Atom pri pouku kemije*
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1 STROKOVNI ČLANEK - KEMIJSKO IZOBRAŽEVANJE Atom pri pouku kemije* Tadeja Birsa, Jakob Kljun, Matic Lozinšek Fakulteta za kemijo in kemijsko tehnologijo, Univerza v Ljubljani Povzetek Zgradba atoma je prvo izmed mnogih poglavij, s katerimi se srečajo tako učenci osnovnih šol, kot dijaki srednjih šol. Hkrati je to eno redkih poglavij, pri katerih je eksperimentalni pristop k razlagi snovi skorajda nemogoč. Učiteljem in profesorjem smo zato želeli dati osnovo za zgodovinski pristop pri obravnavi tega pomembnega dela kemije. Članek je sestavljen iz dveh delov. Prvi je preglednica, v kateri so navedena najpomembnejša odkritja o atomu in njegovi zgradbi od antike do današnjega časa. Drugi del članka vsebuje pregled definicij atomov in molekul ter njihove zgradbe v slovenskih učbenikih kemije od l. 19 do l S pomočjo tega članka in dodatne literature ali medmrežja bodo lahko profesorji učencem in dijakom postregli s kakšno anekdoto iz življenja najpomembnejših znanstvenikov s področja kemije, o njihovih poskusih ali se nasmejali arhaičnemu izrazoslovju ter znanstvenim zmotam kemijskih učbenikov z začetka 20. stoletja. Abstract The atomic structure is the first out of many topics introduced to primary and secondary school students. At the same time it is one of the topics that cannot be explained by any empirical method. We wanted to provide teachers a basis upon which they could rely when explaining the history of this important section of chemistry. The article is divided in two parts. In the first part there is a list of the most important discoveries about the atom and its structure during the period from the Classical antiquity to the Modern era. The second part includes various definitions of the atom, the molecule and their structure as written in the Slovene chemistry textbooks published in the period from 19 to With this article and using some other reference books and the Internet, the teachers will be able to amuse the students with some anecdotes about important scientist, who worked in the field of chemistry, learn about archaic terminology and some major scientific mistakes that appeared in the textbooks published in the early 20 th century. PREGLED RAZVOJA VEDENJA O ATOMU Človek se je že od nekdaj spraševal, iz česa je sestavljena snov, ki ga obdaja. V evropskem prostoru so se s tem vprašanjem ukvarjali že starogrški filozofi. V 5. stoletju pr. n. š. je Levkip prišel do zamisli, da snovi ni mogoče deliti v neskončnost in da obstajajo najmanjši, nedeljivi delci atomi. Beseda atom izvira prav iz starogrškega izraza za nedeljiv. Njegov učenec Demokrit je to idejo razvil in atome definiral kot nevidne, nedeljive, trdne, nestisljive in neuničljive delce. A grški filozofi so svet skušali doumeti le z mislimi in se niso ukvarjali z eksperimentalnim delom. Tako je velik vpliv pridobil Aristotelov nauk, po katerem je vsa materija sestavljena iz štirih elementov, to je ognja, zraka, vode in zemlje oziroma njihovih kombinacij. Morali sta preteči kar dve tisočletji, da je bil ta nauk ovržen in se je znanost ponovno znašla na pravi sledi. Konec 18. in v začetku 19. stoletja so tako A. L. Lavoisier (1774), J. L. Proust (1799) in J. Dalton (1803) * Prispevek je pripravljen pod mentorstvom prof. dr. Saše Aleksija Glažarja v okviru predmeta Razvoj kemije, ki se izvaja na univerzitetnem študijskem programu Kemija, smer Kemijsko izobraževanje, Fakulteta za kemijo in kemijsko tehnologijo, Univerza v Ljubljani. postavili temeljne zakone, ki so nakazovali zrnato zgradbo snovi. Potrditev je prišla z odkritji A. Avogadra (18), P. L. Dulonga, A. T. Petita (1819), S. Cannizzara (1860) in J. J. Loschmidta (1865). To je bil tudi čas, ko je J. J. Berzelius (1813) uvedel črkovne simbole elementov, D. I. Mendeljejev (1869) je razvrstil elemente v periodni sistem, G. J. Stoney (1891) pa predpostavil obstoj elektrona. Kmalu za tem so W. K. Röntgen (1895) z odkritjem žarkov X, A. H. Becquerel (1896), M. in P. Curie (1898) pa z odkritjem radioaktivnosti sprožili nov val raziskav o sestavi in bistvu atoma. Razvoj atomistike je nato ubral dve, med seboj prepletajoči se poti. Odkrivali so delce, ki atom sestavljajo, ter iskali razlage, teorije in modele, ki bi pojasnili zgradbo atoma in pojave, povezane z njo. Eksperimenti so potrdili teorijo in ta je napovedala rezultate eksperimentov. Tako so v mozaik znanja o zgradbi atoma svoj kamenček prispevali J. J. Thompson (1897) z odkritjem ter R. A. Millikan (1909) z določitvijo mase in naboja elektrona, E. Rutherford (19) z odkritjem jedra in J. Chadwick (1932) z odkritjem nevtrona. Dela M. Plancka (1900) o kvantu in A. Einsteina (1905) o relativnosti so položila temelje, na katerih so zrasli moderni pogledi na 2 Kemija v šoli, letnik 18, št. 4, december 2006
2 zgradbo atoma. Znanstveniki, kot so H. G. J. Moseley (1913) s svojim zakonom, N. Bohr (1913) z modelom atoma, L. de Broglie (1923), ki pripiše gibajočim se delcem valovno dolžino, G. E. Uhlenbeck in S. A. Goudsmit (1925) s predpostavko o spinu, W. Pauli (1925) z izključitvenim pravilom, F. Hund (1925) s svojim pravilom, M. Born (1926) z verjetnostjo nahajanja elektrona, E. Schrodinger (1927) s kvantno mehaniko, W. K. Heisenberg (1927) z načelom nedoločenosti, P. A. M. Dirac (1928), ki vpelje relativistično valovno mehaniko in R. S. Mulliken (1928) s pojmom orbitale pa so sodelovali pri razlagi. Prispevek nekaterih je bil večji, spet drugih manjši, a še brez tako neznatnega koščka slika ne bi bila popolna. Na koncu pa so v svojih eksperimentih to znanje uporabili in ga s tem potrdili F. Joliot in I. Joliot-Curie (1934) pri umetni radioaktivnosti ter O. Hahn in F. Strassmann (1938) pri cepitvi uranovega atoma. A tu se zanimiva zgodba odkritij o zgradbi materije še ne konča, ampak se nadaljuje vse do današnjih dni, saj še vedno potekajo raziskovanja najosnovnejših gradnikov, njihovih lastnosti in interakcij. Obdobje Kdo? Kaj? Antika Demokrit, Levkip, Lukrecij Ideja grških filozofov, da je snov (5. stol. pr. n. š.) ( ) sestavljena iz atomov Antoine Laurent Lavoisier Zakon o ohranitvi mase. ( ) Joseph Louis Proust Zakon o stalni sestavi. ( ) 1803 John Dalton Zakon o mnogokratnem masnem razmerju. ( ) 3 18 Amedeo Avogadro Najmanjši delci, ki sestavljajo plin, so ( ) molekule. Enake prostornine plinov vsebujejo enako število delcev pri enakih pogojih 4 (Avogadrova hipoteza) Jöns Jacob Berzelius Črkovni simboli elementov. ( ) Pierre Louis Dulong ( ) Produkt A r in specifične toplote elementa Alexis Thérès Petit je enak 6,3 cal/g (26,3 J/g). ( ) Stanislao Cannizzaro Uvedba pojmov relativna atomska masa, ( ) valenca (razmerje med A r in ekvivalentom je celo število). Uvedba enote za množino snovi. 7 Volumen 1 mola plina je 22,4 L pri normalnih pogojih. Kemija v šoli, letnik 18, št. 4, december
3 Obdobje Kdo? Kaj? 1865 Johann Joseph Loschmidt Kinetična teorija plinov (število molekul ( ) pri normalnih pogojih v 1 cm 3 plina je N L = 2, , v 1 molu plina (22,4 L) je N A = 6, , Avogadrovo število) Dimitrij Ivanovič Mendeljejev Razvrstitev elementov v periodni sistem. ( ) George Johnstone Stoney Elektron je najmanjši delec elektrike ( ) (teoretska predpostavka) Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen Odkritje žarkov X oz. rentgenskih žarkov. ( ) 1896 Antoine Henri Becquerel Odkritje radioaktivnosti. ( ) 1897 Joseph John Thomson Razmerje med nabojem in maso delcev. ( ) 1898 Marie Curie ( ) Odkritje radioaktivnosti in radioaktivnih Pierre Curie elementov (radija in polonija). ( ) 1900 Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck Energija je kvantizirana. ( ) Planckova konstanta h = 6, J s Albert Einstein Posebna teorija relativnosti in E = m c 2. ( ) 1909 Robert Andrews Millikan Določitev naboja elektrona in njegove ( ) mase (Millikanov poskus, fotoelektrični efekt). 4 Kemija v šoli, letnik 18, št. 4, december 2006
4 Obdobje Kdo? Kaj? 19 Ernest Rutherford Atom je skoraj povsem prazen prostor, ( ) večina mase in pozitivni naboj je v jedru 1919 atoma. Radioaktivno obstreljevanje (pretvorba enega elementa v drugega) Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley Pojem vrstnega števila, Moseleyjev zakon. ( ) Niels Bohr Model zgradbe atoma vodika, ( ) stacionarna stanja (orbitale) elektronov Louis de Broglie Obravnava delcev z gibalno količino p kot ( ) valovanje z valovno dolžino: λ = h/p George Eugene Uhlenbeck ( ) Predpostavita rotacijo elektrona spin. Samuel Abraham Goudsmit ( ) Wolfgang Pauli Paulijev izključitevni princip (največ dva ( ) elektrona v eni orbitali), dva elektrona v isti orbitali morata imeti nasproten spin Friedrich Hund Hundovo pravilo (elektroni zasedejo ( ) maksimalno število energijsko enakovrednih orbital z enakim (vzporednim) spinom) Max Born Elektron v atomu obravnavamo kot gibajoč ( ) delec, ki ga z določeno verjetnostjo najdemo v nekem področju v atomu. To verjetnost poveže s kvadratom amplitude valovanja Erwin Schrödinger Schrödingerjeva enačba. ( ) Kvantna mehanika (model zgradbe atoma) Werner Karl Heisenberg Načelo nedoločenosti. ( ) Kemija v šoli, letnik 18, št. 4, december
5 Obdobje Kdo? Kaj? 1928 Paul A. M. Dirac Relativistična valovna mehanika. ( ) 1928 Robert Sanderson Mulliken Za valovno funkcijo vpelje ime orbitala ( ) (v ožjem pomenu besede) James Chadwick Odkritje nevtronov. ( ) 1934 Frederic Joliot ( ) Umetna radioaktivnost. Irene Joliot-Curie ( ) 1938 Otto Hahn ( ) Cepitev uranovega atoma. Fritz Strassmann ( ) 15 VIRI SLIKOVNEGA GRADIVA: 1 de.wikipedia.org/wiki/bild:demokrit.jpeg 2 fornax_cluster.html moseley.htm 13 photos.aip.org 14 osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/ sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/dimitrij_ivanovič_mendeljejev 10 understandingscience.ucc.ie/pages/sci_georgejohnstonestoney.htm UPORABLJENA LITERATURA: Lazarini F., Brenčič J., 1992: Splošna in anorganska kemija, Državna založba Slovenije, Ljubljana. Pojem atoma in molekule v slovenskih kemijskih učbenikih Skladno z razvojem znanosti se spreminja oziroma nadgrajuje tudi izrazoslovje, s katerim želimo popisati naše vedenje o določeni temi. Znanstvena definicija je torej vedno zasnovana na osnovi znanja in razumevanja fenomenologije v določenem trenutku. S pregledom definicije atoma in molekule med leti 19 in 1979 v slovenskih kemijskih učbenikih lahko to tezo zagotovo potrdimo. V tem obdobju, ki zajema tako prvo kot drugo svetovno vojno, čas med vojnama ter obdobje po drugi svetovni vojni do leta 1979, so najbolj pogosto objavljali naslednji avtorji: Ivo Zobec s petimi učbeniki, Maks Prezelj s tremi učbeniki ter Vladimir Žitko z dvema, kasneje še Tatjana Pretnar. 6 Kemija v šoli, letnik 18, št. 4, december 2006
6 Leto Avtor Definicija atoma in molekule izdaje 19 dr. Vladimir Herle Ako delimo telo v vedno manjše drobce, pridemo do silno majhnih delov, ki jih ne moremo več deliti. Imenujemo jih molekule (gr. majhna tvorina). So med seboj enake, vsaka ima iste lastnosti kot tvorina. S kemičnim potom se dajo razdeliti tudi molekule in te najmanjše dele, ki se jih s kemičnim potom ne da razdeliti, imenujemo atome Jožef Reisner Molekule iste prvine so med seboj enake, imajo enako velikost in enako težo. Najmanjša množina prvine, ki more stopiti v molekulo kake spojine se imenuje atom dotične prvine Fr. Pengov in Najmanjše, nespremenljive delce prvin imenujemo atome. Navadno se dr. A. Ratajec po dva ali več atomov združi v novo tvorbo, ki jo imenujemo molekula Maks Prezelj Atom je najmanjši delec elementa. Molekula pa je najmanjši delec spojine. Molekule lahko razdelimo na atome ing. Ivo Zobec Molekule so najmanjši samostojni delci, iz katerih obstaja snov Najmanjšim drobcem elementov, ki sestavljajo molekulo pravimo atomi Najmanjši delci spojin so molekule, najmanjši delci elementov pa atomi Vladimir Žitko Atomi iste prvine so med seboj enaki, medtem ko so atomi spojin različni. Najmanjši skupek atomov, ki ga ne moremo mehansko razdeliti in ima iste lastnosti kot celo homogeno telo, imenujemo molekula ( = mala gmota). Pri nekaterih prvinah sta atom in molekula istovetna, pri večini pa ne in so najmanjši, mehanično nedeljivi delci molekule prvin navadno sestavljene iz dveh ali več, seveda enakih atomov Vladimir Žitko, Molekule so najmanjši delci snovi, ki imajo še iste lastnosti kot snov. dr. ing. Rihard Klemen Najmanjše delce snovi, do katerih moremo priti na kemijski način in ki tvorijo z medsebojnim spajanjem molekule, imenujemo atome ing. Milan Vladen, Atom je najmanjši delec elementa. Molekula pa je najmanjši delec ing. Janez Varl spojine. Molekule lahko razdelimo na atome prof. Pavel Krivačič, Najmanjše delce elementov in spojin, ki morejo prosto obstajati in, ki dr. ing. Rativoj Seiwerth imajo iste značilne lastnosti kakor večje molekule iste snovi, imenujemo (priredil prof. dr. Črtomir molekule. Molekule so sestavljene iz še manjših delcev atomov. Nučič) 1960 prof. dr. K. Cazafura Molekule so sestavljene iz atomov, ki so nedeljivi Maks Prezelj Molekule so najmanjši delci snovi, ki jih ne moremo dalje deliti, ne da bi se snov iz katere sestoje, spremenila v drugo snov. Delci elementov, na katere se razkroji molekula, so atomi Maks Prezelj Ni definicije atomov in molekul Karel Dobovišek Atom je najmanjši delec elementa. Atom se ne da dalje razstaviti na še manjše delce, ne da bi pri tem izgubili lastnosti določenega elementa. Molekule so manjši delci snovi, ki jih na noben fizikalen način ne moremo dalje deliti, ne da bi pri tem izgubile značaj oziroma lastnosti tiste snovi Tatjana Pretnar Molekule so najmanjši delci snovi, ki imajo še lastnosti te snovi. Vsaka 1971 snov je sestavljena iz svojih značilnih molekul. Molekule spojin so sestavljene iz raznovrstnih atomov. Molekule elementov so sestavljene iz istovrstnih atomov. Atomi so najmanjši delci snovi, ki jih z navideznimi kemijskimi postopki ne moremo več razdeliti. Kemija v šoli, letnik 18, št. 4, december
7 Leto Avtor Definicija atoma in molekule izdaje 1970 Cene Zorec Molekule so majhni delci, ki imajo vse lastnosti tiste snovi, iz katere so dobljene na fizikalni način. Takšni delci so tako majhni, da jih ne moremo videti niti z najmočnejšim mikroskopom. Obstaja toliko različnih molekul, kolikor je snovi. Molekule so sestavljene iz dveh ali več atomov. Atomi istega elementa so med seboj podobni in imajo enako težo. Atomi različnih elementov si med seboj razlikujejo po teži in sestavi Tatjana Pretnar Atom je najmanjši delec snovi, ki se pri kemijskih reakcijah ne razdeli v manjše delce. Molekule so sestavljene iz atomov, in sicer so molekule elementov sestavljene iz istovrstnih atomov, molekule spojin pa iz raznovrstnih atomov. Molekule so sestavljene iz enega ali več atomov. Iz tabele je razvidno, da se same definicije ne razlikujejo veliko, opazna je le razlika v samem izrazoslovju, saj so v prvih pregledanih učbenikih definicije podane zelo opisno. Prva definicija, ki smo jo zasledili v učbeniku Vladimirja Herleja iz leta 19, je le nadgradnja Daltonove predpostavke, da so atomi nedeljivi (grška beseda atomos pomeni nedeljiv). Zapisano je namreč, da so atomi najmanjši deli, ki se jih s kemičnim potom ne da razdeliti, molekule pa majhne tvarine, ki se jih da razdeliti s kemičnim potom. Tudi v vseh naslednjih učbenikih iz tega obdobja sta definirana tako atom kot tudi molekula, le v učbeniku Maksa Prezlja iz leta 1963 ni niti definicije atoma niti molekule. Eden izmed vzrokov, da so definicije zelo podobne, je ta, da je v tem obdobju objavljalo le določeno število avtorjev in ti so v vseh svojih učbenikih uporabljali iste oziroma podobne besede in stavčne zveze. Iz pregledanih učbenikov lahko sklepamo, da je zadnja definicija, podana v učbeniku Tatjane Pretnar iz leta 1979, najbolj popolna in je nekakšen povzetek vseh prej navedenih definicij. Zapisala je namreč, da je»atom najmanjši delec snovi, ki se pri kemijskih reakcijah ne razdeli v manjše delce. Molekule pa so sestavljene iz enega ali več atomov, in sicer so molekule elementov sestavljene iz istovrstnih, molekule spojin pa iz raznovrstnih atomov.«uporabljena LITERATURA: Herle, V., 19: Kemija in mineralogija, za IV. Razred gimnazij in realnih gimnazij, Založilo Društvo slovenskih profesorjev v Ljubljana. Reisner, J., 1912: Kemija, za sedmi gimnazijski razred, Založil knezoškofijski zavod sv. Stanislava v Št. Vidu nad Ljubljano, Ljubljana. Pengov, F. in Ratajec, A., 1925: Poljudna kemija, Mohorjeva knjižnica 9, Družba sv. Mohorja. Prezelj, M., 1926: Kemija in mineralogija, za nižje razrede srednjih šol, Založila Jugoslovanska knjigarna v Ljubljani. Zobec, I., 1938: Kemija z mineralogijo, za nižje razrede srednjih šol, Banovinska zaloga šolskih knjig in učil v Ljubljani, Ljubljana. Žitko, V., 1938: Kemija za višje razrede srednjih šol, Banovinska zaloga šolskih knjig in učil v Ljubljani, Ljubljana. Žitko, V., Klemen, R., 1939: Mineralogija in kemija s tehnologijo, za III. Razred meščanskih šol vseh treh smeri, Banovinska zaloga šolskih knjig in učil v Ljubljani, Ljubljana. Zobec, I., 1948: Kemija, Državna založba Slovenije, Ljubljana. Vladen, M., Varl, J., 1949: Kemija in kemijska tehnologija, učna knjiga za ekonomske tehnikume, Državna založba Slovenije, Ljubljana. Zobec, I., 1953: Kemija, druga, predelana izdaja, Državna založba Slovenije, Ljubljana. Zobec, I., 1956: Kemija, Državna založba Slovenije, Ljubljana. Zobec, I., 1957: Kemija, za kmetijske, gospodinjske in kmetijsko-gospodarske šole, Založba kmečka knjigarna v Ljubljani, Ljubljana. Cazafura, K., 1960: Uvod v kemijo na fizikalno kemijski osnovi, Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za rudarstvo, metalurgijo in kemijsko tehnologijo, Ljubljana. Prezelj, M., 1962: Kemija, za sedmi razred osnovnih šol, Državna založba Slovenije, Ljubljana. Prezelj, M., 1963: Kemija, za osmi razred osnovnih šol, Državna založba Slovenije, Ljubljana. Dobovišek, K., 1965: Kemija, Ljubljana, Dopisna šola. Pretnar, T., 1965: Kemija, za prvi razred gimnazije, Anorganska kemija I, Državna založba Slovenije, Ljubljana. Zorec, C., 1970: Kemija, za 7. razred osnovne šole v Zavodu za slepo in slabovidno mladino v Ljubljani, Zavod za slepo in slabovidno mladino v Ljubljani, Ljubljana. Pretnar, T., 1971: Anorganska kemija, za sedmi razred osnovne šole, Založba Obzorja Maribor. Pretnar, T.,1979: Anorganska kemija I, za prvi razred gimnazije, dopolnjena izdaja, Državna založba Slovenije, Ljubljana. 8 Kemija v šoli, letnik 18, št. 4, december 2006
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