Laver Tables A Direct Approach
|
|
- Isaac Small
- 6 years ago
- Views:
Transcription
1 Laver Tables A Direct Approach Aurel Tell Adler June 6, 016
2 Contents 1 Introduction 3 Introduction to Laver Tables 4.1 Basic Definitions Simple Facts Not Primitive Recursive More on Laver Tables Reconstruction of A n Mean Period Steps
3 1 Introduction In this thesis we have a closer look at Laver tables. On the front page the heat map of the 8 8 Laver table is shown. The colors of the bottom row represent in ascending order the numbers 1 to 8, purple being 1 and red being 8. This table is the composition table of the unique system satisfying some algebraic property, namely the left self-distributivity, under the following condition: the first column starts with ascends to 8 and ends with 1. One might already notice that each row is strictly ascending until it arrives at red and then repeats. This general periodicity of the rows can be proven. Furthermore if we consider larger tables one can show that the period of a fixed row is non-decreasing. For all tables that have been computed so far the period of the first row does not exceed 16. Now a natural question comes to mind: Does the period of the first row have an upper bound or is it unbounded? Assuming some large cardinal hypothesis Laver showed that the period of each row tends to infinity. This can be looked up in [Deh00][Chapter XIII, Proposition 1.15 on page 576]. But whether this is provable in the setting of set theory remains an open question. The thesis is split up into two parts: In Chapter we give a formal introduction to Laver tables and state some common facts, which we shall use in the course of this thesis. In the last section we shall restate a proof of the fact that the period of the first row grows extremely slow compared to primitive recursive functions assuming that the period is unbounded. In Chapter 3 we prove some theorems that help us construct a Laver table from preceding ones. But it is still unclear whether some part has to actually be calculated or whether the whole table can be reconstructed by preceding ones. However, with this new knowledge one can show that the mean period grows linearly. In the last section we prove an interesting fact about steps that enables us to give equivalent characterizations about period jumps up to 8. 3
4 Introduction to Laver Tables In this chapter we give the relevant definitions and notions needed for the thesis. We recap some basic facts which can be found in [Drá94] and [Deh00]. Particularly interesting are Lemma..5, Lemma..6 and Lemma..7. In Section.3 we introduce the jump-function that indicates when the period of a row jumps. We shall translate the proof of the fact, that this function grows faster than any primitive recursive function assuming that the period is unbounded, from the assumption that some large cardinal exists to our finite case. That this translation is possible has been indicated in [Deh00][Chapter XIII, Proposition 4.13, page 596]..1 Basic Definitions Definition.1.1. Let S be a set and : S S S be a binary function on S. The pair (S, ) is called left self-distributive system (LSD-system for short) iff for all a, b, c S the following holds: a (b c) (a b) (a c) (.1.1) Definition.1.. For n, N N and N 0, we define the following: (n) N { n mod N if N n, N otherwise. (.1.) We shall denote the set {1,..., N} by S N. Let φ be a formula we define the following: { 1 if φ is true, δ φ 0 else. For an LSD-system (S, ) with x S, we define inductively: { x if N 1, x [N] x [N 1] x otherwise. { x [N] x if N 1, x x [N 1] otherwise. (.1.3) (.1.4) (.1.5) 4
5 Remark.1.1. Note that the function ( ) N is the standard modulo operation with the exception that instead of the value 0 it takes the value N. If from the context it is not clear what operation we are talking about in the case x [N] or x [N], we shall specify that by an index: x [N] or x [N].. Simple Facts We now state some facts, which can be found in [Deh00, Chapter X.1]. Lemma..1 (Lemma 1., p. 446). operation N on S N satisfying For every N N >0, there exists a unique a N 1 (a + 1) N (..1) and, for all a, b S N, a N (b N 1) (a N b) N (a N 1). (..) For a, b S N, the following relations hold in the resulting system: b if a N, a N b a + 1 else if b 1 or a N (b 1) N, > a N (b 1) otherwise. (..3) For a < N, there exists p N a and c 1 a + 1 < c <... < c p N such that, for every b S N, we have a N b c i with i (b) p, hence, in particular the following holds: a N b > a (..4) By Lemma..1 for a S N the notion of period of a is well-defined. This leads us to the following definition: Definition..1. For a S N, we shall denote the period of a in S N by p N (a) min{p S N : a N p N}. The following lemma tells us that in the study of finite monogenic LSD-systems we may concentrate on (S N, N ): Lemma.. (Lemma 1.5, p. 448). Every LSD-system admitting a single generator x satisfying x [N+1] x and x [a] x for 1 < a N is isomorphic to (S N, N ). Now we naturally ask ourselves the question whether (S N, N ) is an LSD-system. This is answered by: Lemma..3 (Proposition 1.6, p. 448). exists no LSD-system satisfying..1. If N N is not a power of, there 5
6 For each n N, there exists a unique LSD-system with domain S n satisfying..1, namely the system (S n, n) of Lemma..1. This leads us to the following definition: Definition... For n N, we shall call the LSD-system (S n, n) the Laver table of size n and denote it by A n. For a A n, we denote the period of a in S n by P n (a). Remark..1. In writing a A n we mean a S n, similarly we mean a n b while writing a n b. Table.1: The composition tables of the first five Laver tables Lemma..4. For a, b A n and k N >0, we have a n (b [k] n ) (a n b) [k] n. Proof. We show this by induction on k. For k 1 there is nothing to show. Now for 6
7 Figure.1: Heat maps of the first five Laver tables 7
8 k 1 we have using the induction hypothesis (I.H.): a n (b [k+1] n ) a n (b n b [k] n ).1.1 (a n b) n (a n b [k] n ) I.H. (a n b) n (a n b) [k] n (a n b) [k+1] n The following lemma tells us something about A n+1 given A n, in particular how to construct the second half of A n+1 out of A n : Lemma..5 (Proposition 1.16, p. 454). For every n N and 1 a n, there exists a number θ n+1 (a) with 0 θ n+1 (a) P n (a) and θ n+1 ( n ) 0 such that, for every b A n+1, we have: { a n (b) n if (b) Pn+1(a) θ n+1 (a), a n+1 b a n (b) n + n (..5) if (b) Pn+1(a) > θ n+1 (a), { (a + n b if a n, ) n+1 b a n (b) n + n (..6) else. In particular we have: { P n+1 (a + n P n (a) if a n, ) n+1 else. and P n+1 (a) {P n (a), P n (a)} So the period is always a power of. Remark... For a, b A n and n l N, with Lemma..5 we get inductively: (a n b) l (a) l l (b) l (..7) To illustrate Lemma..5 look at Figure.1. The bottom row always forms a complete rainbow in the sense that it starts with purple and increases until it ends with red. The rest of the bottom half is just the preceding table copied in twice with the colors shifted accordingly on the rainbow. Note that the color red gets copied exactly. We now state some facts, which can be found in [Drá94]. Lemma..6 (Lemma.1, p. 584). For 0 j n, n j < a < n and b A j the following holds: P n (( n j ) n) j, in particular we have: ( n j ) n n b n j + b (..8) P n (a) < j (..9) Lemma..7 (Lemma., p. 585). For 0 j n 1, n 1 j < a < n 1 and b A j+1 the following holds: P n (( n 1 j ) n) j+1, in particular we have: (..10) ( n 1 j ) n n b n 1 j + b + ( n 1 j )δ b> j (..11) P n (a) j (..1) 8
9 .3 Not Primitive Recursive In this section we elaborate the proof of [Deh00][Chapter XIII, Proposition 4.13, page 596], which needs some facts about elementary embeddings but can be translated into our finite case. It states that the period of row 1 grows extremely slowly compared to n if we assume that the period goes to infinity. Definition.3.1. For a, b, m, n N with a, b > 0, we define the jump-function of a and a b respectively: J a (m) n : (a) n+1 n+1 m n J a b (m) n : ((a) n+1 n+1 (b) n+1) n+1 n+1 m n Remark.3.1. Assume that J a (m) n holds. By Lemma..5 this means that the period of a jumps from m to m+1 between A n and A n+1. In formulas: In particular we have: P n ((a) n) m and P n+1 ((a) n+1) m+1 (.3.1) J a (m) max{k N : P k ((a) k) m } (.3.) On the other hand assume that max{k N : P k ((a) k) m } n N holds. Again by Lemma..5 we arrive at.3.. The following lemma gives us basic properties of the jump-function. Lemma.3.1. For a, b, k N with a, b > 0, the following holds: If lim n P n((a) n) holds, then we have: If lim n P n((a) n) k+1 holds, then we have: If J a b (m) n holds, then we have: J a : N N (.3.3) J a : {0,..., k} N (.3.4) N > n : J a b J (a) N N (b) N on [0, m] (.3.5) And J a is a strictly increasing function. Remark.3.. We note that the above lemma covers all cases. By Lemma..5 P n ((a) n) increases with n, so the limit exists. If the limit is finite, it cannot be equal to 1, otherwise we would have (a) n n 1 in the case n > 0, which cannot be true for all n > 0. 9
10 Proof. Assume that lim P n((a) n) k+1 holds. Because P 0 ((a) 0) P 0 (1) 0 n holds and by Lemma..5 the period doubles at most, max{n N : P n ((a) n) k } exists. By Remark.3.1 J a (k) exists. So.3.3 is established. Now assume that lim n P n((a) n) < k+1 holds. If J a (k) existed by Remark.3.1 J a (k) max{n N : P n ((a) n) k } would hold and therefore P Ja(k)+1((a) Ja(k)+1) k+1 holds contradicting our assumption. This establishes.3.4. For m, n N with m < n assume that J a (m) and J a (n) exist. By Remark.3.1 and the monotonicity of the period we get that J a is strictly increasing on its domain. Assume that J a b (m) n holds. Now for N > n and 0 c m with J a b (c) n c, we get: ((a) N N (b) N ) nc+1 nc+1 c..7 ((a) nc+1 nc+1 (b) nc+1) nc+1 nc+1 c which means that.3.5 is established. Definition.3.. For a N >0 with {k N : J a (k) k}, we define the critical integer of J a to be: crit(j a ) min{k N : J a (k) k} (.3.6) Now we show that the critical integer exists for any a N >0 : Lemma.3.. For a, k N with k a but k+1 a, we have crit(j a ) k. Proof. For l k, we have: P l ((a) l) P l ( l ) Lemma..5 l This means by Remark.3.1 that for l < k we have J a (l) l. For l N, we have (a) k+1+l {(a) k+l, (a) k+l + k+l } and by our assumption (a) k+1 k holds. So by induction one sees that there exists an l N with (a) k+1+l k+1+l k and (a) k++l k+1+l k. Now by..8 we get P k+1+l ((a) k+1+l) k and by..10 we get P k++l ((a) k++l) k+1 and therefore by Remark.3.1 J a (k) k + l + 1. The following lemma will be crucial in proving the main result. It indicates that the jump-function maps critical integers to other critical values.. Lemma.3.3. For a, b N >0 with a, b N, if J a (crit(j b )) exists and is smaller than N it is equal to crit(j a N b). Proof. Let us assume that crit(j b ) k and J a (k) n hold. So we have (a) n+1 n+1 k n and by Lemma.3. we have (b) k+1 k. Since J a is strictly increasing by Lemma.3.1 we get k n. So by Lemma..5 we have that (b) n+1 is an odd multiple of k. By.3.1 we know that P n+1 ((a) n+1) k+1 holds and we therefore..7 get (a N b) n+1 (a) n+1 n+1 (b) n+1 (a) n+1 n+1 k n. Now by Lemma.3. we get crit(j a N b) n. 10
11 Now we turn to the goal of this section: Theorem.3.1. If for all a, b N >0 we have J a, J a b : N N then the function (J 1 ) x (0) grows faster than any primitive recursive function and therefore the jumpfunction of 1 is not primitive recursive. Remark.3.3. Note that if f : N N, x f(x) is primitive recursive then g : N N, x f x (0) is as well. By direct computation one can see that J 1 (0) 1, J 1 (1) and J 1 () 4 hold. But we don t even know whether J 1 (4) exists. From now on we shall assume that for all a N >0 we have J a : N N. We will need some auxiliary lemmas, definitions and notations to show the result. Definition.3.3. For a, p 0,..., p l N with a > 0, we will use the following notations: J a : p 0... p l : for 0 i < l: J a (p i ) p i+1 J a p 0... p l : crit(j a ) p 0 and for 0 i < l: J a (p i ) p i+1 The following lemma tells us how sequences of critical values can be translated. Lemma.3.4. For a, b N >0, the following holds: J b p 0... p l K N N K : J a N b J a (p 0 )... J a (p l ) (.3.7) Proof. First we show that p i crit(j b [i+1] N ) holds for 0 i l and all N N i for some N i N. We show this by induction on i. For i 0, just take N 0 such that b N0. Now for 0 i < l and N N i+1 max{n i, J b (crit(j b [i+1] Ni )) + 1} we get: p i+1 J b (p i ) I.H. Lemma.3.3 J b (crit(j b [i+1] N )) crit(j b [i+] N ) This completes the induction on i. Now we show that for 0 i l and any N max{n l, J a (crit(j b [i+1] Ni )) + 1} with a N we have crit(j (a N b) [i+1] N ) J a(p i ). Observe that the following holds: crit(j (a N b) [i+1] N Lemma..4 Lemma.3.3 ) crit(j a N ) (b [i+1] N ) J a (crit(j b [i+1] N )) J a (p i ) For 0 i < l and N large enough, using.3.5, we get: J a N b(j a (p i )) J a N b(crit(j (a N b) [i+1] N This completes the proof. ) Lemma.3.3 crit(j (a N b) [i+] N ) J a(p i+1 ) The following lemma states that the spaces between integer sequences of a strictly increasing function are non-decreasing. Lemma.3.5. For a, p, q, r N with a > 0 and J a : p q r, we have r q q p. 11
12 Proof. If p q holds, we have r J a (q) J a (p) q and the lemma holds. If p < q holds we have q < r as well because J a is strictly increasing. The following hold: q p 1 + {b N : p < b < q} and r q 1 + {b N : q < b < r} For p < b < q we get q J a (p) < J a (b) < J a (q) r because J a is strictly increasing. So we get J a ({b N : p < b < q}) {b N : q < b < r} and because J a is injective we arrive at q p r q. Definition.3.4. For n, m N, we say that p (p 0,..., p n ) N n+1 is realizable if there exists an a N >0 that satisfies J a p 0... p n. We say that (p 0,..., p n ) has length n. We say that (p 0,..., p n ) is a base for (q 0,..., q m ) N m+1 if, for each 0 i < m, (p 0,..., p n, q i, q i+1 ) is realizable. Remark.3.4. Note that if (p 0,..., p n ) is a base for (q 0,..., q m ) then for every 0 i m we also have that (p 0,..., p n ) is a base for (q 0,..., q i ). Also observe that the existence of a base for (q 0,..., q m ) implies that this sequence is strictly increasing, and that, if (p 0,..., p n ) is such a base, for all 0 i n we have that (p i,..., p n ) is also a base: this follows by induction on i. For i 0, there is nothing to show. Now for 0 i < n we have by the induction hypothesis that for every 0 j < m there exists an a N >0 with: J a p i... p n q j q j+1 By Lemma.3.4 we conclude for some N N: J a N a p i+1... p n q j q j+1 Lemma.3.6. If (q 0,..., q m ) with m > 0 admits a base then q m m holds. Proof. Assume that (p) is a base for (q 0,..., q m ). For every 0 i < m we have by Lemma.3.5 that q i+1 q i q i p. Since q 0 > p holds, we deduce q i i + p by induction on i. The following lemmas show that a sequence that is based can be expanded in some sense. Lemma.3.7. If (q 0,..., q m ) is based on (p) and (p 0,..., p n, p, q 0 ) is realizable then there exists a sequence based on (p 0,..., p n ) that starts with p and ends with q m of length m. Proof. We show the claim by induction on m 0. For m 0, the sequence (p, q o ) is the desired one because (p 0,..., p n, p, q 0 ) is realizable by assumption and it has length 0. For m > 0, the induction hypothesis gives a sequence σ m 1 based on (p 0,..., p n ) that starts with p and ends with q m 1 of length m 1. Because (p, q m 1, q m ) is realizable, there exists an a N >0 satisfying: J a p q m 1 q m 1
13 We define the sequence σ m by extending σ m 1 with m 1 elements: σ m m 1 +i J a(σ m 1 i ) for 1 i m 1. Because σ m J a(σ m 1 m ) J m 1 a (q m 1 ) q m holds σ m starts with p and ends with q m and is of length m. Furthermore, since σ m 1 is based on (p 0,..., p n ), for 0 i < m 1 there exists a b N >0 satisfying: J b p 0... p n σ m 1 i σ m 1 i+1 As p n < p crit(j a ) holds we get by Lemma.3.4, for some N N: J a N b p 0... p n σ m m 1 +i σm m 1 +i+1. Note that for the case i 0 we use J a (σ m 1 0 ) J a (p) q m 1 σ m m 1 This shows that (p 0,..., p n ) is a base for σ m and therefore completes the proof. Definition.3.5. For n, m N, we define the following functions: m if n 0, G n (m) 0 else, if m 0, G n (m 1) + G n 1 ( Gn(m 1) ) otherwise. Remark.3.5. Note that for all n N we have G n (1) 1. (.3.8) H n (m) Gn(m) (.3.9) Lemma.3.8. For m > 0, if (q 0,..., q m ) is based on (p n, p n+1 ) and (p 0,..., p n+1, q 0 ) is realizable then there exists a sequence based on (p n+1 ) that starts with q 0 and ends with q m of length G n+1 (m). Proof. We show the claim by a double induction: induction on n 0 and for each value of n induction on m 1. For m 1, the sequence (q 0, q 1 ) is the desired one because by Remark.3.4 it is based on (p n+1 ) and starts and ends with the correct elements and is of length 1 G n+1 (1). For m, the induction hypothesis gives a sequence σ m 1 based on (p n+1 ) that starts with q 0 and ends with q m 1 of length G n+1 (m 1). Now we consider two cases to arrive at a sequence based on (p n ) that starts with p n+1 and ends with q m 1 and is of length G n ( Gn+1(m 1) ): If n 0 holds, by Lemma.3.7 we get a sequence σ m 1 that is based on (p 0 ) that starts with p 1 and ends with q m 1 and is of length G 0 ( G1(m 1) ) G1(m 1). Now simply continue with σ m 1 σ m 1. 13
14 If n > 0 holds, by Lemma.3.7 and Remark.3.4 we get a sequence σ m 1 that is based on (p n 1, p n ) that starts with p n+1 and ends with q m 1 and is of length Gn+1(m 1). Now we apply the induction hypothesis for n 1 to the sequence σ m 1. We get a sequence σ m 1 based on (p n ) that starts with p n+1 and ends with q m 1 and is of length G n ( Gn+1(m 1) ). Because (p n, p n+1, q m 1, q m ) is realizable, there exists an a N >0 satisfying: J a p n p n+1 q m 1 q m We define the sequence σ m by extending σ m 1 with the new elements: σ m G n+1(m 1)+i J a(σ m 1 i ) for 1 i G n ( Gn+1(m 1) ). The sequence σ m has length G n+1 (m 1) + G n ( Gn+1(m 1) ) G n+1 (m) and starts with q 0 and ends with σ m G n+1(m) J a(σ m 1 G n( G n+1 (m 1) ) ) J a(q m 1 ) q m. Furthermore, since σ m 1 is based on (p n ), for 0 i < G n ( Gn+1(m 1) ) there exists a b N >0 satisfying: J b p n σ m 1 i We get by Lemma.3.4, for some N N: σ m 1 i+1 J a N b p n+1 σ m G n+1(m 1)+i σm G n+1(m 1)+i+1 Note that for the case i 0 we use J a (σ m 1 0 ) J a (p n+1 ) q m 1 σ m G n+1(m 1). This shows that (p n+1 ) is a base for σ m and therefore completes the proof. Lemma.3.9. For m > 0, if (q 0,..., q m ) is based on (p n, p n+1 ) and (p 0,..., p n+1, q 0 ) is realizable then there exists a sequence based on (p 0 ) that starts with p 1 and ends with q m of length H 1 (... (H n+1 (m))...). Proof. We show the claim by induction on n 0. By Lemma.3.8 we get a sequence σ m based on (pn+1 ) that starts with q 0 and ends with q m of length G n+1 (m). Now we consider two cases: If n 0 holds, by applying Lemma.3.7 we get another sequence σ m based on (p 0 ) that starts with p 1 and ends with q m of length H 1 (m). This is the desired one. If n > 0 holds, by applying Lemma.3.7 and Remark.3.4 we get another sequence σ m based on (p n 1, p n ) that starts with p n+1 and ends with q m of length H n+1 (m). Now we are in position to apply the induction hypothesis and get the desired result. 14
15 Theorem.3.. For x 3, we have: (J 1 ) x (0) H1(...(Hx (1))...) (.3.10) Proof. Since by Remark.3.3 crit(j 1 ) 0 we get the following: In particular we get: J 1 0 J 1 (0)... (J 1 ) x (0) J (J 1 ) 3 (0) By induction on l 0 using Lemma.3.4 by taking N large enough we get: J 1 [l+1] N (J 1 ) l (0)... (J 1 ) l+3 (0) This means that ((J 1 ) x 1 (0), (J 1 ) x (0)) is based on ((J 1 ) x 3 (0), (J 1 ) x (0)) and furthermore (0, J 1 (0),..., (J 1 ) x 1 (0)) is realizable. By Lemma.3.9 we get that there exists a sequence based on (0) that starts with J 1 (0) and ends with (J 1 ) x (0) of length H 1 (... (H x (1))...). We conclude by Lemma.3.6. Now we finalize the proof of Theorem.3.1: Proof. By Theorem.3. it suffices to show that H1(...(Hx (1))...) grows faster than any primitive recursive function. This is established by comparing it with Ackermann s function. This can be looked up in [Deh00][Chapter XIII, after Definition 3.13 on page 590]. 15
16 3 More on Laver Tables Similar to Lemma..5 we shall show in Section 3.1 how some parts of A n+1 may be reconstructed by A n. In Section 3. using these results we shall show that the mean period grows linearly. In the section about steps we shall examine more closely for which b A n the following holds: a n b a n+1 b. We shall give an equivalent formulation for the period of a to jump from 4 to 8 in Theorem Reconstruction of A n+1 We recall that δ φ for any formula φ is 1 if φ is true and 0 otherwise. Now we come to our first finding, which tells us how we can construct the second quarter of A n+1 out of A n : Theorem For a, b, n N >0 with n 1 < a < n and b A n+1, the following holds: a n+1 b (a) n 1 n (b) n 1 + n 1 + n 1 δ (a) n 1 n(b) n 1 >n 1 (3.1.1) In particular we have P n+1 (a) P n ((a) n 1). Remark Note that in the case above (a) n 1 a n 1 holds. Proof. We show using a double induction: descending induction on a and for each value of a ascending induction on b. Note that we are in the case n. For n 1 < a < n and b 1 we have: a n+1 b a n a + 1 (a) n 1 + n (a) n 1 n 1 + n 1 (a) n 1 n (b) n 1 + n 1 + n 1 δ (a) n 1 n(b) n 1 > n 1 For a as above and 1 < b P n+1 (a) we have that b c + 1 c n+1 1 for some 1 c < P n+1 (a). We get by using the induction hypothesis (I.H.): a n+1 b a n+1 (c n+1 1).1.1 (a n+1 c) n+1 (a + 1) I.H. ((a) n 1 n (c) n 1 + n 1 + n 1 δ (a) n 1 n(c) n 1 > n 1) n+1 (a + 1) 16
17 Now we have to consider three cases. We will use that (c) n (c + 1) n 1 and (a) n (a + 1) n 1 hold. To see this we use that for d N >0 we have (d) n + 1 (d + 1) n n d therefore (a) n (a + 1) n 1 holds and by..1 we have P n+1 (a) n 1 so c < n If (a) n 1 n (c) n 1 < n 1 holds, we can apply the I.H. because (a) n 1 n (c) n 1 + n 1 > (a) n 1 + n 1 a holds by..4, we get: ((a) n 1 n (c) n 1 + n 1 + n 1 δ (a) n 1 n(c) n 1 > n 1) n+1 (a + 1) ((a) n 1 n (c) n 1 + n 1 ) n+1 (a + 1) I.H. ((a) n 1 n (c) n 1) n ((a) n 1 + 1) + n 1 + n δ ((a) n 1 n(c) n 1 ) n((a) n 1 +1)> n 1 (a) n 1 n ((c) n 1 + 1) + n 1 + n 1 δ (a) n 1 n((c) n 1 +1)> n 1 (a) n 1 n (b) n 1 + n 1 + n 1 δ (a) n 1 n(b) n 1 > n 1. If (a) n 1 n (c) n 1 n 1 holds, we get: ((a) n 1 n (c) n 1 + n 1 + n 1 δ (a) n 1 n(c) n 1 > n 1) n+1 (a + 1) n n+1 (a + 1)..8 n + a + 1 n 1 + (a) n n 1 + n 1..8 ((a) n 1 n (c) n 1) n ((a) n 1 + 1) + n 1 + n (a) n 1 n ((c) n 1 + 1) + n 1 + n 1..3 (a) n 1 n (b) n 1 + n 1 + n 1 δ (a) n 1 n(b) n 1 > n 1 3. Now for the last case assume that (a) n 1 n (c) n 1 > n 1 holds. We will need that (a) n 1 n (c) n 1 < n holds. To prove this, assume the contrary. We get that a n+1 c n+1 holds which would be a contradiction to c < P n+1 (a). For the second equation also note that for 1 d < n we have d n e d n (e) n 1 since P n (d) n 1 by..9. We get: ((a) n 1 n (c) n 1 + n 1 + n 1 δ (a) n 1 n(c) n 1 > n 1) n+1 (a + 1) ((a) n 1 n (c) n 1 + n ) n+1 (a + 1)..6 ((a) n 1 n (c) n 1) n ((a) n 1 + 1) + n.1.1 (a) n 1 n ((c) n 1 + 1) + n 1 + n 1..3 (a) n 1 n (b) n 1 + n 1 + n 1 δ (a) n 1 n(b) n 1 > n 1 Remark To illustrate what Theorem states, look at Figure.1 and Table.1. The second quarter is nothing but the first half of the preceding table shifted 17
18 accordingly, noting that the red part gets exactly copied. In the language of Section 3.3 it means that for n 1 < a < n holds. s n+1 (a) s n ((a) n 1) (3.1.) Now we state our second finding which tells us something about A n+1 given A n, in particular how to construct the second eighth of A n+1 out of A n and in some cases even the second sixteenth: Theorem For a, b, n N >0 with b A n+1, the following holds: If n is even, the following holds: 1. For n < a < n 1, we have a n+1 b (a) n n (b) n 1 + n 3 i0 in particular P n+1 (a) P n ((a) n ) n holds.. For a n, we have: in particular P n+1 ( n ) n. 3. For 1 a < n, we have: If n is odd, the following holds: n n+1 b (b) n + n 3 1. For n + n 3 a < n 1, we have: a n+1 b (a) n n (b) n 1 + n in particular P n+1 (a) P n ((a) n ).. For n 3 a < n + n 3, we have: δ (a) n n(b) n 1 >in, (3.1.3) i0 δ (b) n >in, (3.1.4) P n+1 (a) n 1 (3.1.5) 3 i0 δ (a) n n(b) n 1 >in, (3.1.6) a n+1 b a n (b) n + n δ a n(b) n > n +n 3, (3.1.7) in particular P n+1 (a) P n (a). For 1 a < n 1, we have: P n+1 (a) n 1 (3.1.8) 18
19 Proof. We show the claim by induction on n. In the case n 1 there is nothing to show. Now let n be even. We show using a double induction: descending induction on a and for each value of a ascending induction on b. For n < a < n 1 and b 1, we have: a n+1 b a n a + 1 (a) n + n (a) n n 1 + n 3 (a) n n (b) n 1 + n δ (a) n n(b) n 1 >i n For a as above and 1 < b P n+1 (a) we have that b c + 1 c n+1 1 for some 1 c < P n+1 (a). We get by using the induction hypothesis (I.H.): a n+1 b a n+1 (c n+1 1).1.1 (a n+1 c) n+1 (a + 1) I.H. 3 ((a) n n (c) n 1 + n δ (a) n n(c) n 1 >i n ) n+1 (a + 1) i0 Now we have to consider seven cases. We will use that (c) n (c + 1) n 1 holds. To see this we use that for d N >0 we have (d) n + 1 (d + 1) n n d and c < n 1, because for c n 1 we get a n+1 c n+1 (since P n (e) n 1 holds for e < n by..9) and this contradicts c < P n+1 (a). i0 1. If (a) n n (c) n 1 < n holds, we can apply the I.H. because (a) n n (c) n 1 + n > (a) n + n a holds by..4, we get: ((a) n n (c) n 1 + n 3 δ (a) n n(c) n 1 >i n ) n+1 (a + 1) i0 ((a) n n (c) n 1 + n ) n+1 (a + 1) I.H. ((a) n n (c) n 1) n ((a) n 1 + 1) + n 3 ((a) n n (c) n 1) n ((a) n + 1) i0 + n 3 i0 (a) n n ((c) n 1 + 1) + n (a) n n (b) n 1 + n δ ((a) n n(c) n 1 ) n((a) n 1 +1)>i n δ ((a) n n(c) n 1 ) n((a) n +1)>i n δ (a) n n((c) n 1 +1)>i n i0 3 i0 δ (a) n n(b) n 1 >i n 19
20 . If (a) n n (c) n 1 n holds, using for the last equality that n n ((a) n + 1)..11 n 1 we get: ((a) n n (c) n 1 + n 3 δ (a) n n(c) n 1 >i n ) n+1 (a + 1) i0 n 1 n+1 (a + 1)..11 n 1 + a + 1 n + (a) n n + n..11 ((a) n n (c) n 1) n ((a) n + 1) + n + n.1.1 (a) n n ((c) n 1 + 1) + n + n..3 3 (a) n n (b) n 1 + n i0 δ (a) n n(b) n 1 >i n 3. If n < (a) n n (c) n 1 < n 1 holds, using for the last equality that for n < d < n 1 we have d n e > n 1 d n e > 3 n, which follows easily by Theorem 3.1.1, we get: ((a) n n (c) n 1 + n 3 δ (a) n n(c) n 1 >i n ) n+1 (a + 1) i0 ((a) n n (c) n 1 + n 1 ) n+1 (a + 1) ((a) n n (c) n 1) n (a + 1) + n 1..1 (1 + δ ((a) n n(c) n 1 ) n(a+1)>n 1) ((a) n n (c) n 1) n ((a) n + 1) + n 1..3 (1 + δ ((a) n n(c) n 1 ) n((a) n +1)>n 1) 3 (a) n n (b) n 1 + n δ (a) n n(b) n 1 >i n i0 4. If (a) n n (c) n 1 n 1 holds, using for the last equality that n 1 n ((a) n + 1) 3 n holds by..8, we get: ((a) n n (c) n 1 + n 3 δ (a) n n(c) n 1 >i n ) n+1 (a + 1) i0 n n+1 (a + 1)..8 n + a + 1 n 1 + (a) n n + n 1..8 ((a) n n (c) n 1) n ((a) n + 1) + n + n (a) n n (b) n 1 + n δ (a) n n(b) n 1 >i n i0 0
21 5. If n 1 < (a) n n (c) n 1 < n 1 + n holds, we get: ((a) n n (c) n 1 + n 3 δ (a) n n(c) n 1 >i n ) n+1 (a + 1) i0 ((a) n n (c) n n ) n+1 (a + 1)..6 ((a) n n (c) n 1 n ) n (a + 1) + n ((a) n n (c) n 1 n 1 ) n 1 ((a) n + 1) + n + n..6 (1 + δ ((a) n n(c) n 1 n 1 ) n 1((a) n +1)>n ) ((a) n n (c) n 1) n ((a) n + 1) + n 1 + n..3 (1 + δ ((a) n n(c) n 1 ) n((a) n +1) n 1 >n ) 3 (a) n n (b) n 1 + n δ (a) n n(b) n 1 >i n i0 6. If (a) n n (c) n 1 n 1 + n holds, we get: ((a) n n (c) n 1 + n 3 δ (a) n n(c) n 1 >i n ) n+1 (a + 1) i0 ( n + n 1 ) n+1 (a + 1)..6 n 1 n (a + 1) + n..8 n 1 + (a) n n + n..8 ((a) n n (c) n 1) n ((a) n + 1) + n..3 3 (a) n n (b) n 1 + n i0 7. If n 1 + n < (a) n n (c) n 1 holds, we get: ((a) n n (c) n 1 + n δ (a) n n(b) n 1 >i n 3 δ (a) n n(c) n 1 >i n ) n+1 (a + 1) i0 ((a) n n (c) n 1 + n ) n+1 (a + 1)..6 ((a) n n (c) n 1) n (a + 1) + n..9 ((a) n n (c) n 1) n ((a) n + 1) + n..3 3 (a) n n (b) n 1 + n i0 δ (a) n n(b) n 1 >i n This completes the proof of To show P n ((a) n ) n use The proof 1
22 of works mostly analogously using The proof of is simple: P n+1 (a) Lemma..5 P n (a) n 1 Now let n 3 be odd. The proof of is almost the same as of The careful reader will have noticed why we have to restrict ourselves to the case n + n 3 a < n 1. In the first case of the proof of we rely on 3.1.8, which is now in the case of n odd not true, because P n ( n 3 ) n 1 holds. Now that we are in the case n + n 3 a < n 1, we..4 have (a) n n (c) n 1 > (a) n n 3, so we only need to replace the remark by in the proof of the first case of to get a proof of We show using again a double induction: descending induction on a and for each value of a ascending induction on b. Try to find out where we use that n is odd. For n 3 a < n 3 + n and b 1, we have: a n+1 b a n a a n 1 a n (b) n + n δ a n(b) n > n + n 3 For a as above and 1 < b P n+1 (a) we have that b c + 1 c n+1 1 for some 1 c < P n+1 (a). We get by using the induction hypothesis (I.H.): a n+1 b a n+1 (c n+1 1).1.1 (a n+1 c) n+1 (a + 1) I.H. (a n (c) n + n δ a n(c) n > n + n 3) n+1 (a + 1) Now we have to consider three cases: 1. If a n (c) n < n + n 3, we can apply the I.H. because a n (c) n > a holds by..4, we get: (a n (c) n + n δ a n(c) n > n + n 3) n+1 (a + 1) (a n (c) n) n+1 (a + 1) I.H. (a n (c) n) n (a + 1) + n δ (a n(c) n ) n(a+1)> n + n If a n (c) n n + n 3, we get: a n (b) n + n δ a n(b) n > n + n 3 (a n (c) n + n δ a n(c) n > n + n 3) n+1 (a + 1) ( n + n 3 ) n+1 (a + 1) n 3 n (a + 1) + n 3 (a) n n 3 3 i0 Now we have to consider two subcases: i0 3 δ (a) n 1 +1>in 3 + n δ n 3 n(a+1)>i n i0 δ n 3 n(a+1)>i n The case n 3 a < n does not exist. By examining and one notices that a n b n + n 3 so we cannot be in case.
23 If n a < n + n 3, we get: (a) n n 3 3 i0 3 δ (a) n 1 +1>in 3 + n (a) n n 3 + n i0 δ n 3 n(a+1)>i n 3 δ (a) n n 3 >i n i0 (a) n n n (a + 1) n + n + 3 n n..11 n 3 n 1 (a + 1) n + n + n ( n 3 + n ) n (a + 1) n (1 + δ n 3 n 1(a+1) n > n ) + n + n (a n (c) n) n (a + 1) + n..3 a n (b) n + n δ a n(b) n > n + n 3 3. If n + n 3 < a n (c) n, we get: (a n (c) n + n δ a n(c) n > n + n 3) n+1 (a + 1) (a n (c) n + n ) n+1 (a + 1)..6 (a n (c) n) n (a + 1) + n..3 a n (b) n + n δ a n(b) n > n + n 3 This completes the proof of In the second case we used so we needed that n 1 is even. Now let s proof the final statement 3.1.8: For 1 a < n 3, we get: P n+1 (a) P n (a) < n 1 For n 3 a < n 1, we use and together with..9. It is still unclear whether the above process can be continued forever or whether some top part has to actually be calculated and cannot be reconstructed in a similar way as in the above theorems. 3. Mean Period Using the above theorems we shall show that the mean period grows linearly. Definition For n N, we define the following: P n (a) a A µ(n) n n (3..1) 3
24 We shall need some lemmas. Lemma For n 3 odd, we have: P n+1 ( n 1 + n 3 ) P n+1 ( n 1 n 3 ) n 1 (3..) P n ( n 1 + n 3 ) P n ( n 1 n 3 ) n (3..3) So in particular the periods of n 1 + n 3 and n 1 n 3 jump from n to n + 1 if n is odd. Proof. The following shows the desired statements: P n+1 ( n 1 + n 3 ) P n+1 ( n 1 n 3 ) P n ( n 1 + n 3 ) P n ( n 1 n 3 ) T heorem P n ( n 3 ) n 1 T heorem 3.1. P n ( n 3 ) n 1 Lemma..5 P n 1 ( n 3 )..10 n T heorem P n 1 ( n 3 )..10 n Lemma 3... For n N and 1 l < n, we have the following: P n ( n l 1) (3..4) P n+1 ( n l 1) 4 (3..5) In particular the period of n l 1 jumps from n to n + 1. Proof. We show the statement by induction on n. For n 0, 1, there is nothing to Lemma..5 show. For the case n note that P () P 1 () and P 3 () holds. For 1 l < n, we have: P n+1 ( n+1 l 1) P n+ ( n+1 l 1) Now for the case l n, we get: Lemma..5 P n ( n l 1) I.H. T heorem P n+1 ( n l 1) I.H. 4 P n+1 ( n+1 n 1)..10 ( n+1 n 1) n+.1.1 n n+ n..11 n+1 So, by Lemma..5, we get that the period must have doubled and is therefore 4. Now we state the main result of this section. Theorem For n N, the following holds: µ(n) > n (3..6) 4
25 Proof. We show the statement by induction on n. For n 6, the above can be achieved by direct computation. So for the following it is safe to assume n 6. For n even, using Theorem 3.1.1, Theorem 3.1., Lemma..5 and Lemma..7, we get: n+1 µ(n + 1) P n+1 (a) a A n+1 P n+1 (a) + P n+1 (a) + P n+1 (a) 1 a< n n <a< n 1 n 1 <a< n + P n+1 (a) + P n+1 ( n ) + P n+1 ( n 1 ) + P n+1 ( n+1 ) n a< n+1 P n (a) + P n (a) + P n (a) + P n (a) + n+ 1 a< n 1 a< n 1 a< n 1 1 a n n+ + n µ(n) + P n (a) + P n (a) 1 a< n 1 a< n 1 Now we do two separate calculations. Using Lemma..6, Lemma..7, Lemma 3..1, Lemma 3.. and 3.1.4, we get: 1 a< n 1 P n (a) 1 a< n 1 P n 1 (a) + n l0 P n ( n 1 l ) + P n ( n + n 4 ) + P n( n n 4 ) n 1 µ(n 1) + n P n (a) 1 a< n 1 a< n P n (a) + n 3 + n 3 l0 P n 1 (a) + Pn(n n 4 ) 1 a< n P n 1 ( n l ) n µ(n ) + n Now continuing in the case where n is even, we get: n+ + n µ(n) + P n (a) + 1 a< n So we get: + P n 1( n 4 ) + P n( n 1) 1 a< n 1 P n (a) > > + P n 1( n 3 1) n+ + n µ(n) + n 1 µ(n ) + n 1 + n 1 µ(n 1) + n µ(n + 1) I.H. > n + n + n 1 > n 3 4 > n + 1 > 5
26 This completes the case where n is even. For n odd, using Theorem 3.1.1, Theorem 3.1., Lemma..5 and Lemma..7, we get: n+1 µ(n + 1) P n+1 (a) a A n+1 P n+1 (a)+ P n+1 (a) + P n+1 (a)+ 1 a< n 3 n 3 a< n + n 3 n + n 3 a< n 1 P n+1 (a) + P n+1 (a) + P n+1 ( n 1 ) + P n+1 ( n+1 ) n 1 <a< n n a< n+1 P n (a) + P n (a) + P n (a)+ 1 a< n 3 n 3 a< n + n 3 n 3 a< n P n (a) + P n (a) + n+1 + n 1 a< n 1 1 a n P n (a) + P n (a) + P n (a) + n µ(n) + n+1 + n 1 a< n n 3 a< n + n 3 1 a< n 1 Now we do some separate calculations. Using Lemma..6, Lemma..7, Lemma 3.., Theorem 3.1.1, Theorem 3.1. and the separate calculations in the case where n is even, we get: P n (a) 1 a< n 1 1 a< n 1 P n 1 (a) + n l0 P n ( n 1 l ) + P n( n 3 ) + P n( n 1) n 1 µ(n 1) + n P n (a) P n 1 (a) + Pn(n 3 ) n µ(n ) + n 3 + n 1 a< n 1 a< n P n (a) P n (a) + P n (a) n 3 a< n + n 3 n 3 a< n n a< n + n 3 P n ( n 3 ) + P n ( n ) + 1 a< n 3 P n 1 (a) > n + n µ(n 3) + n Now continuing in the case where n is odd, we get: P n (a) + P n (a) + P n (a) + n µ(n) + n+1 + n 1 a< n n 3 a< n + n 3 1 a< n 1 n 3 + n + n µ(n ) + n + n + n µ(n 3)+ n 1 µ(n 1) + n + n µ(n) + n+1 + n > 6
27 So we get: µ(n + 1) I.H. > n + n + n 1 + n 3 > n 7 8 > n + 1 This completes the case where n is odd and therefore the statement is proven. Remark Taking a closer look at the proof, one sees that the inequality can be improved such that for sufficiently large n, we have: µ(n) 1.3n This can be achieved by observing some cases after n 6 and being more precise with µ(n),..., µ(n 3). 3.3 Steps Definition For a A n with n 1 the step of a in A n is: s n (a) min{b A n : a n b > n 1 } (3.3.1) Remark The above definition is well-defined because a n P n (a) n holds and therefore the set {b A n : a n b > n 1 } is nonempty. For a A n, note that by..5 the following holds: s n+1 (a) min{b A n : a n b a n+1 b} (3.3.) By..3 we get for n 1 that s n ( n ) n The following observation is important. Lemma For a A n and 1 i < P n (a), the following hold: 1 i < s n (a) 1 s n (a n i) > (a n 1) Pn(a ni) (3.3.3) s n (a) 1 i < P n (a) s n (a n i) (a n 1) Pn(a ni) (3.3.4) Proof. Consider the following calculation: a n (i + 1).1.1 Lemma..1 (a n i) n (a n 1) (a n i) n (a n 1) Pn(a ni) So the left hand side is greater than n 1 iff the right hand side is greater than n 1. This means by the definition of the step that s n (a) i + 1 is equivalent to s n (a n i) (a n 1) Pn(a ni), where we used that i + 1 P n (a) and (a n 1) Pn(a ni) P n (a n i) hold. So holds. And notice that is just an equivalent formulation. Lemma For 1 a < n 1 and j, k N >1, we have the following: 7
28 1. j s n+1 (a) < s n (a) is equivalent to: For 1 i < j 1, we have (a n 1) Pn(a ni) (a n+1 1) Pn+1(a n+1i) < s n (a n i), s n+1 (a n+1 i). For b a n (j 1), we have (a n 1) Pn(b) < s n (b) and if P n (b) P n+1 (b) holds we have s n+1 (b) (a n 1) Pn(b) otherwise (a n 1) Pn(b) < (a n+1 1) Pn+1(b).. j s n+1 (a) s n (a) is equivalent to: For 1 i < j 1, we have (a n 1) Pn(a ni) (a n+1 1) Pn+1(a n+1i) < s n (a n i), s n+1 (a n+1 i). For b a n (j 1), we have s n (b) (a n 1) Pn(b) and if P n (b) P n+1 (b) holds s n+1 (b) (a n 1) Pn(b) otherwise (a n 1) Pn(b) < (a n+1 1) Pn+1(b). 3. k s n+1 (a) > s n (a) j is equivalent to: For 1 i < j 1, we have (a n 1) Pn(a ni) (a n+1 1) Pn+1(a n+1i) < s n (a n i), s n+1 (a n+1 i). For b a n (j 1), we have s n+1 (b) > (a n+1 1) Pn+1(b) (a n 1) Pn(b) s n (b). For j i < k 1, we have s n+1 (a n+1 i) > (a n+1 1) Pn+1(a n+1i) (a n 1) Pn(a ni). For b a n (k 1), we have if P n (b) P n+1 (b) holds s n+1 (b) (a n 1) Pn(b) otherwise (a n 1) Pn(b) < (a n+1 1) Pn+1(b). Proof. We will use Lemma all the time. First we want to show that all cases imply the first point: For j min{s n (a), s n+1 (a)} and 1 i < j 1, by we only need to show that (a n 1) Pn(a ni) (a n+1 1) Pn+1(a n+1i) holds. If P n (a n i) P n+1 (a n+1 i) holds, this is obvious, noting that a n 1..1 a n+1 1 holds. Otherwise we have P n (a n i) P n+1 (a n+1 i) by Lemma..5. By we get: (a n+1 1) Pn+1(a n+1i) < s n+1 (a n+1 i) P n (a n i) + 1 This means that (a n 1) Pn(a ni) (a n+1 1) Pn+1(a n+1i) holds. Now we want to show that the first case implies the second point. Because of we have (a n 1) Pn(b) < s n (b). By we have s n+1 (b) (a n+1 1) Pn+1(b). So s n+1 (b) (a n 1) Pn(b) is true in the case P n (b) P n+1 (b). Otherwise because s n+1 (b) P n (b) + 1 holds we must have (a n 1) Pn(b) < (a n+1 1) Pn+1(b). Now we want to show that the second case implies the second point. Because of we have s n (b) (a n 1) Pn(b). The rest is shown by the same argument as in the first case. Now we want to show that the third case implies the other points. For the second point we only need to show (a n+1 1) Pn+1(b) (a n 1) Pn(b) because of Lemma Here we use the same argument as used for the first point. The third point works the 8
29 same way. The last point is shown the same way as in the proof that the first case implies the second point. Now we turn to the other directions. First we assume the first point. By Lemma we have j min{s n (a), s n+1 (a)}. Now we consider the first case. By that (a n 1) Pn(b) < s n (b) holds implies j < s n (a). By distinguishing the cases whether the period of b jumps or not we arrive at s n+1 (b) (a n+1 1) Pn+1(b), note that we use So by we arrive at j s n+1 (a). Now we consider the second case. By that s n (b) (a n 1) Pn(b) holds implies j s n (a). Arguing as in the first case we arrive at j s n+1 (a). Now we turn to the final case. By Lemma we arrive at s n (a) j < s n+1 (a) using the second point. The third point implies that k s n+1 (a) holds. Arguing as in the first case we arrive at k s n+1 (a) using the final point. Remark We examine the previous lemma a little closer in the case a 1. Assuming that we are in the case n > 1 we have a n 1. The following hold: 1. If j s n+1 (1) < s n (1) holds, for b 1 n (j 1) we have P n (b) because b n 1. So we cannot have () Pn(b) < () Pn+1(b). This means that the period of b has to stay the same. And that s n+1 (b) holds.. If j s n+1 (1) s n (1) holds, for b 1 n (j 1) we have P n (b) P n+1 (b) and s n+1 (b), arguing in the same way as above. 3. If j s n+1 (1) > s n (1) holds, for b 1 n (j 1) we have P n (b) P n+1 (b) and s n+1 (b), arguing in the same way as above. So in any case for b 1 n (s n+1 (1) 1), we have P n (b) P n+1 (b) and s n+1 (b). Theorem For n N and a A n+1, the following holds: For a n+1, we have: For n a < n+1, we have: For 1 a < n, we have: 1. If P n (a) < P n+1 (a) holds, we have: s n+1 (a) P n+1(a). If P n (a) P n+1 (a) holds, we have: s n+1 (a) n + 1 (3.3.5) s n+1 (a) 1 (3.3.6) + 1 and a n+1 P n+1 (a) n (3.3.7) s n+1 (a) P n(a) (3.3.8) 9
30 For a A n with a n 1 and n > 0, we have: (a n 1) n a n Pn(a) n a n P n (a) (a n 1) (n a n Pn(a) ) (3.3.9) P n (a) P n (a n ) (3.3.10) Summarizing for a n 1 we get: { Pn+1(a) s n+1 (a) + 1 if P n+1 (a) > P n ((a) n) Pn+1(a) if P n+1 (a) P n ((a) n) (3.3.11) Remark The main achievement of the theorem is This heavily depends on which at first seems unnatural. The question is whether similar statements as hold which would be needed to restrict s n+1 (a) even more because of Lemma Heuristically it seems that s n+1 (a) can only take a few values being sums of powers of. Proof. We shall show the theorem by induction on n. Statements through can be shown directly, as we shall see next. For statements and in the case of n 0 there is nothing to show. To see 3.3.5, note that n+1 n+1 b b holds by..3. For n a < n+1, since a n+1, we have a n+1 1 a + 1 > n, which shows For 1 a < n and P n (a) < P n+1 (a), by..5 we have a n+1 P n+1(a) a n+1 P n (a) { n, n+1 }. By definition of the period we cannot have a n+1 P n+1(a) n+1 therefore a n+1 P n+1(a) n holds and by..3 we get a n+1 ( Pn+1(a) + 1) > n which shows Now we turn to the hard part where 1 a < n and P n (a) P n+1 (a) holds. We show this by contraposition: For s n+1 (a) > Pn(a) we have to show that P n (a) < P n+1 (a) holds. We don t need to consider the case a n 1, because by..8 and..10 we have P n (a) 1 < P n+1 (a) and therefore there is nothing to show. So we are in the case where P n (a) is divisible by. To make things shorter we write k instead of Pn(a) in the following. Using 3.3. we can assume that for all b k the following holds: a n+1 b a n b So it suffices to show that for all b k the following holds: a n+1 (k + b) a n (k + b) (3.3.1) This is because we then get a n+1 k a n k n and therefore P n (a) < P n+1 (a). To show we proceed by induction on b. For b < k we get: a n+1 (k + b + 1)..1 a n+1 ((k + b) n+1 1).1.1 (a n+1 (k + b)) n+1 (a n+1 1) I.H. (a n (k + b)) n+1 (a n 1) 30
31 Let l N be such that P n (a) P n l ((a) n l) > P n l 1 ((a) n l 1). This is well-defined by Lemma..5 and because the period has to drop to k. We show the following by induction on l: (a n (k + b)) n+1 (a n 1) ((a) n l n l (k + b)) n l+1 ((a + 1) n l)+ l n i (1 + δ ((a) n i n i(k+b)) n i+1((a+1) n i )> n i) i1 For l 0, the above is obvious. For l N, using in the case s n l ((a) n l) P n l ((a) n l ) Pn(a) k for the first equality, we have: ((a) n l n l (k + b)) n l+1 ((a + 1) n l)+ l n i (1 + δ ((a) n i n i(k+b)) n i+1((a+1) n i )> n i) i1 ((a) n l 1 n l 1 (k + b) + n l 1 ) n l+1 ((a + 1) n l)+ l n i (1 + δ ((a) n i n i(k+b)) n i+1((a+1) n i )>n i) i1 ((a) n l 1 n l 1 (k + b)) n l ((a + 1) n l 1)+ n l 1 (1 + δ ((a) n l 1 n l 1 (k+b)) n l ((a+1) n l 1 )> n l 1)+ l n i (1 + δ ((a) n i n i(k+b)) n i+1((a+1) n i )> n i) i1 ((a) n l 1 n l 1 (k + b)) n l ((a + 1) n l 1)+ l+1 n i (1 + δ ((a) n i n i(k+b)) n i+1((a+1) n i )> n i) i1 So the induction on l is completed. Here we have to single out the case b 0. ((a) n l n l k) n l+1 ((a + 1) n l)+ l n i (1 + δ ((a) n i n ik) n i+1((a+1) n i )>n i) i1 ( n l 1 ) n l+1 ((a + 1) n l)+ l n i..11 (1 + δ ((a) n i n ik) n i+1((a+1) n i )>n i) i1 n l 1 (1 + δ (a+1) n l > n l 1) + (a + 1) n l+ l n i (1 + δ ((a) n i n ik) n i+1((a+1) n i )> n i) i1 31
32 Now we want to use in the form: (a n 1) n l 1 (a n 1) n l. For this we need to show that n n l 1 a n k (3.3.13) holds. Seen easily as follows using the induction hypothesis 3.3.8: a n k (a) n 1 n 1 k + n 1 l l (a) n l n l k + n i n l 1 + n i n n l 1 i1 By Lemma..6 we also arrive at Now we continue in the case b 0. Using the above, all δ s drop, we get: i1 n l 1 + (a + 1) n l 1+ l n i Lemma..5 (1 + δ ((a) n i n ik) n i+1((a+1) n i )>n i) i1 n l 1 n l (a + 1) n l 1 + l n i ((a) n l n l k) n l ((a + 1) n l) + i1 By distinguishing the two cases n l a and n l a we easily get: (a) n l n l (k + 1) + Using s n l+i ((a) n l+i) k for 1 i l, we get: l i1 n i l 1 (a) n l+1 n l+1 (k + 1) + n i (a) n n (k + 1) a n (k + 1) i1 l i1 n i This completes the proof in the case b 0. For 1 b < k, we proceed as follows, using that the period drops: 3
33 ((a) n l n l (k + b)) n l+1 ((a + 1) n l)+ l n i (1 + δ ((a) n i n i(k+b)) n i+1((a+1) n i )> n i) i1 ((a) n l n l b + n l 1 ) n l+1 ((a + 1) n l)+ l n i (1 + δ ((a) n i n i(k+b)) n i+1((a+1) n i )>n i) i1 ((a) n l n l b) n l ((a + 1) n l 1)+ n l 1 (1 + δ ((a) n l n l b) n l ((a+1) n l 1 )> n l 1)+ l i1 n i (1 + δ ((a) n i n i(k+b)) n i+1((a+1) n i )>n i) ((a) n l n l b) n l ((a + 1) n l)+ n l 1 (1 + δ ((a) n l n l b) n l ((a+1) n l 1 )> n l 1)+ l n i (1 + δ ((a) n i n i(k+b)) n i+1((a+1) n i )> n i) i1 Now we have to consider two cases: 1. If n l a, using b + 1 k P n l((a) n l ) n l 1 all δ s get annihilated, we get: n l n l (b + 1)+ n l 1 (1 + δ n l n l (b+1))> n l 1)+ l n i (1 + δ ((a) n i n i(k+b)) n i+1((a+1) n i )> n i) i1 l+1 l+1 n l n l (b + 1) + n i (a) n l n l (b + 1) + i1 i1 n i. If n l a, we have (a+1) n l (a) n l n l 1 and as above b+1 P n l((a) n l ) holds and therefore all δ s get annihilated, so we get: (a) n l n l (b + 1) + n l 1 (1 + δ ((a) n l n l (b+1)> n l 1)+ l n i (1 + δ ((a) n i n i(k+b)) n i+1((a+1) n i )> n i) i1 l+1 (a) n l n l (b + 1) + i1 n i 33
34 This completes the two cases. Using s n l+i ((a) n l+i) k for 1 i l, we get: l+1 (a) n l n l (b + 1) + n i (a) n l n l (k + b + 1) + i1 l n i l 1 (a) n l+1 n l+1 (k + b + 1) + n i (a) n n (k + b + 1) a n (k + b + 1) i1 This completes the induction on b and shows and therefore is achieved. Now we want to prove the final statement We consider some cases: 1. If a n+1 holds, we get: i1 (a n+1 1) n+1 a n+1 P n+1 (a) (1) n (1) n+1 (a n+1 1) ( n+1 a n+1 P n+1 (a) ). If n a < n+1 1 holds, noting that by we have n (a) n n P n((a) n ) n 1 and n (a) n n P n((a) n ) is a power of, we get: (a n+1 1) n+1 a n+1 P n+1 (a) ((a) n n 1) n (a) n n Pn((a) n )..6 ((a) n n 1 + n ) n+1 Pn((a) (a) n n ) n n I.H...6 ((a) n n 1) ( n Pn((a)) a n n ) ((a) n n 1) ((a) ( n+1 P a n+1 (a) n+1 ) n n 1 + n..6 ) ( n+1 P a n+1 (a) n+1 ) (a n+1 1) P ( n+1 a n+1 (a) n+1 ) 3. If 1 a < n holds, we consider three cases: If a n 1 holds, we get: (a n+1 1) n+1 a n+1 P n+1 (a)..10 ( n ) n If P n (a) < P n+1 (a) holds, we get: ( n ) n+1 (a n+1 1) ( n+1 a n+1 P n+1 (a) ) (a n+1 1) n+1 a n+1 P n+1 (a) (a n+1 1) n+1 n (a n+1 1) n+1 (a n+1 1) ( n+1 a n+1 P n+1 (a) ) If P n (a) P n+1 (a) holds, we get: (a n+1 1) n+1 a n+1 P n+1 (a) I.H. (a n 1) n+1 Pn(a) a n n (a n 1) ( n+1 Pn(a) a n (a n ) n+1 1) P ( n+1 a n+1 (a) n+1 ) 34
35 This completes the proof of And therefore Theorem is proved. The following states that the period cannot be stuck at. Corollary For n N and 1 a < n with P n (a), we have P n+1 (a) 4. Proof. Because a n 1..1 a n+1 1 holds, we have s n+1 (a) > 1 Pn(a). So by the period of a must jump. Remark Now the second statement of Lemma 3.. becomes a consequence of Corollary The following corollary uses in action. Corollary For n 4 and 1 b n+1, we have the following: If n is even, we have: ( n 1) n+1 b n (b) 8 in particular P n+1 ( n 1) 8. (3.3.14) If n is odd, we have: ( n 3 1) n+1 b n 3 (b) 16 in particular P n+1 ( n 3 1) 16. (3.3.15) Proof. For n 5 odd, by Lemma 3.., we have: 4 P n 1 ( n 3 1) Lemma..5 P n ( n 3 Lemma..5 1) P n+1 ( n 3 1) 16 We first show for the first four values of b: 1. For b 1, this case is obvious by..1.. For b, we have: 3. For b 3, we have: 4. For b 4, we have: ( n 3 1) n and..1 n 3 n+1 n n 3 n n 3 + n δ n 3 n n 3 > n + n n ( n 3 1) n and..1 n n+1 n n n n 3 + n δ n n n 3 > n + n n + n 3 ( n 3 1) n+1 4 n 3 n n 3 + n and..1 ( n + n 3 ) n+1 n i0 δ n 3 n n 3 >i n n 1 35
36 By..5 we have n 1 ( n 3 1) n+1 4 ( n 3 1) n 4 ( n 3 1) n 1 4. So follows by Lemma..5. Now follows by The following lemma gives an equivalent characterization for the period to be. This will be important for the next theorem. Lemma For a A n, we have the following: P n (a) either n 1 and a or 0 l < n : a n l 1 (3.3.16) Proof. For, note that P 1 () and use Lemma 3.. and Lemma..6. For, we proceed by induction on n. For n 0, we have P 0 (1) 1, so we don t have to show anything. For n 1, we have P 1 (1) 1 and P 1 (). Now for n 1, we consider the following cases: If 1 a < n holds, because we assume that P n+1 (a) holds, by Corollary we have P n (a) 1 and therefore a n 1 n+1 n 1 holds. If n a < n+1 Lemma..5 holds, we have P n+1 (a) P n ((a) n). By induction hypothesis and because (a) n n (note that if we are in the case n 1 it is true that (a) n n and then a n n holds) we get that (a) n n l 1 for some 0 l < n. Therefore a n + (a) n n+1 l 1 holds. We don t need to consider the case a n+1 because P n+1 ( n+1 ) n+1 >. This completes the induction on n and therefore the lemma is proven. The following theorem states that the period of a jumps from 4 to 8 iff the period of a + 1 passes a certain level. Theorem For a N >0 with P n0 ((a) n 0 ) and P n0+1((a) n 0 +1) 4 the following equivalence holds for any n: P n ((a) n) 4 and P n+1 ((a) n+1) 8 P n ((a + 1) n) n0 and P n+1 ((a + 1) n+1) n0+1 This means that the period of a jumps from 4 to 8 between n and n + 1 iff the period of a + 1 jumps from n0 to n0+1 between n and n + 1. Proof. We will show that for l 0 as long as P n0+1+l((a + 1) n0+1+l) n0 holds we have P n0+1+l((a) n0+1+l) 4. And in a second step that if the period of a + 1 goes up to n0+1 the period of a has to go up to 8. In both cases we will need Lemma and Theorem First we notice that by Lemma we have (a) n 0 n0 l 1 for some 0 l < n 0 or n 0 1 and (a). First we consider the case n 0 1 and (a). Since we assume that P ((a) ) 4 holds we get that (a) 4. We have P ((a + 1) ) P (1) by Lemma..7. Now we consider two cases: 36
37 1. If (a) 3 8 holds, we have P 3 ((a) 3) P 3 (8) 8 and P 3 ((a + 1) 3) P 3 (1) 4 by Corollary If (a) 3 4 holds, we have P 3 ((a) 3) P 3 (4) P (4) 4 and P 3 ((a + 1) 3) P 3 (5) P (1) by Lemma..5. Now for 0 l with (a) 3 <... < (a) 3+l (a) 3+l+1, we have by Lemma..5 that 4 P 3 ((a) 3) P 3+l ((a) 3+l) and P 3 ((a+1) 3) P 3+l ((a+1) 3+l) hold. By Corollary we have P 3+l+1 ((a+ 1) 3+l+1) 4. We get using that (a) 3+l+1 is divisible by 4 and (a) 3+l+1 < 3+l+1 : s 3+l+1 ((a) 3+l+1 3+l+1 1) s 3+l+1 ((a + 1) 3+l+1) ((a) 3+l+1 3+l+1 1) P3+l+1 ((a) 3+l+1 3+l+1 1) ((a + 1) 3+l+1) P3+l+1 ((a+1) 3+l+1 ) 1 Now by Lemma we have < s 3+l+1 ((a) 3+l+1). So by we must have P 3+l+1 ((a + 1) 3+l+1) 8. So we showed the claim in the case n 0 1 and (a). Now we turn to the case were (a) n 0 n0 l 1 for some 0 l < n 0 holds. Note that since the period of a jumps we must have (a) n 0 (a) n 0 +1 by Lemma..5. By Lemma..7 we have P n0+1((a + 1) n 0 +1) P n0+1( n0 l ) l+1. Note that l + 1 n 0 holds. It is easily seen by induction that for all n N (a) n 0 +1+n n ɛ i n0+i + n0 l 1 i1 holds, where for 1 i n we have ɛ i {0, 1}. For l + 1 k n 0, we have for all n N: k 1 ((a + 1) n 0 +1+n) k Now let us assume that P n0+1+n((a + 1) n 0 +1+n) n0 for n 1. We consider two cases: 1. If P n0+1+n((a + 1) n 0 +1+n) l+1 holds, we have by 3.3.8: il i s n0+1+n((a + 1) n 0 +1+n) l. If n0 k P n0+1+n((a + 1) n 0 +1+n) > l+1 holds, we have by and 3.3.7: s n0+1+n((a + 1) n 0 +1+n) k Now putting the above together we get for n 1 and P n0+1+n((a + 1) n 0 +1+n) n0 : s n0+1+n((a) n 0 +1+n n0+1+n 1) ((a) n 0 +1+n n0+1+n 1) Pn0 +1+n((a) n 0 +1+n n0 +1+n1) By Lemma we get s n0+1+n((a) n 0 +1+n). So inductively by we have P n0+1+n((a) n 0 +1+n n0+1+n 1) 4. 37
38 Now assume that for n 1 we have P n0+1+n((a+1) n 0 +1+n) n0+1 and the period just jumped from n0. We get by using in the second line: ((a) n 0 +1+n n0+1+n 1) Pn0 +1+n((a) n 0 +1+n n0 +1+n1) ((a + 1) n 0 +1+n) n 0 +1 s n0+1+n((a) n 0 +1+n n0+1+n 1) s n0+1+n((a + 1) n 0 +1+n) n0 + 1 By Lemma we get < s n0+1+n((a) n 0 +1+n), so by we must have: This ends the proof of the theorem. P n0+1+n((a) n 0 +1+n) 8 n 0 1 il i 38
39 Acknowledgments I thank Dr. Lorenz Halbeisen for his guidance. I appreciated the close mentoring and the valuable time he took to look after me in our weekly meetings. He made everything possible I needed to focus on my work, I got access to the necessary computation power and he encouraged me to contact Patrick Dehornoy the author of my main reference. I thank Patrick Dehornoy for his time in corresponding with me about a specific problem I had with a proof. Finally I thank all the great people that helped me on my path through life and made this thesis possible. I want to highlight my muse Lena. 39
40 Bibliography [Deh00] Patrick Dehornoy. Braids and self-distributivity, volume 19 of Progress in Mathematics. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, 000. [Drá94] Aleš Drápal. Homomorphisms of primitive left distributive groupoids. Comm. Algebra, (7):579 59,
41
. As the binomial coefficients are integers we have that. 2 n(n 1).
Math 580 Homework. 1. Divisibility. Definition 1. Let a, b be integers with a 0. Then b divides b iff there is an integer k such that b = ka. In the case we write a b. In this case we also say a is a factor
More informationmeans is a subset of. So we say A B for sets A and B if x A we have x B holds. BY CONTRAST, a S means that a is a member of S.
1 Notation For those unfamiliar, we have := means equal by definition, N := {0, 1,... } or {1, 2,... } depending on context. (i.e. N is the set or collection of counting numbers.) In addition, means for
More informationAxioms for Set Theory
Axioms for Set Theory The following is a subset of the Zermelo-Fraenkel axioms for set theory. In this setting, all objects are sets which are denoted by letters, e.g. x, y, X, Y. Equality is logical identity:
More informationTheorem 5.3. Let E/F, E = F (u), be a simple field extension. Then u is algebraic if and only if E/F is finite. In this case, [E : F ] = deg f u.
5. Fields 5.1. Field extensions. Let F E be a subfield of the field E. We also describe this situation by saying that E is an extension field of F, and we write E/F to express this fact. If E/F is a field
More informationWe have been going places in the car of calculus for years, but this analysis course is about how the car actually works.
Analysis I We have been going places in the car of calculus for years, but this analysis course is about how the car actually works. Copier s Message These notes may contain errors. In fact, they almost
More informationMATH 117 LECTURE NOTES
MATH 117 LECTURE NOTES XIN ZHOU Abstract. This is the set of lecture notes for Math 117 during Fall quarter of 2017 at UC Santa Barbara. The lectures follow closely the textbook [1]. Contents 1. The set
More informationLECTURE 10: REVIEW OF POWER SERIES. 1. Motivation
LECTURE 10: REVIEW OF POWER SERIES By definition, a power series centered at x 0 is a series of the form where a 0, a 1,... and x 0 are constants. For convenience, we shall mostly be concerned with the
More informationSpanning and Independence Properties of Finite Frames
Chapter 1 Spanning and Independence Properties of Finite Frames Peter G. Casazza and Darrin Speegle Abstract The fundamental notion of frame theory is redundancy. It is this property which makes frames
More informationNotes on ordinals and cardinals
Notes on ordinals and cardinals Reed Solomon 1 Background Terminology We will use the following notation for the common number systems: N = {0, 1, 2,...} = the natural numbers Z = {..., 2, 1, 0, 1, 2,...}
More information3 The language of proof
3 The language of proof After working through this section, you should be able to: (a) understand what is asserted by various types of mathematical statements, in particular implications and equivalences;
More informationA CONSTRUCTION OF ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION-FREE SEQUENCES AND ITS ANALYSIS
A CONSTRUCTION OF ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION-FREE SEQUENCES AND ITS ANALYSIS BRIAN L MILLER & CHRIS MONICO TEXAS TECH UNIVERSITY Abstract We describe a particular greedy construction of an arithmetic progression-free
More informationLecture 6: Finite Fields
CCS Discrete Math I Professor: Padraic Bartlett Lecture 6: Finite Fields Week 6 UCSB 2014 It ain t what they call you, it s what you answer to. W. C. Fields 1 Fields In the next two weeks, we re going
More informationarxiv: v1 [math.co] 1 Oct 2018
LAVER TABLES AND COMBINATORICS PHILIPPE BIANE arxiv:1810.00548v1 [math.co] 1 Oct 2018 Abstract. The Laver tables are finite combinatorial objects with a simple elementary definition, which were introduced
More informationPRIME NUMBERS YANKI LEKILI
PRIME NUMBERS YANKI LEKILI We denote by N the set of natural numbers: 1,2,..., These are constructed using Peano axioms. We will not get into the philosophical questions related to this and simply assume
More information(1) A frac = b : a, b A, b 0. We can define addition and multiplication of fractions as we normally would. a b + c d
The Algebraic Method 0.1. Integral Domains. Emmy Noether and others quickly realized that the classical algebraic number theory of Dedekind could be abstracted completely. In particular, rings of integers
More informationStandard forms for writing numbers
Standard forms for writing numbers In order to relate the abstract mathematical descriptions of familiar number systems to the everyday descriptions of numbers by decimal expansions and similar means,
More informationPEANO AXIOMS FOR THE NATURAL NUMBERS AND PROOFS BY INDUCTION. The Peano axioms
PEANO AXIOMS FOR THE NATURAL NUMBERS AND PROOFS BY INDUCTION The Peano axioms The following are the axioms for the natural numbers N. You might think of N as the set of integers {0, 1, 2,...}, but it turns
More information2 Lecture 2: Logical statements and proof by contradiction Lecture 10: More on Permutations, Group Homomorphisms 31
Contents 1 Lecture 1: Introduction 2 2 Lecture 2: Logical statements and proof by contradiction 7 3 Lecture 3: Induction and Well-Ordering Principle 11 4 Lecture 4: Definition of a Group and examples 15
More informationProof. We indicate by α, β (finite or not) the end-points of I and call
C.6 Continuous functions Pag. 111 Proof of Corollary 4.25 Corollary 4.25 Let f be continuous on the interval I and suppose it admits non-zero its (finite or infinite) that are different in sign for x tending
More informationA polytime proof of correctness of the Rabin-Miller algorithm from Fermat s Little Theorem
A polytime proof of correctness of the Rabin-Miller algorithm from Fermat s Little Theorem Grzegorz Herman and Michael Soltys November 24, 2008 Abstract Although a deterministic polytime algorithm for
More information,... We would like to compare this with the sequence y n = 1 n
Example 2.0 Let (x n ) n= be the sequence given by x n = 2, i.e. n 2, 4, 8, 6,.... We would like to compare this with the sequence = n (which we know converges to zero). We claim that 2 n n, n N. Proof.
More informationModern Algebra Prof. Manindra Agrawal Department of Computer Science and Engineering Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
Modern Algebra Prof. Manindra Agrawal Department of Computer Science and Engineering Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur Lecture 02 Groups: Subgroups and homomorphism (Refer Slide Time: 00:13) We looked
More informationSequences. Chapter 3. n + 1 3n + 2 sin n n. 3. lim (ln(n + 1) ln n) 1. lim. 2. lim. 4. lim (1 + n)1/n. Answers: 1. 1/3; 2. 0; 3. 0; 4. 1.
Chapter 3 Sequences Both the main elements of calculus (differentiation and integration) require the notion of a limit. Sequences will play a central role when we work with limits. Definition 3.. A Sequence
More informationDefinitions. Notations. Injective, Surjective and Bijective. Divides. Cartesian Product. Relations. Equivalence Relations
Page 1 Definitions Tuesday, May 8, 2018 12:23 AM Notations " " means "equals, by definition" the set of all real numbers the set of integers Denote a function from a set to a set by Denote the image of
More informationIntroducing Proof 1. hsn.uk.net. Contents
Contents 1 1 Introduction 1 What is proof? 1 Statements, Definitions and Euler Diagrams 1 Statements 1 Definitions Our first proof Euler diagrams 4 3 Logical Connectives 5 Negation 6 Conjunction 7 Disjunction
More information( ε > 0) ( N N) ( n N) : n > N a n A < ε.
CHAPTER 1. LIMITS OF SEQUENCES 1.1. An Ad-hoc Definition. In mathematical analysis, the concept of limits is of paramount importance, in view of the fact that many basic objects of study such as derivatives,
More informationMath 210B. Artin Rees and completions
Math 210B. Artin Rees and completions 1. Definitions and an example Let A be a ring, I an ideal, and M an A-module. In class we defined the I-adic completion of M to be M = lim M/I n M. We will soon show
More informationProof Techniques (Review of Math 271)
Chapter 2 Proof Techniques (Review of Math 271) 2.1 Overview This chapter reviews proof techniques that were probably introduced in Math 271 and that may also have been used in a different way in Phil
More informationIntroduction to Basic Proof Techniques Mathew A. Johnson
Introduction to Basic Proof Techniques Mathew A. Johnson Throughout this class, you will be asked to rigorously prove various mathematical statements. Since there is no prerequisite of a formal proof class,
More informationSolution Set 2. Problem 1. [a] + [b] = [a + b] = [b + a] = [b] + [a] ([a] + [b]) + [c] = [a + b] + [c] = [a + b + c] = [a] + [b + c] = [a] + ([b + c])
Solution Set Problem 1 (1) Z/nZ is the set of equivalence classes of Z mod n. Equivalence is determined by the following rule: [a] = [b] if and only if b a = k n for some k Z. The operations + and are
More informationMath 3361-Modern Algebra Lecture 08 9/26/ Cardinality
Math 336-Modern Algebra Lecture 08 9/26/4. Cardinality I started talking about cardinality last time, and you did some stuff with it in the Homework, so let s continue. I said that two sets have the same
More informationAn Algebraic View of the Relation between Largest Common Subtrees and Smallest Common Supertrees
An Algebraic View of the Relation between Largest Common Subtrees and Smallest Common Supertrees Francesc Rosselló 1, Gabriel Valiente 2 1 Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Research Institute
More informationWe are going to discuss what it means for a sequence to converge in three stages: First, we define what it means for a sequence to converge to zero
Chapter Limits of Sequences Calculus Student: lim s n = 0 means the s n are getting closer and closer to zero but never gets there. Instructor: ARGHHHHH! Exercise. Think of a better response for the instructor.
More informationEquivalent Forms of the Axiom of Infinity
Equivalent Forms of the Axiom of Infinity Axiom of Infinity 1. There is a set that contains each finite ordinal as an element. The Axiom of Infinity is the axiom of Set Theory that explicitly asserts that
More informationCONTINUED FRACTIONS, PELL S EQUATION, AND TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
CONTINUED FRACTIONS, PELL S EQUATION, AND TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS JEREMY BOOHER Continued fractions usually get short-changed at PROMYS, but they are interesting in their own right and useful in other areas
More informationMathematical Reasoning & Proofs
Mathematical Reasoning & Proofs MAT 1362 Fall 2018 Alistair Savage Department of Mathematics and Statistics University of Ottawa This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0
More informationOne-to-one functions and onto functions
MA 3362 Lecture 7 - One-to-one and Onto Wednesday, October 22, 2008. Objectives: Formalize definitions of one-to-one and onto One-to-one functions and onto functions At the level of set theory, there are
More informationDiscrete Mathematics for CS Spring 2007 Luca Trevisan Lecture 27
CS 70 Discrete Mathematics for CS Spring 007 Luca Trevisan Lecture 7 Infinity and Countability Consider a function f that maps elements of a set A (called the domain of f ) to elements of set B (called
More informationLimits and Continuity
Chapter Limits and Continuity. Limits of Sequences.. The Concept of Limit and Its Properties A sequence { } is an ordered infinite list x,x,...,,... The n-th term of the sequence is, and n is the index
More informationLecture Notes 1 Basic Concepts of Mathematics MATH 352
Lecture Notes 1 Basic Concepts of Mathematics MATH 352 Ivan Avramidi New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology Socorro, NM 87801 June 3, 2004 Author: Ivan Avramidi; File: absmath.tex; Date: June 11,
More informationThe Process of Mathematical Proof
1 The Process of Mathematical Proof Introduction. Mathematical proofs use the rules of logical deduction that grew out of the work of Aristotle around 350 BC. In previous courses, there was probably an
More informationContinuity. Chapter 4
Chapter 4 Continuity Throughout this chapter D is a nonempty subset of the real numbers. We recall the definition of a function. Definition 4.1. A function from D into R, denoted f : D R, is a subset of
More informationDiscrete Mathematics and Probability Theory Fall 2013 Vazirani Note 1
CS 70 Discrete Mathematics and Probability Theory Fall 013 Vazirani Note 1 Induction Induction is a basic, powerful and widely used proof technique. It is one of the most common techniques for analyzing
More informationSequences of Real Numbers
Chapter 8 Sequences of Real Numbers In this chapter, we assume the existence of the ordered field of real numbers, though we do not yet discuss or use the completeness of the real numbers. In the next
More informationEquations and Colorings: Rado s Theorem Exposition by William Gasarch
1 Introduction Equations Colorings: Rado s Theorem Exposition by William Gasarch Everything in this paper was proven by Rado [2] (but see also [1]) Do you think the following is TRUE or FALSE? For any
More informationTruth-Functional Logic
Truth-Functional Logic Syntax Every atomic sentence (A, B, C, ) is a sentence and are sentences With ϕ a sentence, the negation ϕ is a sentence With ϕ and ψ sentences, the conjunction ϕ ψ is a sentence
More informationMATH10040: Chapter 0 Mathematics, Logic and Reasoning
MATH10040: Chapter 0 Mathematics, Logic and Reasoning 1. What is Mathematics? There is no definitive answer to this question. 1 Indeed, the answer given by a 21st-century mathematician would differ greatly
More informationHomological Dimension
Homological Dimension David E V Rose April 17, 29 1 Introduction In this note, we explore the notion of homological dimension After introducing the basic concepts, our two main goals are to give a proof
More informationTopological properties
CHAPTER 4 Topological properties 1. Connectedness Definitions and examples Basic properties Connected components Connected versus path connected, again 2. Compactness Definition and first examples Topological
More informationProofs. Joe Patten August 10, 2018
Proofs Joe Patten August 10, 2018 1 Statements and Open Sentences 1.1 Statements A statement is a declarative sentence or assertion that is either true or false. They are often labelled with a capital
More informationWriting proofs for MATH 61CM, 61DM Week 1: basic logic, proof by contradiction, proof by induction
Writing proofs for MATH 61CM, 61DM Week 1: basic logic, proof by contradiction, proof by induction written by Sarah Peluse, revised by Evangelie Zachos and Lisa Sauermann September 27, 2016 1 Introduction
More informationCS632 Notes on Relational Query Languages I
CS632 Notes on Relational Query Languages I A. Demers 6 Feb 2003 1 Introduction Here we define relations, and introduce our notational conventions, which are taken almost directly from [AD93]. We begin
More informationDR.RUPNATHJI( DR.RUPAK NATH )
Contents 1 Sets 1 2 The Real Numbers 9 3 Sequences 29 4 Series 59 5 Functions 81 6 Power Series 105 7 The elementary functions 111 Chapter 1 Sets It is very convenient to introduce some notation and terminology
More informationSMT 2013 Power Round Solutions February 2, 2013
Introduction This Power Round is an exploration of numerical semigroups, mathematical structures which appear very naturally out of answers to simple questions. For example, suppose McDonald s sells Chicken
More informationFINITE ABELIAN GROUPS Amin Witno
WON Series in Discrete Mathematics and Modern Algebra Volume 7 FINITE ABELIAN GROUPS Amin Witno Abstract We detail the proof of the fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups, which states that every
More informationThe Banach-Tarski paradox
The Banach-Tarski paradox 1 Non-measurable sets In these notes I want to present a proof of the Banach-Tarski paradox, a consequence of the axiom of choice that shows us that a naive understanding of the
More information1.8 Dual Spaces (non-examinable)
2 Theorem 1715 is just a restatement in terms of linear morphisms of a fact that you might have come across before: every m n matrix can be row-reduced to reduced echelon form using row operations Moreover,
More information2. Two binary operations (addition, denoted + and multiplication, denoted
Chapter 2 The Structure of R The purpose of this chapter is to explain to the reader why the set of real numbers is so special. By the end of this chapter, the reader should understand the difference between
More informationHOW DO ULTRAFILTERS ACT ON THEORIES? THE CUT SPECTRUM AND TREETOPS
HOW DO ULTRAFILTERS ACT ON THEORIES? THE CUT SPECTRUM AND TREETOPS DIEGO ANDRES BEJARANO RAYO Abstract. We expand on and further explain the work by Malliaris and Shelah on the cofinality spectrum by doing
More information2 Arithmetic. 2.1 Greatest common divisors. This chapter is about properties of the integers Z = {..., 2, 1, 0, 1, 2,...}.
2 Arithmetic This chapter is about properties of the integers Z = {..., 2, 1, 0, 1, 2,...}. (See [Houston, Chapters 27 & 28]) 2.1 Greatest common divisors Definition 2.16. If a, b are integers, we say
More information17.1 Correctness of First-Order Tableaux
Applied Logic Lecture 17: Correctness and Completeness of First-Order Tableaux CS 4860 Spring 2009 Tuesday, March 24, 2009 Now that we have introduced a proof calculus for first-order logic we have to
More informationDiscrete Mathematics and Probability Theory Spring 2014 Anant Sahai Note 3
EECS 70 Discrete Mathematics and Probability Theory Spring 014 Anant Sahai Note 3 Induction Induction is an extremely powerful tool in mathematics. It is a way of proving propositions that hold for all
More information1.2 The Well-Ordering Principle
36 Chapter 1. The Integers Exercises 1.1 1. Prove the following theorem: Theorem. Let m and a be integers. If m a and a m, thenm = ±a. 2. Prove the following theorem: Theorem. For all integers a, b and
More informationContribution of Problems
Exam topics 1. Basic structures: sets, lists, functions (a) Sets { }: write all elements, or define by condition (b) Set operations: A B, A B, A\B, A c (c) Lists ( ): Cartesian product A B (d) Functions
More informationON DIRICHLET S CONJECTURE ON RELATIVE CLASS NUMBER ONE
ON DIRICHLET S CONJECTURE ON RELATIVE CLASS NUMBER ONE AMANDA FURNESS Abstract. We examine relative class numbers, associated to class numbers of quadratic fields Q( m) for m > 0 and square-free. The relative
More informationLECTURE IV: PERFECT PRISMS AND PERFECTOID RINGS
LECTURE IV: PERFECT PRISMS AND PERFECTOID RINGS In this lecture, we study the commutative algebra properties of perfect prisms. These turn out to be equivalent to perfectoid rings, and most of the lecture
More information= 1 2x. x 2 a ) 0 (mod p n ), (x 2 + 2a + a2. x a ) 2
8. p-adic numbers 8.1. Motivation: Solving x 2 a (mod p n ). Take an odd prime p, and ( an) integer a coprime to p. Then, as we know, x 2 a (mod p) has a solution x Z iff = 1. In this case we can suppose
More informationPeter Kahn. Spring 2007
MATH 304: CONSTRUCTING THE REAL NUMBERS Peter Kahn Spring 2007 Contents 1 The Natural Numbers 1 1.1 The Peano Axioms............................ 2 1.2 Proof by induction............................ 4 1.3
More informationFinal Exam Review. 2. Let A = {, { }}. What is the cardinality of A? Is
1. Describe the elements of the set (Z Q) R N. Is this set countable or uncountable? Solution: The set is equal to {(x, y) x Z, y N} = Z N. Since the Cartesian product of two denumerable sets is denumerable,
More informationNOTES ON FINITE FIELDS
NOTES ON FINITE FIELDS AARON LANDESMAN CONTENTS 1. Introduction to finite fields 2 2. Definition and constructions of fields 3 2.1. The definition of a field 3 2.2. Constructing field extensions by adjoining
More informationCourse 311: Michaelmas Term 2005 Part III: Topics in Commutative Algebra
Course 311: Michaelmas Term 2005 Part III: Topics in Commutative Algebra D. R. Wilkins Contents 3 Topics in Commutative Algebra 2 3.1 Rings and Fields......................... 2 3.2 Ideals...............................
More informationGaussian integers. 1 = a 2 + b 2 = c 2 + d 2.
Gaussian integers 1 Units in Z[i] An element x = a + bi Z[i], a, b Z is a unit if there exists y = c + di Z[i] such that xy = 1. This implies 1 = x 2 y 2 = (a 2 + b 2 )(c 2 + d 2 ) But a 2, b 2, c 2, d
More informationLinear Algebra II. 2 Matrices. Notes 2 21st October Matrix algebra
MTH6140 Linear Algebra II Notes 2 21st October 2010 2 Matrices You have certainly seen matrices before; indeed, we met some in the first chapter of the notes Here we revise matrix algebra, consider row
More informationNOTES ON SIMPLE NUMBER THEORY
NOTES ON SIMPLE NUMBER THEORY DAMIEN PITMAN 1. Definitions & Theorems Definition: We say d divides m iff d is positive integer and m is an integer and there is an integer q such that m = dq. In this case,
More informationAn Alternative Proof of Primitivity of Indecomposable Nonnegative Matrices with a Positive Trace
An Alternative Proof of Primitivity of Indecomposable Nonnegative Matrices with a Positive Trace Takao Fujimoto Abstract. This research memorandum is aimed at presenting an alternative proof to a well
More informationDay 6. Tuesday May 29, We continue our look at basic proofs. We will do a few examples of different methods of proving.
Day 6 Tuesday May 9, 01 1 Basic Proofs We continue our look at basic proofs. We will do a few examples of different methods of proving. 1.1 Proof Techniques Recall that so far in class we have made two
More informationConstructions with ruler and compass.
Constructions with ruler and compass. Semyon Alesker. 1 Introduction. Let us assume that we have a ruler and a compass. Let us also assume that we have a segment of length one. Using these tools we can
More information1 of 8 7/15/2009 3:43 PM Virtual Laboratories > 1. Foundations > 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 6. Cardinality Definitions and Preliminary Examples Suppose that S is a non-empty collection of sets. We define a relation
More information= W z1 + W z2 and W z1 z 2
Math 44 Fall 06 homework page Math 44 Fall 06 Darij Grinberg: homework set 8 due: Wed, 4 Dec 06 [Thanks to Hannah Brand for parts of the solutions] Exercise Recall that we defined the multiplication of
More informationPRACTICE PROBLEMS: SET 1
PRACTICE PROBLEMS: SET MATH 437/537: PROF. DRAGOS GHIOCA. Problems Problem. Let a, b N. Show that if gcd(a, b) = lcm[a, b], then a = b. Problem. Let n, k N with n. Prove that (n ) (n k ) if and only if
More informationCharacterizations of the finite quadric Veroneseans V 2n
Characterizations of the finite quadric Veroneseans V 2n n J. A. Thas H. Van Maldeghem Abstract We generalize and complete several characterizations of the finite quadric Veroneseans surveyed in [3]. Our
More informationUnderstanding Decimal Addition
2 Understanding Decimal Addition 2.1 Experience Versus Understanding This book is about understanding system architecture in a quick and clean way: no black art, nothing you can only get a feeling for
More informationWhat can you prove by induction?
MEI CONFERENCE 013 What can you prove by induction? Martyn Parker M.J.Parker@keele.ac.uk Contents Contents iii 1 Splitting Coins.................................................. 1 Convex Polygons................................................
More informationSupremum and Infimum
Supremum and Infimum UBC M0 Lecture Notes by Philip D. Loewen The Real Number System. Work hard to construct from the axioms a set R with special elements O and I, and a subset P R, and mappings A: R R
More informationCHAPTER 8: EXPLORING R
CHAPTER 8: EXPLORING R LECTURE NOTES FOR MATH 378 (CSUSM, SPRING 2009). WAYNE AITKEN In the previous chapter we discussed the need for a complete ordered field. The field Q is not complete, so we constructed
More informationOne Pile Nim with Arbitrary Move Function
One Pile Nim with Arbitrary Move Function by Arthur Holshouser and Harold Reiter Arthur Holshouser 3600 Bullard St. Charlotte, NC, USA, 28208 Harold Reiter Department of Mathematics UNC Charlotte Charlotte,
More informationRMT 2013 Power Round Solutions February 2, 2013
RMT 013 Power Round Solutions February, 013 1. (a) (i) {0, 5, 7, 10, 11, 1, 14} {n N 0 : n 15}. (ii) Yes, 5, 7, 11, 16 can be generated by a set of fewer than 4 elements. Specifically, it is generated
More informationCHAPTER 3. Sequences. 1. Basic Properties
CHAPTER 3 Sequences We begin our study of analysis with sequences. There are several reasons for starting here. First, sequences are the simplest way to introduce limits, the central idea of calculus.
More informationA Harvard Sampler. Evan Chen. February 23, I crashed a few math classes at Harvard on February 21, Here are notes from the classes.
A Harvard Sampler Evan Chen February 23, 2014 I crashed a few math classes at Harvard on February 21, 2014. Here are notes from the classes. 1 MATH 123: Algebra II In this lecture we will make two assumptions.
More informationDYNAMICS ON THE CIRCLE I
DYNAMICS ON THE CIRCLE I SIDDHARTHA GADGIL Dynamics is the study of the motion of a body, or more generally evolution of a system with time, for instance, the motion of two revolving bodies attracted to
More informationAlgebraic Cryptography Exam 2 Review
Algebraic Cryptography Exam 2 Review You should be able to do the problems assigned as homework, as well as problems from Chapter 3 2 and 3. You should also be able to complete the following exercises:
More informationElementary Linear Algebra, Second Edition, by Spence, Insel, and Friedberg. ISBN Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. APPENDIX: Mathematical Proof There are many mathematical statements whose truth is not obvious. For example, the French mathematician
More informationALGEBRA. 1. Some elementary number theory 1.1. Primes and divisibility. We denote the collection of integers
ALGEBRA CHRISTIAN REMLING 1. Some elementary number theory 1.1. Primes and divisibility. We denote the collection of integers by Z = {..., 2, 1, 0, 1,...}. Given a, b Z, we write a b if b = ac for some
More informationNote that r = 0 gives the simple principle of induction. Also it can be shown that the principle of strong induction follows from simple induction.
Proof by mathematical induction using a strong hypothesis Occasionally a proof by mathematical induction is made easier by using a strong hypothesis: To show P(n) [a statement form that depends on variable
More information0.2 Vector spaces. J.A.Beachy 1
J.A.Beachy 1 0.2 Vector spaces I m going to begin this section at a rather basic level, giving the definitions of a field and of a vector space in much that same detail as you would have met them in a
More informationMath 324 Summer 2012 Elementary Number Theory Notes on Mathematical Induction
Math 4 Summer 01 Elementary Number Theory Notes on Mathematical Induction Principle of Mathematical Induction Recall the following axiom for the set of integers. Well-Ordering Axiom for the Integers If
More informationcan only hit 3 points in the codomain. Hence, f is not surjective. For another example, if n = 4
.. Conditions for Injectivity and Surjectivity In this section, we discuss what we can say about linear maps T : R n R m given only m and n. We motivate this problem by looking at maps f : {,..., n} {,...,
More information(D) Introduction to order types and ordinals
(D) Introduction to order types and ordinals Linear orders are one of the mathematical tools that are used all over the place. Well-ordered sets are a special kind of linear order. At first sight well-orders
More informationNotes for Math 290 using Introduction to Mathematical Proofs by Charles E. Roberts, Jr.
Notes for Math 290 using Introduction to Mathematical Proofs by Charles E. Roberts, Jr. Chapter : Logic Topics:. Statements, Negation, and Compound Statements.2 Truth Tables and Logical Equivalences.3
More information(Refer Slide Time: 0:21)
Theory of Computation Prof. Somenath Biswas Department of Computer Science and Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur Lecture 7 A generalisation of pumping lemma, Non-deterministic finite automata
More information