potential energy SE: , 215 U.2 Potential gradient SE: 137, U.3 Potential difference SE: , U.4 Escape speed SE: U.5 Orbital motion, orbital speed and SE: orbital energy U.6 Forces and inverse-square law SE: 139, , 214 behaviour A.1 Determining the potential energy of a SE: 215 point mass and the potential energy of a point charge A.2 Solving problems involving potential SE: energy A.3 Determining the potential inside a SE: 215 charged sphere A.4 Solving problems involving the speed SE: , required for an object to go into orbit around a planet and for an object to escape the gravitational field of a planet A.5 Solving problems involving orbital SE: , , energy of charged particles in circular orbital motion and masses in circular orbital motion A.6 Solving problems involving forces on SE: charges and masses in radial and uniform fields G.1 Orbital motion of a satellite around a planet is restricted to a consideration of circular orbits (links to 6.1 and 6.2) G.2 Both uniform and radial fields need to SE: , be considered G.3 Students should recognize that lines of SE: 216 force can be two-dimensional representations of three-dimensional fields G.4 Students should assume that the SE: 213, electric field everywhere between parallel plates is uniform with edge effects occurring beyond the limits of the plates. 27
28 Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction 11.1 Electromagnetic induction Essential idea: The majority of electricity generated throughout the world is generated by machines that were designed to operate using the principles of electromagnetic induction. U.1 Electromotive force (emf) SE: U.2 Magnetic flux and magnetic flux linkage SE: 250 U.3 Faraday s law of induction SE: U.4 Lenz s law SE: A.1 Describing the production of an SE: 250, induced emf by a changing magnetic flux and within a uniform magnetic field A.2 Solving problems involving magnetic SE: , flux, magnetic flux linkage and Faraday s law A.3 Explaining Lenz s law through the SE: conservation of energy G.1 Quantitative treatments will be SE: expected for straight conductors moving at right angles to magnetic fields and rectangular coils moving in and out of fields and rotating in fields G.2 Qualitative treatments only will be SE: 249, 251 expected for fixed coils in a changing magnetic field and ac generators 11.2 Power generation and transmission Essential idea: Generation and transmission of alternating current (ac) electricity has transformed the world. U.1 Alternating current (ac) generators SE: U.2 Average power and root mean square SE: 255 (rms) values of current and voltage U.3 Transformers SE: 256 U.4 Diode bridges SE: U.5 Half-wave and full-wave rectification SE:
29 A.1 Explaining the operation of a basic ac SE: , generator, including the effect of changing the generator frequency A.2 Solving problems involving the average SE: , 275 power in an ac circuit A.3 Solving problems involving step-up and SE: , 275 step-down transformers A.4 Describing the use of transformers in ac SE: , 275 electrical power distribution A.5 Investigating a diode bridge rectification SE: circuit experimentally A.6 Qualitatively describing the effect of SE: adding a capacitor to a diode bridge rectification circuit G.1 Calculations will be restricted to ideal SE: 257 transformers but students should be aware of some of the reasons why real transformers are not ideal (for example: flux leakage, joule heating, eddy current heating, magnetic hysteresis) G.2 Proof of the relationship between the peak and rms values will not be expected 11.3 Capacitance Essential idea: Capacitors can be used to store electrical energy for later use. U.1 Capacitance SE: U.2 Dielectric materials SE: 262 U.3 Capacitors in series and parallel SE: 263 U.4 Resistor-capacitor (RC) series circuits SE: U.5 Time constant SE: A.1 Describing the effect of different SE: 262 dielectric materials on capacitance A.2 Solving problems involving parallelplate SE: capacitors A.3 Investigating combinations of SE: 263 capacitors in series or parallel circuits A.4 Determining the energy stored in a SE: charged capacitor A.5 Describing the nature of the SE: exponential discharge of a capacitor 29
30 A.6 Solving problems involving the SE: discharge of a capacitor through a fixed resistor A.7 Solving problems involving the time SE: constant of an RC circuit for charge, voltage and current G.1 Only single parallel-plate capacitors SE: providing a uniform electric field, in series with a load, need to be considered (edge effect will be neglected) G.2 Problems involving the discharge of SE: capacitors through fixed resistors need to be treated both graphically and algebraically G.3 Problems involving the charging of a SE: capacitor will only be treated graphically G.4 Derivation of the charge, voltage and current equations as a function of time is not required Topic 12: Quantum and nuclear physics 12.1 The interaction of matter with radiation Essential idea: The microscopic quantum world offers a range of phenomena, the interpretation and explanation of which require new ideas and concepts not found in the classical world. U.1 Photons SE: 283 U.2 The photoelectric effect SE: 282 U.3 Matter waves SE: 287 U.4 Pair production and pair annihilation SE: U.5 Quantization of angular momentum in SE: the Bohr model for hydrogen U.6 The wave function SE: U.7 The uncertainty principle for energy and SE: time and position and momentum U.8 Tunnelling, potential barrier and factors SE: affecting tunnelling probability 30
31 A.1 Discussing the photoelectric effect SE: , 329 experiment and explaining which features of the experiment cannot be explained by the classical wave theory of light A.2 Solving photoelectric problems both SE: , 329 graphically and algebraically A.3 Discussing experimental evidence for SE: , matter waves, including an experiment in which the wave nature of electrons is evident A.4 Stating order of magnitude estimates SE: from the uncertainty principle G.1 The order of magnitude estimates from SE: the uncertainty principle may include (but is not limited to) estimates of the energy of the ground state of an atom, the impossibility of an electron existing within a nucleus, and the lifetime of an electron in an excited energy state G.2 Tunnelling to be treated qualitatively SE: using the idea of continuity of wave functions 12.2 Nuclear physics Essential idea: The idea of discreteness that we met in the atomic world continues to exist in the nuclear world as well. U.1 Rutherford scattering and nuclear SE: radius U.2 Nuclear energy levels SE: U.3 The neutrino SE: 305 U.4 The law of radioactive decay and the SE: 300, decay constant A.1 Describing a scattering experiment SE: , , including location of minimum intensity for the diffracted particles based on their de Broglie wavelength A.2 Explaining deviations from Rutherford SE: , 285, 328 scattering in high energy experiments A.3 Describing experimental evidence for SE: , nuclear energy levels A.4 Solving problems involving the SE: , 329 radioactive decay law for arbitrary time intervals 31
32 A.5 Explaining the methods for measuring SE: , 329 short and long half-lives G.1 Students should be aware that nuclear SE: 297 densities are approximately the same for all nuclei and that the only macroscopic objects with the same density as nuclei are neutron stars G.2 The small angle approximation is SE: 299 usually not appropriate to use to determine the location of the minimum intensity Option A: Relativity Core topics A.1 The beginnings of relativity Essential idea: Einstein s study of electromagnetism revealed inconsistencies between the theory of Maxwell and Newton s mechanics. He recognized that both theories could not be reconciled and so choosing to trust Maxwell s theory of electromagnetism he was forced to change longcherished ideas about space and time in mechanics. U.1 Reference frames SE: U.2 Galilean relativity and Newton s SE: postulates concerning time and space U.3 Maxwell and the constancy of the speed SE: of light U.4 Forces on a charge or current SE: A.1 Using the Galilean transformation SE: , equations A.2 Determining whether a force on a SE: , charge or current is electric or magnetic in a given frame of reference A.3 Determining the nature of the fields SE: , observed by different observers 32
33 G.1 Maxwell s equations do not need to be described G.2 Qualitative treatment of electric and SE: magnetic fields as measured by observers in relative motion. Examples will include a charge moving in a magnetic field or two charged particles moving with parallel velocities. Students will be asked to analyse these motions from the point of view of observers at rest with respect to the particles and observers at rest with respect to the magnetic field. A.2 Lorentz transformations Essential idea: Observers in relative uniform motion disagree on the numerical values of space and time coordinates for events, but agree with the numerical value of the speed of light in a vacuum. The Lorentz transformation equations relate the values in one reference frame to those in another. These equations replace the Galilean transformation equations that fail for speeds close to that of light. U.1 The two postulates of special relativity SE: 375 U.2 Clock synchronization SE: 378 U.3 The Lorentz transformations SE: U.4 Velocity addition SE: U.5 Invariant quantities (spacetime interval, SE: 377, , proper time, proper length and rest mass) U.6 Time dilation SE: U.7 Length contraction SE: U.8 The muon decay experiment SE: A.1 Using the Lorentz transformations to SE: , 414 describe how different measurements of space and time by two observers can be converted into the measurements observed in either frame of reference A.2 Using the Lorentz transformation SE: , 414 equations to determine the position and time coordinates of various events A.3 Using the Lorentz transformation SE: , 414 equations to show that if two events are simultaneous for one observer but happen at different points in space, then the events are not simultaneous for an observer in a different reference frame 33
34 A.4 Solving problems involving velocity SE: addition A.5 Deriving the time dilation and length SE: , 411, 414 contraction equations using the Lorentz equations A.6 Solving problems involving time dilation SE: , 411, 414 and length contraction A.7 Solving problems involving the muon SE: 386, 411, 414 decay experiment G.1 Problems will be limited to one dimension G.2 Derivation of the Lorentz transformation equations will not be examined G.3 Muon decay experiments can be used SE: as evidence for both time dilation and length contraction A.3 Spacetime diagrams Essential idea: Spacetime diagrams are a very clear and illustrative way to show graphically how different observers in relative motion to each other have measurements that differ from each other. U.1 Spacetime diagrams SE: U.2 Worldlines SE: U.3 The twin paradox SE: A.1 Representing events on a spacetime SE: diagram as points A.2 Representing the positions of a moving SE: 391 particle on a spacetime diagram by a curve (the worldline) A.3 Representing more than one inertial SE: 391, reference frame on the same spacetime diagram A.4 Determining the angle between a SE: 391 worldline for specific speed and the time axis on a spacetime diagram A.5 Solving problems on simultaneity and SE: 391, kinematics using spacetime diagrams A.6 Representing time dilation and length SE: 392, contraction on spacetime diagrams A.7 Describing the twin paradox SE: A.8 Resolving of the twin paradox through SE: spacetime diagrams 34
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