The Exponential Function as a Limit
|
|
- Cory Lawrence
- 6 years ago
- Views:
Transcription
1 Applied Mathematical Scieces, Vol. 6, 2012, o. 91, The Expoetial Fuctio as a Limit Alvaro H. Salas Departmet of Mathematics Uiversidad de Caldas, Maizales, Colombia Uiversidad Nacioal de Colombia, Maizales FIZMAKO Research Group asalash2002@yahoo.com Abstract I this paper we defie the expoetial fuctio of base e ad we establish its basic properties.we also defie the logarithmic fuctio of base e ad we prove its cotiuity. Keywords: umber e, it of sequece of fuctios, expoetial fuctio, logarithmic fuctio 1 Itroductio Let N = { 1, 2, 3,...} be the set of atural umbers ad let R be the set of real umbers. Suppose that { f x) } =1 is a sequece of fuctios defied o E R. We say that this sequece coverges to the fuctio fx) oe if This meas that f x) =fx) for ay x E. ε>0 x E N = Nε, x) N N : >N f x) fx) <ε 1.1) I this case we write f x) E fx) ). Suppose that x R. Let us cosider the umbers m 0 = m 0 x) ad 0 = 0 x) defied as follows : m 0 = m 0 x) ={k N k>x} ad 0 = 0 x) ={k N k> x} 1.2) Thus, m 0 = 1 ad 0 =[ x] +1if x 0 ad m 0 =[x] + 1 ad 0 =1if x 0[x] is the iteger part of x). It is clear that 1 + x > 0 for ay 0
2 4520 A. H. Salas ad 1 x > 0 for ay m 0. We defie the two sequeces { f x) } =1 ad { g x) } =1 as follows : f x) =0 if < 0 ad f x) = 1+ ) x if ) Moreover, g x) =0 if <m 0 ad g x) = 1 x ) if m0. 1.4) Lemma 1. Let x R ad cosider the sequeces defied by 1.3) ad 1.4). a. The sequece { f x) } =1 is icreasig for 0, that is, f x) f +1 x) for ay 0. I particular it is icreasig for x 0 sice 0 =1. b. The sequece { g x) } =1 is decreasig for m 0, that is, g x) g +1 x) for ay m 0. I particular it is icreasig for x 0 sice m 0 =1. c. 0 g x) f x) x2 g k 0 x) for ay k 0 = maxm 0, 0 ). d. There exist the its f x) = sup{ f x) N } ad g x) = f x) =L. Moreover, f 0 x) L g m0 x) e. If h < 1 the 1+h 1+ ) h 1 ) h 1 h) 1 for all 1 1.5) Proof. a. Let 0. From the AGM iequality a 1 + a a with +1 a 1 a 2 a +1 a i > 0, i =1, 2,..., + 1) 1.6) a 1 =1, a 2 = a 3 = = a +1 =1+ x > 0 we obtai ad the x 1+ x = ) +1 f +1 x) = x ) 1+ x ) x = f x). +1 ) This iequality is strict uless x =0.
3 The expoetial fuctio as a it 4521 b. Let m 0. From the AGM iequality 1.6) with a 1 =1, a 2 = a 3 = = a +1 =1 x > 0. it follows that ad the x 1 x = ) x ), 1 x ) +1 1 x > 0, +1 ) which implies g +1 x) = 1 x ) +1) 1 x = g x). +1 ) This iequality is strict uless x =0. c. Let k 0 = maxm 0, 0 ). We have g x) f x) =g x) 1 f ) x) = g x)1 q ), 1.7) g x) where q =1 x2 2. Observe that k 0 > x from where 0 <q 1 ad the q 1 ad 1 q 0. It is clear from 1.7) that g x) f x) 0 for k 0. O the other had, by virtue of 1.7), Thus, 0 g x) f x) = g x)1 q)1+q + + q 1 ) g k0 x) x ) 2 = g k0 x) x2 = x2 g 2 k 0 x). 0 g x) f x) x2 g k 0 x) for k ) From the last iequality we see that give ε>0if we choose a atural umber N subject to N k 0 ad N>x 2 g k0 x)/ε the We have proved that g x) f x) = g x) f x) <ε for all >N. g x) f x)) = )
4 4522 A. H. Salas d. Let k 0 = maxm 0, 0 ) m 0. By virtue of b ad c, g x) g k0 x) ad f x) g x) g k0 x) for all k 0, which proves that the sequece { f x) } =1 is bouded from above for each x R ad the f x) =L, where L = sup{ f x) N } = sup{ f x) 0 }. O the other had, from 1.9), g x) = g x) f x)) + f x)) = L. e. Observe that m 0 = 0 = 1 sice h < 1. From a, b ad c we obtai 1+h = f 1 h) f h) g h) g 1 h) =1 h) 1 for ay k 0 =1. 2 The expoetial fuctio ad its properties I previous sectio we established the existece of the its 1+ x = 1 ) x ) for each x R. This allows us to defie a fuctio exp : R 0, ) as follows : expx) = 1+ x ) = 1 x ),x R. 2.1) Is obvious that exp0) = 1. The value exp1) is special ad it is deoted by e : e = ) We well call fuctio defied by 2.1) the expoetial fuctio of base e. This fuctio is also deoted by e x. 2.1 Properties of the expoetial fuctio I this sectio we establish the mai properties of the expoetial fuctio startig from 2.1). Property 1. Let x R. i. If x> 1 the expx) > 1+x. I particular, expx) > 1 for x>0.
5 The expoetial fuctio as a it 4523 ii. If x<1 the expx) 1. I particular, expx) < 1ifx<0. 1 x Proof. i. Sice x> 1 we have 0 =[ x] + 1 = 1. By virtue of lemma 1, parts a ad d, expx) 1+ x ) 2 > 1+ x ) 1 =1+x. 2 1 ii. If x<1the m 0 =[x] + 1 = 1. I view of lemma 1 parts b, c ad d, f x) g x) g 1 x) for all k 0 = maxm 0, 0 ) ad lettig we obtai expx) = f x) g 1 x) = 1 x ) 1 1 = 1 1 x. Property 2. Multiplicative property ) expx + y) = expx) expy) = expy) expx) for ay x, y R. 2.2) I particular, exp x) = expx)) 1 = 1 expx) for all x R. 2.3) Proof. Let us cosider the sequeces f x) = 1+ ) x, f y) = 1+ ) y ad f x + y) = 1+ x + y ), where k 0 > x + y. By lemma 1, part d, f x) = expx), f y) = expy) ad f x + y) = expx + y). Sice h) def xy = 0 ),we may choose N large eough so + x + y that h) < 1 for N.We obtai f x)f y) f x + y) = 1+ xy + x + y) ) = 1+ h) I view of lemma 1, part e, from 2.4) it is clear that ) for N. 2.4) 1+h) f x)f y) f x + y) 1 h)) 1 2.5)
6 4524 A. H. Salas Takig ito accout that 1 + h)) = 1 h)) 1 = 1 from 2.5) we f x)f y) obtai =1, from where f x + y) expx) expy) expx + y) = f x) f y) f x + y) = f x)f y) f x + y) =1. We have proved that expx) expy) = expx + y). Property 3. Give t, x R, ift<x, the expt) < expx), that is, the expoetial fuctio is strictly icreasig o R. Proof.Ifx>tthe x t>0 ad makig use of Property 1, expx t) > 1. We have expx) = expx t)+t) = expx t) expt) > 1 expt) = expt). Property 4. If x>0 the 0 < expx) 1 x expx). Proof. Let N. We have 0 < 1+ x ) 1 = 1+ x ) 1 1+ x ) x ) ) < x 1+ x ) + 1+ x ) x ) ) = x 1+ x ) = x 1+ x <xexpx). ) Thus, 0 < 1+ x ) 1 <xexpx) for ay N. Lettig i the last iequality gives 0 < expx) 1 x expx). 2.6) Property 5. The expoetial fuctio is cotiuous o R, i.e, for a give real umber a ad ay ε>0 we may fid δ = δε, a) > 0 such that if x a <δ the expx) expa) <ε. Proof. Let us first show that expt) 1 3 t for t < ) Ideed, this iequality is obvious if t = 0. Let t 0.If0<t<1 the expt) < exp1) = e<3. Cosequetly, i view of Property 4, 0 < expt) 1 < 3t.
7 The expoetial fuctio as a it 4525 Now, let 1 <t<0. From oe had, by Property 1, expt) < 1.O the other had, 0 < t <1 ad the 0 < exp t) 1 < 3 t) =3 t, from where expt) 1 = expt)1 exp t)) = expt)exp t) 1) < 3 expt) t < 3 t. We have established 2.7). Let a R ad cosider values of x subject to x a < 1. Settig t = x a i 2.7) we obtai expx a) 1 < 3 x a. Multiplyig this iequality by expa) ad makig use of Property 2 we obtai expx) expa) < 3 expa) x a for ay x R such that x a < ) From coditio 2.8) it is clear that choosig δ such that ) 1 0 <δ<mi 2, ε, 3 expa) the expx) expa) for all x R such that x a <δ. This meas that expx) = expa). x a 3 The logarithmic fuctio I view of Property 5, the expoetial fuctio is strictly icreasig o R. I view of Property 1, part i, expx) > 1+x>xfor x 0. O the other had, if x<0 the 2.2) gives expx) exp x) = expx x) = exp0) = 1 ad the expx) > 0. This says that the expoetial fuctio exp : R 0, ) is oe to oe ad it admits iverse We will deote it by log ad we will call it logarithmic fuctio of base e : log : 0, ) R. Let y 0, ). There exists x R, uiquely defied, such that expx) =y. Ideed, choose b>0 subject to b>y 1. By Property 1, part i, expb) > 1+b>y. O the other had, let a be ay egative umber such that a<1 1/y. By Property 1, part ii, expa) 1 1 a <y. We have proved that for ay y 0, ) we may fid two real umbers a ad b such that a<bad expa) <y<expb). Let us cosider the fuctio expx) o the iterval [a, b]. Sice this fuctio is cotiuous o [a, b] Property 1 ), it takes all values betwee expa) ad expb). This allows us to choose x o [a, b] for which y = expx). This umber x is uique sice the expoetial
8 4526 A. H. Salas fuctio is oe to oe. We have proved that fuctio exp : R 0, ) is oe to oe ad oto. Thus, logy) =x y = expx). It is clear that explogy)) = y y>0 ad logexpx)) = x x R. Theorem. The logarithmic fuctio log : 0, ) R is cotiuous o 0, ). Proof : It is easy to see that give b > 0 ad ε > 0if y b < δ = mi b1 exp ε)),bexpε) 1)) the logy) logb) <ε.this meas that y b logy) = logb) for ay b>0. 4 Colusios We defied two of the most importat fuctios i mathematics: the expoetial ad logarithmic fuctios. This allows to defie the expoetial fuctio of base a as s a x = expx loga)),x R,a > 0 ad a 1. From this we may establish the laws of expoets : a. a x a y = a x+y ; b. ax a = y ax y ; c. a x b x =ab) x ; d. ax a ) x b = ; e. a x ) y = a xy. x b Fially, we may defie the logarithmic fuctio as a it as follows logx) = x 1) = 1 x 1/ ) for x>0. Startig from this defiitio we may defie the expoetial fuctio as the iverse of logarithmic fuctio. Refereces [1] Hardy G. H., A Course of Pure mathematics, Nith Editio, Uiversity of Cambridge 1945). [2]Mitriovic D.S., Elemetary Iequalities, Belgrade-Yugoslavia, P. Noordhoff Ltd - Groige - The Netherlads 1964) [3] Polya G. & Szego G., Aufgabe ud lehrsatze aus der aalysis, Spriger Verlag, Berli 1964). [4] Rudi W., Priciples of Mathematical Aalysis, Third Editio, McGraw Hill 1976). Received: April, 2012
MAS111 Convergence and Continuity
MAS Covergece ad Cotiuity Key Objectives At the ed of the course, studets should kow the followig topics ad be able to apply the basic priciples ad theorems therei to solvig various problems cocerig covergece
More informationNEW FAST CONVERGENT SEQUENCES OF EULER-MASCHERONI TYPE
UPB Sci Bull, Series A, Vol 79, Iss, 207 ISSN 22-7027 NEW FAST CONVERGENT SEQUENCES OF EULER-MASCHERONI TYPE Gabriel Bercu We itroduce two ew sequeces of Euler-Mascheroi type which have fast covergece
More informationNew Results for the Fibonacci Sequence Using Binet s Formula
Iteratioal Mathematical Forum, Vol. 3, 208, o. 6, 29-266 HIKARI Ltd, www.m-hikari.com https://doi.org/0.2988/imf.208.832 New Results for the Fiboacci Sequece Usig Biet s Formula Reza Farhadia Departmet
More informationPower series are analytic
Power series are aalytic Horia Corea 1 1 The expoetial ad the logarithm For every x R we defie the fuctio give by exp(x) := 1 + x + x + + x + = x. If x = 0 we have exp(0) = 1. If x 0, cosider the series
More informationPower series are analytic
Power series are aalytic Horia Corea 1 1 Fubii s theorem for double series Theorem 1.1. Let {α m }, be a real sequece idexed by two idices. Assume that the series α m is coverget for all ad C := ( α m
More informationA Fixed Point Result Using a Function of 5-Variables
Joural of Physical Scieces, Vol., 2007, 57-6 Fixed Poit Result Usig a Fuctio of 5-Variables P. N. Dutta ad Biayak S. Choudhury Departmet of Mathematics Begal Egieerig ad Sciece Uiversity, Shibpur P.O.:
More informationExponential Functions and Taylor Series
MATH 4530: Aalysis Oe Expoetial Fuctios ad Taylor Series James K. Peterso Departmet of Biological Scieces ad Departmet of Mathematical Scieces Clemso Uiversity March 29, 2017 MATH 4530: Aalysis Oe Outlie
More informationAbout the use of a result of Professor Alexandru Lupaş to obtain some properties in the theory of the number e 1
Geeral Mathematics Vol. 5, No. 2007), 75 80 About the use of a result of Professor Alexadru Lupaş to obtai some properties i the theory of the umber e Adrei Verescu Dedicated to Professor Alexadru Lupaş
More informationReal Analysis Fall 2004 Take Home Test 1 SOLUTIONS. < ε. Hence lim
Real Aalysis Fall 004 Take Home Test SOLUTIONS. Use the defiitio of a limit to show that (a) lim si = 0 (b) Proof. Let ε > 0 be give. Defie N >, where N is a positive iteger. The for ε > N, si 0 < si
More informationThe log-behavior of n p(n) and n p(n)/n
Ramauja J. 44 017, 81-99 The log-behavior of p ad p/ William Y.C. Che 1 ad Ke Y. Zheg 1 Ceter for Applied Mathematics Tiaji Uiversity Tiaji 0007, P. R. Chia Ceter for Combiatorics, LPMC Nakai Uivercity
More informationUniversity of Manitoba, Mathletics 2009
Uiversity of Maitoba, Mathletics 009 Sessio 5: Iequalities Facts ad defiitios AM-GM iequality: For a, a,, a 0, a + a + + a (a a a ) /, with equality iff all a i s are equal Cauchy s iequality: For reals
More informationA constructive analysis of convex-valued demand correspondence for weakly uniformly rotund and monotonic preference
MPRA Muich Persoal RePEc Archive A costructive aalysis of covex-valued demad correspodece for weakly uiformly rotud ad mootoic preferece Yasuhito Taaka ad Atsuhiro Satoh. May 04 Olie at http://mpra.ub.ui-mueche.de/55889/
More informationSolutions to Tutorial 3 (Week 4)
The Uiversity of Sydey School of Mathematics ad Statistics Solutios to Tutorial Week 4 MATH2962: Real ad Complex Aalysis Advaced Semester 1, 2017 Web Page: http://www.maths.usyd.edu.au/u/ug/im/math2962/
More informationy X F n (y), To see this, let y Y and apply property (ii) to find a sequence {y n } X such that y n y and lim sup F n (y n ) F (y).
Modica Mortola Fuctioal 2 Γ-Covergece Let X, d) be a metric space ad cosider a sequece {F } of fuctioals F : X [, ]. We say that {F } Γ-coverges to a fuctioal F : X [, ] if the followig properties hold:
More informationConvergence of random variables. (telegram style notes) P.J.C. Spreij
Covergece of radom variables (telegram style otes).j.c. Spreij this versio: September 6, 2005 Itroductio As we kow, radom variables are by defiitio measurable fuctios o some uderlyig measurable space
More information62. Power series Definition 16. (Power series) Given a sequence {c n }, the series. c n x n = c 0 + c 1 x + c 2 x 2 + c 3 x 3 +
62. Power series Defiitio 16. (Power series) Give a sequece {c }, the series c x = c 0 + c 1 x + c 2 x 2 + c 3 x 3 + is called a power series i the variable x. The umbers c are called the coefficiets of
More informationThe natural exponential function
The atural expoetial fuctio Attila Máté Brookly College of the City Uiversity of New York December, 205 Cotets The atural expoetial fuctio for real x. Beroulli s iequality.....................................2
More informationMA541 : Real Analysis. Tutorial and Practice Problems - 1 Hints and Solutions
MA54 : Real Aalysis Tutorial ad Practice Problems - Hits ad Solutios. Suppose that S is a oempty subset of real umbers that is bouded (i.e. bouded above as well as below). Prove that if S sup S. What ca
More informationMAT1026 Calculus II Basic Convergence Tests for Series
MAT026 Calculus II Basic Covergece Tests for Series Egi MERMUT 202.03.08 Dokuz Eylül Uiversity Faculty of Sciece Departmet of Mathematics İzmir/TURKEY Cotets Mootoe Covergece Theorem 2 2 Series of Real
More information2.4 Sequences, Sequences of Sets
72 CHAPTER 2. IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF R 2.4 Sequeces, Sequeces of Sets 2.4.1 Sequeces Defiitio 2.4.1 (sequece Let S R. 1. A sequece i S is a fuctio f : K S where K = { N : 0 for some 0 N}. 2. For each
More informationMath 2784 (or 2794W) University of Connecticut
ORDERS OF GROWTH PAT SMITH Math 2784 (or 2794W) Uiversity of Coecticut Date: Mar. 2, 22. ORDERS OF GROWTH. Itroductio Gaiig a ituitive feel for the relative growth of fuctios is importat if you really
More informationSequences and Series
Sequeces ad Series Sequeces of real umbers. Real umber system We are familiar with atural umbers ad to some extet the ratioal umbers. While fidig roots of algebraic equatios we see that ratioal umbers
More informationSolutions to HW Assignment 1
Solutios to HW: 1 Course: Theory of Probability II Page: 1 of 6 Uiversity of Texas at Austi Solutios to HW Assigmet 1 Problem 1.1. Let Ω, F, {F } 0, P) be a filtered probability space ad T a stoppig time.
More informationAssignment 5: Solutions
McGill Uiversity Departmet of Mathematics ad Statistics MATH 54 Aalysis, Fall 05 Assigmet 5: Solutios. Let y be a ubouded sequece of positive umbers satisfyig y + > y for all N. Let x be aother sequece
More informationMATH 112: HOMEWORK 6 SOLUTIONS. Problem 1: Rudin, Chapter 3, Problem s k < s k < 2 + s k+1
MATH 2: HOMEWORK 6 SOLUTIONS CA PRO JIRADILOK Problem. If s = 2, ad Problem : Rudi, Chapter 3, Problem 3. s + = 2 + s ( =, 2, 3,... ), prove that {s } coverges, ad that s < 2 for =, 2, 3,.... Proof. The
More informationExponential Functions and Taylor Series
Expoetial Fuctios ad Taylor Series James K. Peterso Departmet of Biological Scieces ad Departmet of Mathematical Scieces Clemso Uiversity March 29, 207 Outlie Revistig the Expoetial Fuctio Taylor Series
More informationSequence A sequence is a function whose domain of definition is the set of natural numbers.
Chapter Sequeces Course Title: Real Aalysis Course Code: MTH3 Course istructor: Dr Atiq ur Rehma Class: MSc-I Course URL: wwwmathcityorg/atiq/fa8-mth3 Sequeces form a importat compoet of Mathematical Aalysis
More informationSeunghee Ye Ma 8: Week 5 Oct 28
Week 5 Summary I Sectio, we go over the Mea Value Theorem ad its applicatios. I Sectio 2, we will recap what we have covered so far this term. Topics Page Mea Value Theorem. Applicatios of the Mea Value
More informationMATH 147 Homework 4. ( = lim. n n)( n + 1 n) n n n. 1 = lim
MATH 147 Homework 4 1. Defie the sequece {a } by a =. a) Prove that a +1 a = 0. b) Prove that {a } is ot a Cauchy sequece. Solutio: a) We have: ad so we re doe. a +1 a = + 1 = + 1 + ) + 1 ) + 1 + 1 = +
More informationSequences and Limits
Chapter Sequeces ad Limits Let { a } be a sequece of real or complex umbers A ecessary ad sufficiet coditio for the sequece to coverge is that for ay ɛ > 0 there exists a iteger N > 0 such that a p a q
More informationsin(n) + 2 cos(2n) n 3/2 3 sin(n) 2cos(2n) n 3/2 a n =
60. Ratio ad root tests 60.1. Absolutely coverget series. Defiitio 13. (Absolute covergece) A series a is called absolutely coverget if the series of absolute values a is coverget. The absolute covergece
More informationMASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY 6.265/15.070J Fall 2013 Lecture 3 9/11/2013. Large deviations Theory. Cramér s Theorem
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY 6.265/5.070J Fall 203 Lecture 3 9//203 Large deviatios Theory. Cramér s Theorem Cotet.. Cramér s Theorem. 2. Rate fuctio ad properties. 3. Chage of measure techique.
More informationSOME SEQUENCE SPACES DEFINED BY ORLICZ FUNCTIONS
ARCHIVU ATHEATICU BRNO Tomus 40 2004, 33 40 SOE SEQUENCE SPACES DEFINED BY ORLICZ FUNCTIONS E. SAVAŞ AND R. SAVAŞ Abstract. I this paper we itroduce a ew cocept of λ-strog covergece with respect to a Orlicz
More informationRational Bounds for the Logarithm Function with Applications
Ratioal Bouds for the Logarithm Fuctio with Applicatios Robert Bosch Abstract We fid ratioal bouds for the logarithm fuctio ad we show applicatios to problem-solvig. Itroductio Let a = + solvig the problem
More informationDefinition 4.2. (a) A sequence {x n } in a Banach space X is a basis for X if. unique scalars a n (x) such that x = n. a n (x) x n. (4.
4. BASES I BAACH SPACES 39 4. BASES I BAACH SPACES Sice a Baach space X is a vector space, it must possess a Hamel, or vector space, basis, i.e., a subset {x γ } γ Γ whose fiite liear spa is all of X ad
More informationIt is often useful to approximate complicated functions using simpler ones. We consider the task of approximating a function by a polynomial.
Taylor Polyomials ad Taylor Series It is ofte useful to approximate complicated fuctios usig simpler oes We cosider the task of approximatig a fuctio by a polyomial If f is at least -times differetiable
More informationFunctions of Bounded Variation and Rectifiable Curves
Fuctios of Bouded Variatio ad Rectifiable Curves Fuctios of bouded variatio 6.1 Determie which of the follwoig fuctios are of bouded variatio o 0, 1. (a) fx x si1/x if x 0, f0 0. (b) fx x si1/x if x 0,
More informationNew Inequalities For Convex Sequences With Applications
It. J. Ope Problems Comput. Math., Vol. 5, No. 3, September, 0 ISSN 074-87; Copyright c ICSRS Publicatio, 0 www.i-csrs.org New Iequalities For Covex Sequeces With Applicatios Zielaâbidie Latreuch ad Beharrat
More information1 Introduction. 1.1 Notation and Terminology
1 Itroductio You have already leared some cocepts of calculus such as limit of a sequece, limit, cotiuity, derivative, ad itegral of a fuctio etc. Real Aalysis studies them more rigorously usig a laguage
More informationA NOTE ON INVARIANT SETS OF ITERATED FUNCTION SYSTEMS
Acta Math. Hugar., 2007 DOI: 10.1007/s10474-007-7013-6 A NOTE ON INVARIANT SETS OF ITERATED FUNCTION SYSTEMS L. L. STACHÓ ad L. I. SZABÓ Bolyai Istitute, Uiversity of Szeged, Aradi vértaúk tere 1, H-6720
More informationMath 451: Euclidean and Non-Euclidean Geometry MWF 3pm, Gasson 204 Homework 3 Solutions
Math 451: Euclidea ad No-Euclidea Geometry MWF 3pm, Gasso 204 Homework 3 Solutios Exercises from 1.4 ad 1.5 of the otes: 4.3, 4.10, 4.12, 4.14, 4.15, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5 Exercise 4.3. Explai why Hp, q) = {x
More informationREAL ANALYSIS II: PROBLEM SET 1 - SOLUTIONS
REAL ANALYSIS II: PROBLEM SET 1 - SOLUTIONS 18th Feb, 016 Defiitio (Lipschitz fuctio). A fuctio f : R R is said to be Lipschitz if there exists a positive real umber c such that for ay x, y i the domai
More informationMath Solutions to homework 6
Math 175 - Solutios to homework 6 Cédric De Groote November 16, 2017 Problem 1 (8.11 i the book): Let K be a compact Hermitia operator o a Hilbert space H ad let the kerel of K be {0}. Show that there
More informationCouncil for Innovative Research
ABSTRACT ON ABEL CONVERGENT SERIES OF FUNCTIONS ERDAL GÜL AND MEHMET ALBAYRAK Yildiz Techical Uiversity, Departmet of Mathematics, 34210 Eseler, Istabul egul34@gmail.com mehmetalbayrak12@gmail.com I this
More information(A sequence also can be thought of as the list of function values attained for a function f :ℵ X, where f (n) = x n for n 1.) x 1 x N +k x N +4 x 3
MATH 337 Sequeces Dr. Neal, WKU Let X be a metric space with distace fuctio d. We shall defie the geeral cocept of sequece ad limit i a metric space, the apply the results i particular to some special
More informationLecture Notes for Analysis Class
Lecture Notes for Aalysis Class Topological Spaces A topology for a set X is a collectio T of subsets of X such that: (a) X ad the empty set are i T (b) Uios of elemets of T are i T (c) Fiite itersectios
More informationTopics. Homework Problems. MATH 301 Introduction to Analysis Chapter Four Sequences. 1. Definition of convergence of sequences.
MATH 301 Itroductio to Aalysis Chapter Four Sequeces Topics 1. Defiitio of covergece of sequeces. 2. Fidig ad provig the limit of sequeces. 3. Bouded covergece theorem: Theorem 4.1.8. 4. Theorems 4.1.13
More information1+x 1 + α+x. x = 2(α x2 ) 1+x
Math 2030 Homework 6 Solutios # [Problem 5] For coveiece we let α lim sup a ad β lim sup b. Without loss of geerality let us assume that α β. If α the by assumptio β < so i this case α + β. By Theorem
More informationDefinition An infinite sequence of numbers is an ordered set of real numbers.
Ifiite sequeces (Sect. 0. Today s Lecture: Review: Ifiite sequeces. The Cotiuous Fuctio Theorem for sequeces. Usig L Hôpital s rule o sequeces. Table of useful its. Bouded ad mootoic sequeces. Previous
More information5. Matrix exponentials and Von Neumann s theorem The matrix exponential. For an n n matrix X we define
5. Matrix expoetials ad Vo Neuma s theorem 5.1. The matrix expoetial. For a matrix X we defie e X = exp X = I + X + X2 2! +... = 0 X!. We assume that the etries are complex so that exp is well defied o
More informationINEQUALITIES BJORN POONEN
INEQUALITIES BJORN POONEN 1 The AM-GM iequality The most basic arithmetic mea-geometric mea (AM-GM) iequality states simply that if x ad y are oegative real umbers, the (x + y)/2 xy, with equality if ad
More informationLecture 17Section 10.1 Least Upper Bound Axiom
Lecture 7Sectio 0. Least Upper Boud Axiom Sectio 0.2 Sequeces of Real Numbers Jiwe He Real Numbers. Review Basic Properties of R: R beig Ordered Classificatio N = {0,, 2,...} = {atural umbers} Z = {...,
More informationMATH 324 Summer 2006 Elementary Number Theory Solutions to Assignment 2 Due: Thursday July 27, 2006
MATH 34 Summer 006 Elemetary Number Theory Solutios to Assigmet Due: Thursday July 7, 006 Departmet of Mathematical ad Statistical Scieces Uiversity of Alberta Questio [p 74 #6] Show that o iteger of the
More informationLocal Approximation Properties for certain King type Operators
Filomat 27:1 (2013, 173 181 DOI 102298/FIL1301173O Published by Faculty of Scieces ad athematics, Uiversity of Niš, Serbia Available at: http://wwwpmfiacrs/filomat Local Approimatio Properties for certai
More information2 Banach spaces and Hilbert spaces
2 Baach spaces ad Hilbert spaces Tryig to do aalysis i the ratioal umbers is difficult for example cosider the set {x Q : x 2 2}. This set is o-empty ad bouded above but does ot have a least upper boud
More informationTR/46 OCTOBER THE ZEROS OF PARTIAL SUMS OF A MACLAURIN EXPANSION A. TALBOT
TR/46 OCTOBER 974 THE ZEROS OF PARTIAL SUMS OF A MACLAURIN EXPANSION by A. TALBOT .. Itroductio. A problem i approximatio theory o which I have recetly worked [] required for its solutio a proof that the
More informationMDIV. Multiple divisor functions
MDIV. Multiple divisor fuctios The fuctios τ k For k, defie τ k ( to be the umber of (ordered factorisatios of ito k factors, i other words, the umber of ordered k-tuples (j, j 2,..., j k with j j 2...
More informationBest bounds for dispersion of ratio block sequences for certain subsets of integers
Aales Mathematicae et Iformaticae 49 (08 pp. 55 60 doi: 0.33039/ami.08.05.006 http://ami.ui-eszterhazy.hu Best bouds for dispersio of ratio block sequeces for certai subsets of itegers József Bukor Peter
More informationMASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY 6.436J/15.085J Fall 2008 Lecture 19 11/17/2008 LAWS OF LARGE NUMBERS II THE STRONG LAW OF LARGE NUMBERS
MASSACHUSTTS INSTITUT OF TCHNOLOGY 6.436J/5.085J Fall 2008 Lecture 9 /7/2008 LAWS OF LARG NUMBRS II Cotets. The strog law of large umbers 2. The Cheroff boud TH STRONG LAW OF LARG NUMBRS While the weak
More informationNotes 5 : More on the a.s. convergence of sums
Notes 5 : More o the a.s. covergece of sums Math 733-734: Theory of Probability Lecturer: Sebastie Roch Refereces: Dur0, Sectios.5; Wil9, Sectio 4.7, Shi96, Sectio IV.4, Dur0, Sectio.. Radom series. Three-series
More informationMath 341 Lecture #31 6.5: Power Series
Math 341 Lecture #31 6.5: Power Series We ow tur our attetio to a particular kid of series of fuctios, amely, power series, f(x = a x = a 0 + a 1 x + a 2 x 2 + where a R for all N. I terms of a series
More informationBETWEEN QUASICONVEX AND CONVEX SET-VALUED MAPPINGS. 1. Introduction. Throughout the paper we denote by X a linear space and by Y a topological linear
BETWEEN QUASICONVEX AND CONVEX SET-VALUED MAPPINGS Abstract. The aim of this paper is to give sufficiet coditios for a quasicovex setvalued mappig to be covex. I particular, we recover several kow characterizatios
More informationMath 61CM - Solutions to homework 3
Math 6CM - Solutios to homework 3 Cédric De Groote October 2 th, 208 Problem : Let F be a field, m 0 a fixed oegative iteger ad let V = {a 0 + a x + + a m x m a 0,, a m F} be the vector space cosistig
More informationMATH 413 FINAL EXAM. f(x) f(y) M x y. x + 1 n
MATH 43 FINAL EXAM Math 43 fial exam, 3 May 28. The exam starts at 9: am ad you have 5 miutes. No textbooks or calculators may be used durig the exam. This exam is prited o both sides of the paper. Good
More informationON MONOTONICITY OF SOME COMBINATORIAL SEQUENCES
Publ. Math. Debrece 8504, o. 3-4, 85 95. ON MONOTONICITY OF SOME COMBINATORIAL SEQUENCES QING-HU HOU*, ZHI-WEI SUN** AND HAOMIN WEN Abstract. We cofirm Su s cojecture that F / F 4 is strictly decreasig
More informationBIRKHOFF ERGODIC THEOREM
BIRKHOFF ERGODIC THEOREM Abstract. We will give a proof of the poitwise ergodic theorem, which was first proved by Birkhoff. May improvemets have bee made sice Birkhoff s orgial proof. The versio we give
More informationLecture 3 The Lebesgue Integral
Lecture 3: The Lebesgue Itegral 1 of 14 Course: Theory of Probability I Term: Fall 2013 Istructor: Gorda Zitkovic Lecture 3 The Lebesgue Itegral The costructio of the itegral Uless expressly specified
More informationIT is well known that Brouwer s fixed point theorem can
IAENG Iteratioal Joural of Applied Mathematics, 4:, IJAM_4 0 Costructive Proof of Brouwer s Fixed Poit Theorem for Sequetially Locally No-costat ad Uiformly Sequetially Cotiuous Fuctios Yasuhito Taaka,
More informationMathematical Methods for Physics and Engineering
Mathematical Methods for Physics ad Egieerig Lecture otes Sergei V. Shabaov Departmet of Mathematics, Uiversity of Florida, Gaiesville, FL 326 USA CHAPTER The theory of covergece. Numerical sequeces..
More informationThe random version of Dvoretzky s theorem in l n
The radom versio of Dvoretzky s theorem i l Gideo Schechtma Abstract We show that with high probability a sectio of the l ball of dimesio k cε log c > 0 a uiversal costat) is ε close to a multiple of the
More informationSequences and Series of Functions
Chapter 6 Sequeces ad Series of Fuctios 6.1. Covergece of a Sequece of Fuctios Poitwise Covergece. Defiitio 6.1. Let, for each N, fuctio f : A R be defied. If, for each x A, the sequece (f (x)) coverges
More informationBounds for the Positive nth-root of Positive Integers
Pure Mathematical Scieces, Vol. 6, 07, o., 47-59 HIKARI Ltd, www.m-hikari.com https://doi.org/0.988/pms.07.7 Bouds for the Positive th-root of Positive Itegers Rachid Marsli Mathematics ad Statistics Departmet
More information7.1 Convergence of sequences of random variables
Chapter 7 Limit Theorems Throughout this sectio we will assume a probability space (, F, P), i which is defied a ifiite sequece of radom variables (X ) ad a radom variable X. The fact that for every ifiite
More informationA Bernstein-Stancu type operator which preserves e 2
A. Şt. Uiv. Ovidius Costaţa Vol. 7), 009, 45 5 A Berstei-Stacu type operator which preserves e Igrid OANCEA Abstract I this paper we costruct a Berstei-Stacu type operator followig a J.P.Kig model. Itroductio
More informationLimit distributions for products of sums
Statistics & Probability Letters 62 (23) 93 Limit distributios for products of sums Yogcheg Qi Departmet of Mathematics ad Statistics, Uiversity of Miesota-Duluth, Campus Ceter 4, 7 Uiversity Drive, Duluth,
More informationTwo Topics in Number Theory: Sum of Divisors of the Factorial and a Formula for Primes
Iteratioal Mathematical Forum, Vol. 2, 207, o. 9, 929-935 HIKARI Ltd, www.m-hiari.com https://doi.org/0.2988/imf.207.7088 Two Topics i Number Theory: Sum of Divisors of the Factorial ad a Formula for Primes
More informationCommon Coupled Fixed Point of Mappings Satisfying Rational Inequalities in Ordered Complex Valued Generalized Metric Spaces
IOSR Joural of Mathematics (IOSR-JM) e-issn: 78-578, p-issn:319-765x Volume 10, Issue 3 Ver II (May-Ju 014), PP 69-77 Commo Coupled Fixed Poit of Mappigs Satisfyig Ratioal Iequalities i Ordered Complex
More informationThe Bilateral Laplace Transform of the Positive Even Functions and a Proof of Riemann Hypothesis
The Bilateral Laplace Trasform of the Positive Eve Fuctios ad a Proof of Riema Hypothesis Seog Wo Cha Ph.D. swcha@dgu.edu Abstract We show that some iterestig properties of the bilateral Laplace trasform
More informationA Note on the Kolmogorov-Feller Weak Law of Large Numbers
Joural of Mathematical Research with Applicatios Mar., 015, Vol. 35, No., pp. 3 8 DOI:10.3770/j.iss:095-651.015.0.013 Http://jmre.dlut.edu.c A Note o the Kolmogorov-Feller Weak Law of Large Numbers Yachu
More informationTauberian theorems for the product of Borel and Hölder summability methods
A. Ştiiţ. Uiv. Al. I. Cuza Iaşi. Mat. (N.S.) Tomul LXIII, 2017, f. 1 Tauberia theorems for the product of Borel ad Hölder summability methods İbrahim Çaak Received: Received: 17.X.2012 / Revised: 5.XI.2012
More informationANSWERS TO MIDTERM EXAM # 2
MATH 03, FALL 003 ANSWERS TO MIDTERM EXAM # PENN STATE UNIVERSITY Problem 1 (18 pts). State ad prove the Itermediate Value Theorem. Solutio See class otes or Theorem 5.6.1 from our textbook. Problem (18
More informationAvailable online at J. Math. Comput. Sci. 2 (2012), No. 3, ISSN:
Available olie at http://scik.org J. Math. Comput. Sci. 2 (202, No. 3, 656-672 ISSN: 927-5307 ON PARAMETER DEPENDENT REFINEMENT OF DISCRETE JENSEN S INEQUALITY FOR OPERATOR CONVEX FUNCTIONS L. HORVÁTH,
More informationThis section is optional.
4 Momet Geeratig Fuctios* This sectio is optioal. The momet geeratig fuctio g : R R of a radom variable X is defied as g(t) = E[e tx ]. Propositio 1. We have g () (0) = E[X ] for = 1, 2,... Proof. Therefore
More information} is said to be a Cauchy sequence provided the following condition is true.
Math 4200, Fial Exam Review I. Itroductio to Proofs 1. Prove the Pythagorea theorem. 2. Show that 43 is a irratioal umber. II. Itroductio to Logic 1. Costruct a truth table for the statemet ( p ad ~ r
More informationOn Some Properties of Digital Roots
Advaces i Pure Mathematics, 04, 4, 95-30 Published Olie Jue 04 i SciRes. http://www.scirp.org/joural/apm http://dx.doi.org/0.436/apm.04.46039 O Some Properties of Digital Roots Ilha M. Izmirli Departmet
More informationRiesz-Fischer Sequences and Lower Frame Bounds
Zeitschrift für Aalysis ud ihre Aweduge Joural for Aalysis ad its Applicatios Volume 1 (00), No., 305 314 Riesz-Fischer Sequeces ad Lower Frame Bouds P. Casazza, O. Christese, S. Li ad A. Lider Abstract.
More informationSequences. Notation. Convergence of a Sequence
Sequeces A sequece is essetially just a list. Defiitio (Sequece of Real Numbers). A sequece of real umbers is a fuctio Z (, ) R for some real umber. Do t let the descriptio of the domai cofuse you; it
More informationSeveral properties of new ellipsoids
Appl. Math. Mech. -Egl. Ed. 008 9(7):967 973 DOI 10.1007/s10483-008-0716-y c Shaghai Uiversity ad Spriger-Verlag 008 Applied Mathematics ad Mechaics (Eglish Editio) Several properties of ew ellipsoids
More informationSieve Estimators: Consistency and Rates of Convergence
EECS 598: Statistical Learig Theory, Witer 2014 Topic 6 Sieve Estimators: Cosistecy ad Rates of Covergece Lecturer: Clayto Scott Scribe: Julia Katz-Samuels, Brado Oselio, Pi-Yu Che Disclaimer: These otes
More informationIntegrable Functions. { f n } is called a determining sequence for f. If f is integrable with respect to, then f d does exist as a finite real number
MATH 532 Itegrable Fuctios Dr. Neal, WKU We ow shall defie what it meas for a measurable fuctio to be itegrable, show that all itegral properties of simple fuctios still hold, ad the give some coditios
More informationINVERSE THEOREMS OF APPROXIMATION THEORY IN L p,α (R + )
Electroic Joural of Mathematical Aalysis ad Applicatios, Vol. 3(2) July 2015, pp. 92-99. ISSN: 2090-729(olie) http://fcag-egypt.com/jourals/ejmaa/ INVERSE THEOREMS OF APPROXIMATION THEORY IN L p,α (R +
More informationFall 2013 MTH431/531 Real analysis Section Notes
Fall 013 MTH431/531 Real aalysis Sectio 8.1-8. Notes Yi Su 013.11.1 1. Defiitio of uiform covergece. We look at a sequece of fuctios f (x) ad study the coverget property. Notice we have two parameters
More information6.3 Testing Series With Positive Terms
6.3. TESTING SERIES WITH POSITIVE TERMS 307 6.3 Testig Series With Positive Terms 6.3. Review of what is kow up to ow I theory, testig a series a i for covergece amouts to fidig the i= sequece of partial
More informationAdvanced Real Analysis
McGill Uiversity December 26 Faculty of Sciece Fial Exam Advaced Real Aalysis Math 564 December 9, 26 Time: 2PM - 5PM Examier: Dr. J. Galkowski Associate Examier: Prof. D. Jakobso INSTRUCTIONS. Please
More information1 6 = 1 6 = + Factorials and Euler s Gamma function
Royal Holloway Uiversity of Lodo Departmet of Physics Factorials ad Euler s Gamma fuctio Itroductio The is a self-cotaied part of the course dealig, essetially, with the factorial fuctio ad its geeralizatio
More informationMath 140A Elementary Analysis Homework Questions 3-1
Math 0A Elemetary Aalysis Homework Questios -.9 Limits Theorems for Sequeces Suppose that lim x =, lim y = 7 ad that all y are o-zero. Detarime the followig limits: (a) lim(x + y ) (b) lim y x y Let s
More informationCOMPUTING THE EULER S CONSTANT: A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF ALGORITHMS AND RESULTS
COMPUTING THE EULER S CONSTANT: A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF ALGORITHMS AND RESULTS GONÇALO MORAIS Abstract. We preted to give a broad overview of the algorithms used to compute the Euler s costat. Four type
More informationAPPROXIMATION BY BERNSTEIN-CHLODOWSKY POLYNOMIALS
Hacettepe Joural of Mathematics ad Statistics Volume 32 (2003), 1 5 APPROXIMATION BY BERNSTEIN-CHLODOWSKY POLYNOMIALS E. İbili Received 27/06/2002 : Accepted 17/03/2003 Abstract The weighted approximatio
More information11.5 Alternating Series, Absolute and Conditional Convergence
.5.5 Alteratig Series, Absolute ad Coditioal Covergece We have see that the harmoic series diverges. It may come as a surprise the to lear that ) 2 + 3 4 + + )+ + = ) + coverges. To see this, let s be
More informationINFINITE SEQUENCES AND SERIES
INFINITE SEQUENCES AND SERIES INFINITE SEQUENCES AND SERIES I geeral, it is difficult to fid the exact sum of a series. We were able to accomplish this for geometric series ad the series /[(+)]. This is
More information