CONTENTS. 1. Philosophy and Science 3 2. Philosophy vs. Science The Metascientist's Historical Sensitivity. 12

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1 PREFACE CONTENTS vii Chapter 1. WHY METASCIENCE? 8 1. Philosophy and Science 3 2. Philosophy vs. Science The Main Tools of the Metascientist The Metascientist's Historical Sensitivity Science, the Humanities, and the Metascientific Bridge Metascientific Studies in the Training of Scientists 7. Why Metascience? 2. WHAT IS SCIENCE? Introduction Factual and Formal Science An Inventory of the Main Features of Factual Science WHAT IS THE METHOD OF SCIENCE? Science: Verifiable Knowledge Truthfulness and Verifiability General Verifiable Assertions: Scientific Hypotheses Scientific Method: Ars Inveniendi? Scientific Method: Technique of Approaching and Testing The Experimental Method 72 x

2 7. Theoretical Models 76 S. What Supports a Scientific Hypothesis Science: Technique and Art SI 10. The Pattern of Scientific Research Extensibility of Scientific Method Scientific Method: Another Dogma? WHAT IS THE MEANING OF 'SCIENTIFIC LAW'? Four Meanings of the Term 'Scientific Law' A Nomenclature Proposed Illustrating the Distinctions Justifying the Distinction Between Laws and Law Statements Justifying the Need for the Remaining Distinctions Applying the Distinction Between Laws! and Laws2: Are Scientific Laws Necessary? Applying the Distinction Between Laws2 and Laws3: Is Causality an Intrinsic Property of Laws? Th(! Ideals of Science in Terms of the Various Levels of Meaning of 'Law' Do THE LEVELS OF SCIENCE REFLECT THE LEVELS OF BEING? The Level Structure of Reality Emergence and Reduction Existence of Ontic Levels Suggested by Cognitive Levels Fluidity of Cognitive Levels as Contrasted with Stability of Ontic Levels Heteromorphism of Being and Knowing 114 xi

3 6. Reproduction of Material Levels on the Conceptual One. ll5 7. Origins of the Absence of Mirror-Like Correspondence ll7 8. Stability of Ontic Levels as Conditions for Relative Closure of Cognitive Levels ll9 9. Conclusions Do COMPUTERS THINK? Introduction Ideas and Their Physical Marks Counting Adding Pythagorean Machines Are Machines Aware? Can Induction be Mechanised? Do Machines Abstract? Can Machines Outdo Their Designers? Artificial Thought? Metaphors and Their Misuse Conclusions Is PHYSICS REDUCIBLE TO MECHANICS? Context of the Problem Formulation, Representation, and Interpretation of a Physical Theory ' Illustrations of Proposed Structure of Physical Theories 157 Example I. Theory: classical analytical mechanics Example II. Theory: classical electromagnetism xii

4 Example III. Theory: quantum "mechanics" Advantages of Multiplicity of Formulations 5. Lagrangian Formulation: Applicable Irrespective of Object's Nature The Contribution of the Lagrangian Method to the Decline of Mechanism. 7. Conclusions Is COMPLEMENTARITY THE FINAL INTERPRETATION OF ATOMIC PHYSICS? 1. Introduction What Is Complementary to What? 3. Esse est Percipi Sozein ta Phainomena. 5. Objectivity and Invariance 6. Are Atomic Phenomena Unanalysable?. 7. Hypotheses non Fingo 8. Complementarity in Classical Physics? 9. Is Complementarity the Only Possible Rational Interpretation? 10. Conclusions Is THERE A CRISIS IN QUANTUM MECHANICS? Introduction Interpretations of the Dynamical Variables and Their Eigenvalues Interpretations of the Wave Function Interpretations of Heisenberg's Uncertainties Nature of Microsystems How Many Interpretations are There? 246 xiii

5 10. WHAT IS THE PHILOSOPHY BEHIND THE SPACE-TIME APPROACH TO QUANTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS? Introduction Epistemology: A Function of Energy? Observables: Just a Subclass of Physical Entities Graphs: Lines or Trajectories? A Revival of Teleology? Is the S-Matrix Approach Consistent with a Space-Time Description? A Pragmatic View of Physics Any Physics Tomorrow? Conclusions. 266 SOURCES 269 INDEX 271