A Study of Local-Cosmopolitan Orientation with a University Support Staff

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1 Western Michigan University ScholarWorks at WMU Dissertations Graduate College A Study of Local-Cosmopolitan Orientation with a University Support Staff Sharon Carr Western Michigan University Follow this and additional works at: Part of the Higher Education Commons Recommended Citation Carr, Sharon, "A Study of Local-Cosmopolitan Orientation with a University Support Staff" (1998). Dissertations This Dissertation-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact maira.bundza@wmich.edu.

2 A STUDY OF LOCAL-COSMOPOLITAN ORIENTATION WITH A UNIVERSITY SUPPORT STAFF by Sharon Carr A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of The Graduate College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Public Administration School of Public Affairs and Administration Western Michigan University Kalamazoo, Michigan April 1998

3 A STUDY OF LOCAL-COSMOPOLITAN ORIENTATION WITH A UNIVERSITY SUPPORT STAFF Sharon Carr, D.P.A. Western Michigan University, 1998 The purpose of this study is to identify the local-cosmopolitan orientation of a subset of university support staff members and to examine the relationship between that orientation and (a) gender, (b) age, (c) years of service, (d) percentage of business/financial tasks in one s job, (e) percentage of time spent in direct contact with students, and (f) the self-perception of how essential one s job is to the mission of the university. The local-cosmopolitan concept used was based on the definition by Qouldner (1957) and includes his three elements: loyalty, operational style, and reference group use. Each one of these elements, as well as the overall local-cosmopolitan orientation, was tested for relationships with the six variables listed above. Data were collected from 527 support staff university employees by means of a Likert-type questionnaire. All of the employees were supervisors from the administrative-professional staff at the university. Statistical tests were run using a 1 test for the nominal data, an analysis of variance for the ordinal data, and a Pearson correlation coefficient for the interval data. Results showed strong support for the concept of a combined cosmo-local orientation with each of the three separate elements as well as the overall

4 orientation. The study also produced evidence that significant relationships do exist between the element of loyalty and at least some groups of every one of the six independent variables. Of the three elements used to define the overall orientation, loyalty produced more differences. Some of these support staff employees had significant relationships that emphasize loyalty to the employing organization. A profile was produced that tended to be female, older, more years of service, moderate business/financial tasks, little student contact, and a perception of their job s essentialness. The theory of local-cosmopolitan orientation can still be used as a framework from which organizational culture can be studied. However, it is evolving with the changes in the workplace. The combined orientation appears to have replaced the bipolar positions proposed by Gouldner.

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9 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES...vi LIST OF FIG U R ES...viii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION... 1 Statement of the Problem... 1 The Purpose of the Study... 7 Overview... 8 II. REVIEW OF PRIOR RESEARCH Evolution of the Concept of Local-Cosmopolitan Orientation Use of the Concept With Other Professions Proposal of a Third Dimension Origin of One s Orientation Academic Settings...24 Summ ary III. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY...28 Theoretical Framework Definitions Hypotheses S ettin g ii

10 Table of Contents-Continued CHAPTER Selection of the Sam ple Limitations...36 Instrumentation Pilot T e s t...41 Data Collection Statistical Measures...47 IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS...51 The Independent Variables of Gender and Age...51 The Independent Variable of Years of Service...53 The Independent Variable of Business/Financial Tasks The Independent Variable of Student-Related Activities 54 The Independent Variable of How Essential a Position i s 55 The Dependent Variable of Loyalty...57 The Dependent Variable of Operational S ty le The Dependent Variable of Reference G roup The Dependent Variable of Overall Local-Cosmopolitan Orientation...66 Test of Hypotheses 1 Through Test of Hypotheses 5 Through Test of Hypotheses 9 Through

11 Table of Contents-Continued CHAPTER Test of Hypotheses 13 Through Test of Hypotheses 17 Through Test of Hypotheses 21 Through Summary of Results V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Summ ary Overall Combined Orientation Element of Loyalty Element of Operational S tyle Element of Reference G roup Significance of Gender Significance of Age G roup Significance of Years of Service Group Significance of Percentage of Time Spent on Business Tasks. 112 Significance of Percentage of Time Spent on Student Contact. 114 Significance of Self-Perception of Job s Essentialness Conclusions New Information Areas for Further Research A Final Word iv

12 Table of Contents-Continued APPENDICES A. Questionnaire B. Substance of Survey Questions C. Introductory Letter D. HSIRB Clearance E. Statistical Results BIBLIOGRAPHY v

13 LIST OF TABLES 1. Table of Null Hypotheses Return Rate of Questionnaire Results of Follow-Up Request Frequency Distribution of Essential Scores Frequency Distribution of Loyalty S cores Frequency Distribution of Operational Style Scores Frequency Distribution of Reference Group Scores Frequency Distribution of Overall Local-Cosmopolitan Scores Hypothesis 1: Overall Local-Cosmopolitan Orientation and Gender Hypothesis 2: Loyalty and Gender Hypothesis 3: Operational Style and Gender Hypothesis 4: Reference Group Use and G ender Hypothesis 5: Overall Local-Cosmopolitan Orientation and A g e Hypothesis 6: Loyalty and Age Hypothesis 7: Operational Style and Age Hypothesis 8: Reference Group and Age Hypothesis 9: Overall Local-Cosmopolitan Orientation and Years of S ervice Hypothesis 10: Loyalty and Years of Service Hypothesis 11: Operational Style and Years of Service vi

14 List of Tables-Continued 20. Hypothesis 12: Reference Group and Years of Service Hypothesis 13: Overall Local-Cosmopolitan Orientation and Business Tasks Hypothesis 14: Loyalty and Business T a s k s Hypothesis 15: Operational Style and Business T as ks Hypothesis 16: Reference Group and Business T asks Hypothesis 17: Overall Local-Cosmopolitan Orientation and Student C ontact Hypothesis 18: Loyalty and Student Contact Hypothesis 19: Operational Style and Student Contact Hypothesis 20: Reference Group and Student Contact Hypothesis 21: Overall Local-Cosmopolitan Orientation and Essential Hypothesis 22: Loyalty and Essential Hypothesis 23: Operational Style and Essential Hypothesis 24: Reference Group and Essential Summary of Results vii

15 LIST OF FIGURES 1. Age of Participants Years of Service Percentage of Business and Financial T asks Percentage of Time Spent on Student-Related Activities Essential Position Is Perceived Loyalty Scores Operational Style Scores Reference Group Scores Overall Local-Cosmopolitan S cores... 70

16 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Statement of the Problem Studies concerning the social roles of employees have demonstrated how attitudes and values held by employees will influence organizational behavior. It has been shown that goals and commitments prescribed by the employing organization must be reflective of the role of the employees in order to maximize productivity and minimize conflict. In other words, the actual work that is being carried out by the employees communicates the aims and objectives of the organization. The local-cosmopolitan orientation has been used to describe academic organizational roles at universities by various researchers, including Gouldner (1957, 1958), Abrahamson (1965), Berger and Grimes (1973), Flango and Brumbaugh (1974), Lammers (1974), Alie (1980), Tuma and Grimes (1981), Cornwall and Grimes (1987), and Lutz and Amey (1987). For instance, universities would be able to define reference-group use and promotional opportunities by means of the local-cosmopolitan orientation in order to offer appropriate incentives (London, Cheney, &Tavis, 1977). 1

17 These university studies, however, focused exclusively on employees drawn from the academic ranks. Since the work force at a university is much broader than its academic staff alone, conclusions purporting to describe a given university were incomplete. When describing the organizational roles at any university, consideration must be given to a wider range of employees in order to accurately describe it. Therefore, it is important that comparable information be gathered concerning the orientation of other groups at the university as well. A university is a unique organization. It is a community where various cultures exist and many different types of employees labor to carry out the diverse missions of the institution. At any given time, the cultures and the goals of one set of employees can be in conflict with those of the others. Bimbaum (1988) was aware of this conflict when he described universities as one of the largest industries in the country, but one of the least businesslike and most poorly managed of all organizations. He attributed this inconsistency to the uneasy coexistence of the varied cultures within the organization. He identified four cultures present in the academic staff as (1) collegial, (2) bureaucratic, (3) political, and (4) anarchical. Bergquist (1992) also studied the faculty in higher education and identified four cultures. His typology proved similar to that of Bimbaum: (a) collegial, (b) managerial, (c) negotiating, and (d) developmental. Bergquist also pointed out that competition between cultures causes conflict. Clark Kerr (1973) of the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education wrote about the uniqueness of universities in his Foreword to a work edited by Perkins.

18 He noted that universities are like business models in that they must be carefully managed in order to conserve restricted resources. Then again, they are like governmental agencies because they have to respond to large public constituencies. In addition, he recognized that universities are similar to foundations as they promote research and scholarship. Kerr (1973) pointed outfour characteristics that make universities atypical. First, the basic mission of the university is distinctive in the way that it combines instruction, research, and public service in order to address the needs of society. Research is seen as the acquisition of knowledge, instruction is the transmission of knowledge, and public service becomes the application of knowledge. Second, the organizational structure of a university is different from that of business because no one person has absolute authority. The areas of power and influence overlap from administration, to faculty, to students, to employee groups, to outside agencies and the general public. Legal authority rests with a governing board made up of persons external to the university. Third, the output of universities is difficult to measure. The effectiveness of instruction, research, and public service is not easily assessed. Finally, universities stand somewhat apart from society even though they were created by it. The norm of academic freedom has come to mean minimal external interference with the processes of teaching and learning. Because ofthe unique nature of universities, they have become a popular field for research. In trying to explain some ofthe properties ofthe distinctive Reproduced with permission o fth e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

19 culture of a university, Gouldner (1957,1958) studied the link between the value system in higher education and the behavior ofthe academic staff. He proposed the concepts of localism and cosmopolitanism to identify latent social roles, in general, a cosmopolitan orientation would indicate primary loyalty to the profession, with emphasis on professional skills and long formal training. Promotional opportunities tended to be with organizations other than the present employer. Cosmopolitan networking occurred among professional peers outside of the employing organization. Meaningful awards and recognition for the cosmopolitan came from the profession. Conversely, the local orientation indicated a primary loyalty to the employing organization. Locals tended to have broader formal education of shorter duration, with on-the-job training being an important part ofthe present position. Promotional opportunities were available and sought from the employing organization. The network ofthe locals consisted of persons within the employing organization. Awards and recognition were most meaningful for the locals when they came from the present employer. The concepts of localism and cosmopolitanism have been tested in many different settings since that time and still are used in defining beliefs and behavior. Bimbaum (1988) listed the ratio of locals to cosmopolitans as a possible institutional constraint in terms of governance, management, and leadership in universities today. He defined cosmopolitans as faculty who consider themselves independent professionals, with little attachment to their employing institution. He noted that such faculty tend to concentrate on research and Reproduced with permission o fth e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

20 publishing. Recognition for their accomplishments was most meaningful when it came from their peers throughout the country. He described locals, on the other hand, as persons feeling a major attachment to their particular campus. Locals would tend to focus on teaching and be actively involved with their university community. Because of the particular viewpoint held by a local or a cosmopolitan, Bimbaum (1988) pointed out that a problem could arise in the way rank and prestige were defined. In a typical business organization, rank and prestige are equivalent. The highest rank would have the highest prestige. But within a university, that relationship may differ, especially in universities with a large component of cosmopolitans. Rank at a particular institution may not be indicative of the professional prestige of an individual. For instance, a young researcher who has won a national award may be held in higher esteem within the profession than the departmental Chair. Bimbaum pointed out that the differences perceived between rank and prestige can cause conflict in coordinating activities and weaken administrative authority on the campus. The theory of cosmopolitanism and localism has been used in a number of studies to define a particular university. But in doing so, the university culture has often been depicted in terms of academic staff only, excluding support staff and limiting application. Ehrle and Bennett (1988), for example, discussed the importance of the support staff in representing the culture of the institution to internal and external constituencies. They proposed that it is a support staff Reproduced with permission o fth e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

21 member, like the Development Officer meeting with potential donors or the Research Laboratory Supervisor gathering with regulatory inspectors, who is the person responsible for presenting and promoting the organization s vision. Ehrle and Bennett argued that staff can have a major impact on student satisfaction and retention by creating the feeling that "somebody cares. Yet, support staff is not always recognized as a part of the university culture. Perkins (1973) pointed out that the exclusion of staff consideration has led to a unionization movement, under which the staff employees seek a separate identity of their own through the union. The majority of employees at a university belong to the support staff. An informational brochure of the university being studied here, Facts in Brief (University Publications, 1995), reported that only 39% of employees were from the academic staff; the majority, or 61%, were support staff. It was reported by the Committee on Institutional Cooperation that another university in the same conference had the faculty comprising only 28% ofthe total staff. Four more of the conference schools had faculty equal to 26%, whereas several others had a faculty component of 25% or less. Therefore, in order to provide an accurate description of any university, information concerning the support staff will need to be collected and integrated to create a complete organizational picture. Reproduced with permission o fth e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

22 7 The Purpose ofthe Study The purpose of this study is to identify the local-cosmopolitan orientation of a subset of university support staff members and to examine the relationship between orientation and (a) the gender of the employee, (b) the age of the employee, (c) the years of service of the employee, (d) the percentage of business-financial tasks in one s specific job, (e) the percentage of time spent in direct contact with students, and (f) the self-perception of how essential one s job is to the overall mission ofthe university. The local-cosmopolitan orientation is measured in this study using the same elements suggested by Gouldner (1957). They are loyalty (to the employing organization or to the profession), commitment to skills of an operational style (professional or bureaucratic), and reference group orientation (inner or outer). The overall local-cosmopolitan outlook and each of the three separate elements ofthe orientation are examined to determine their relationship to gender, age, years of service, business tasks, student tasks, and perception ofthe essential nature of one s job. The independent variables of job tasks and student-related concerns are described by the percentage of time spent doing these functions. This percentage has been self-reported on a questionnaire. The perception of how essential one s job is to the mission of the university is measured by three questions using a Likert scale response. Gender, age, and years of service were self-reported. Reproduced with permission o fth e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

23 The dependent variables are the overall local-cosmopolitan orientation of the job holder as determined by the questionnaire, as well as each ofthe three elements ofthe orientation separately (loyalty, operational style, and reference group). A replicate study of GouldneTs (1957) work with local-cosmopolitan orientation is presented here, extending research to include university support staff employees. Further exploration is undertaken, in terms ofthe impact of age, gender, years of service, business tasks, student tasks, and perception ofthe job s essentialness upon the choice of orientation. It is to be hoped that this research will add information concerning the overall culture of a university in order to provide meaningful data that can be used in understanding support staff employees. This knowledge may then be utilized in determining meaningful incentives and rewards that are specific to the local-cosmopolitan orientation. For instance, persons with a more local orientation will need opportunities for advancement within the employing organization, while persons holding a more cosmopolitan orientation would benefit from opportunities to travel to national meetings with their discipline in order to strengthen a national network. Overview In the chapters that follow, the study concerning the local-cosmopolitan orientation of university support staff members is described and discussed. Chapter II contains the review of prior research. The history ofthe development

24 ofthe local-cosmopolitan concept in universities is outlined and the breadth of research is shown. In Chapter III the research design and methodology are discussed. Here the variables, hypotheses, and data-analysis procedures are addressed. The findings ofthe research are reported in Chapter IV, where discussions ofthe hypotheses are illustrated with tables. Chapter V presents conclusions drawn from this study and proposes recommendations for future research. Copies of documents, such as the survey instrument and cover letter, are appended. Reproduced with permission o fth e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

25 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF PRIOR RESEARCH Evolution ofthe Concept of Local-Cosmopolitan Orientation The concept of local versus cosmopolitan orientation has been used in many studies and operationalized with differing variables since it was made popular, in broad terms, by Merton (1957) to describe members of a community in terms of latent social identities. Persons interested in the immediate community were described as the "locals," while those with an interest in the world outside the community were described as the "cosmopolitans." The local-cosmopolitan theory has been used as the basis for a variety of studies, even including the concept of religious beliefs. Petersen and Takayama (1984) used Merton s definitions to link the strength of religious commitment to localism through the dependent variables of Mass attendance, Holy Communion, Confession, and private prayer. The sample was composed of 727 Catholics living in the South who were surveyed by means of a mail questionnaire. The study found a positive relationship between the strength of religious belief and localism. Gouldner (1957, 1958) constructed a different view of the localcosmopolitan concept by applying this model to study professionalism. He chose 10 Reproduced with permission o fth e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

26 a college setting for his work. He proposed that conflict within the employing organization was caused by the difference between the values of individuals and those values prescribed by the organization. This work has become the seminal research on localism versus cosmopolitanism in universities. Gouidner (1957) proposed three elements for differentiating the orientations: (1) loyalty to the employing organization or to the profession, (2) commitment to professional or personal skills, and (3) use of inner or outer reference groups. "Locals" were characterized as persons with high loyalty to the employing organization, low commitment to professional skills, and identification with an inner reference group. Conversely, "cosmopolitans" were those with low loyalty to the employing organization, high commitment to professional skills, and identification with an outer reference group. Gouldner s sample consisted of 125 teaching and administrative faculty of a small midwestem liberal arts college. The instrument for the survey was a Likert-type questionnaire with more than 100 items. Many of the items on the Gouidner questionnaire have been used in subsequent research. Gouldner s research showed that there were differences between locals and cosmopolitans in the areas of influence, participation, acceptance of organizational rules, and informal relations. This early work seemed to create a system in which the local- cosmopolitan orientations were competing or bipolar.

27 Upon further refinement, Gouidner (1958) proposed categories of locals and cosmopolitans. After studying the data by means of factor analysis, he suggested four types of locals and two types of cosmopolitans. The locals were: 1. The Dedicated These were persons who identified with the distinct doctrines of the employing organization. Their loyalty was to the organization rather than the profession. They focused on maintaining the internal structure of the organization and used an inner reference group. 2. The True Bureaucrat-These persons were loyal to the organization in terms of its community environment. They were sensitive to outside criticism and worked to adjust the organization's values, by means of formal regulations, to be compatible with those of the community. 3. The Homeguard-These persons of local orientation had less professional specialization and graduate training, and fewer publications. They tended to be middle-level administrators whose experience, as students and/or employees, had been at this particular institution. Their loyalty stemmed from their personal experience. 4. The Elders-As their name implies, these persons were the oldest and had the longest seniority. They felt a loyalty to the organization from which they would retire. The cosmopolitan groups were: 1. The Outsiders These were persons who tended to keep to themselves. They did not choose to interact with students or other faculty

28 members. They had very little loyalty to the organization. They were committed to their specialized professional skills and identified with an outer reference group. 2. The Empire Builders-These cosmopolitans were committed to their academic departments and specialty but felt that career advancement opportunities would be available outside the current organization. They, too, used an outer reference group. Gouidner (1958) proposed that his workin defining local and cosmopolitan groups would aid organizations in dealing with the conflict between the need for loyalty and need for expertise. Grimes and Berger (1970) published a harsh evaluation of the Gouidner model, attacking the methods used in defining the concept and verifying the empirical data. They argued that the concept was multidimensional and should not be presented as bipolar. They even suggested that the Gouidner construct be abandoned until further research could be done to replicate and extend the factor analysis. However, later, in what seems to be a change of position, Berger and Grimes (1973) studied faculty in business schools. Their sample consisted of796 faculty members from 46 different schools. The survey questionnaire that they designed had 58 items. The attitudinal items had been taken directly from the Gouidner research. Using a factor analysis of the construct, they found support for two of Gouldner s elements: loyalty to the organization and commitment to professional skills. Minimal support for the reference group

29 distinction wasfound. However, they agreed thatthe local-cosmopolitan concept could be useful in dealing with organizational problems such as career development and performance appraisal. Use of the Concept With Other Professions The local-cosmopolitan model has been tested with a variety of professional occupations. A study using public accountants was done by Schroeder and Imdieke (1977). Two hundred twenty-two accountants employed in 16 public accounting firms in Phoenix were surveyed using a Likert-type questionnaire. It was shown that loyalty to the profession and loyalty to the organization do come into conflict because of the relationship between the two sources of authority. Individuals entered the profession with a particular identity and soon learned that loyalty to the firm was important for success within that firm. In assessing accountants perceptions of the "bureaucratic" system in place within their organization, it was found that the persons who scored high as cosmopolitans were less satisfied with the operational style than those who scored as locals. It was also shown thatthe size of the firm had no impact on the orientation of the employees. Delbecq and Either (1970) studied veterinarians in governmental agencies in terms of career strategies, occupational mobility, and their relationship to the local-cosmopolitan orientation. The career strategies model, developed by Thompson, Avery, and Carlson (as cited in Delbecq & Elfner, 1970), was related

30 to Gouldner s local-cosmopolitan model. Forty-seven veterinarians were given a questionnaire at the conclusion of a training session sponsored by the state. Fifty-five percent of the veterinarians chose the "stable career" strategy in which occupational mobility was low and the loyalty to their organization was higher than their loyalty to the profession. These persons were identified as the locals. Veterinarians scoring as cosmopolitans seemed to be oriented to both their profession and the employing organization. It was also found that age was a factor in determining orientation, in that persons over the age of 50 tended to score high as locals. Career intent was also studied with U.S. Air Force personnel by Stahl, Manley, and McNichols (1978) in relationship to the local-cosmopolitan orientation. A randomly selected sample of approximately 20,000 active-duty Air Force personnel were sent a Likert-type questionnaire. Of this sample, 10,687 were usable. The measures of "institutional" versus "occupational" orientations were correlated with Gouldner s local versus cosmopolitan orientations. It was shown that institutional orientation and military career intent were positively associated. Institutional orientation (local) was also positively related to job satisfaction and seniority, while the occupational orientation (cosmopolitan) was negatively related to both. The relationship between the local and cosmopolitan orientations may be influenced by the particular profession that is being studied. In other words, the type of profession could influence the attitudes and actual work performance of

31 an individual. Studies have shown that the choice of occupation did contribute to the orientation of the employee but that the culture of the employing organization exerted its own influence too. An earlier study by Shepherd (1961) had used 84 scientists and 91 engineers from a naval research and development laboratory on the West Coast as the population. Previous research had shown that professionals with research goals tended to have outer reference groups, while persons holding development and supervisory goals tended to have inner reference groups. This study was undertaken to examine the relationship between the choice of occupation (scientist or engineer) and the reference group use. The results showed that engineers placed greater emphasis on status level, community, and friends, while the scientists chose professional colleagues and ideals. It was concluded that scientists were more oriented toward the profession, while engineers tended to be oriented toward the organization. According to this study, engineers would be classified as "locals, while the scientists would be the "cosmopolitans." Engineers would be able to make the transition to an organization that needed expertise and loyalty more easily than scientists, who might then have conflicts with their self-identity. As a result, a recommendation was made that organizations could best promote pure research through subsidies to universities where scientists were freer to follow a professional role, rather than using resources to build a research department within the organization.

32 17 Proposal of a Third Dimension Many studies have built upon the Gouidner construct and have suggested a third category, one in which the components of both the local and the cosmopolitan orientations are present. The research of Glaser (1963), with scientists in medical research organizations, concluded that the localcosmopolitan notion was a dual orientation and not one of two distinct groups, as had been previously presented. Three hundred thirty-two employees of a large governmental medical research agency were given a survey questionnaire. It was shown that both dimensions (local and cosmopolitan) could be within the same scientist, depending on the organizational structure within which the employee worked. As the structure changed, so did the orientation. It was found that when the organizational goals were congruent with professional goals, the two dimensions of local-cosmopolitan orientation could be present within the same scientist. The objectives in advancing knowledge did not have to conflict with objectives in applying knowledge. This research supported a middle position between the two extremes of solely local and solely cosmopolitan. Likewise, Goldberg, Baker, and Rubenstein (1965) proposed the idea that a single orientation might be two dimensional, in that employees could have both a professional and an organizational view at the same time. Questionnaire data were collected from 81 employees of an industrial research and development laboratory. It was found that there could be independence between a researcher s orientation to the profession and the orientation to the employing

33 organization. Persons scoring high as cosmopolitans were also found to score high on items concerned with "advancement within the organization" and "pleasing organizational superiors." Based on the previous research and some of his own, Goldberg (1976) suggested a third orientation, the "cosmo-local," that combined both the cosmopolitan and local dimensions. His study with 192 engineers showed that behavior could be influenced by three additional factors: (1) career stage, (2) occupational role (managerial or technical), and (3) quality of the work environment. First, changes in the local-cosmopolitan orientation attributed to career stage could be demonstrated by a "local" at the beginning of his career who was searching for a suitable organization with which to affiliate. He or she might not be able to operate in a manner consistent with his or her local orientation until he or she was securely grounded. Likewise, a senior "cosmopolitan" might want to become attached to a particular organization and become more involved with the decision making there. Second, the occupational role of a manager is one that removes the practitioner from technical work. It is seen as an opportunity to gain control over resources that are necessary in the performance of the technical work. If the selection of managers is based on greater competence, then a "cosmopolitan" would see the promotion as a means of professional success. A "local" might interpret the promotion as a reward from the organization.

34 Third, the orientation of a professional may be influenced by the work environment. A "local" in a professional organization may have to become active in the professional discipline in order to obtain internal rewards. Likewise, a "cosmopolitan" employed in a tight bureaucratic organization might have to give up activities in the profession in order to participate in organizational work. Therefore, variations in any of the three factors listed above may actually reverse the expected local-cosmopolitan behavior. This study showed that not only did a single person display situations in which each of the local-cosmopolitan orientations was held at a separate time, but also included situations in which a combination of the two orientations was held at the same time. This combined orientation, the "cosmo-local," allowed the holder to maintain expertise with the professional standards and still be committed to the mission of the employing organization. The idea that localcosmopolitan orientations were not mutually exclusive was proposed. Different degrees and combinations of localism and cosmopolitanism were proposed from research done by Lammers (1974). One hundred seventy-nine full-time professors at a Dutch university were studied in terms of faculty response to student protest. Four types of orientations were proposed: (1) general local-cosmopolitan orientation (a true balance of both orientations), (2) partial cosmopolitanism with a local touch (weighted to the cosmopolitan side), (3) pure research orientation (pure cosmopolitan), and (4) micro-localism (pure localism). He concluded that the orientations of localism and cosmopolitanism

35 are strongly affected by the stages of an individual s organizational and professional career. Further, a study using engineers and scientists was done by Rotondi (1977) to investigate the reference group orientation. His sample included 128 engineers in product development and 51 scientists in technology research employed by an electronics company. presence of a combined orientation: His research also suggested the individuals with both a local and a cosmopolitan commitment. He found that cosmopolitans were more closely oriented toward an outer reference group than were locals, as proposed by Gouidner. But he found that cosmopolitans and locals were both oriented toward inner reference groups. In contrast to Gouidner, he found that cosmopolitans could maintain high in-group loyalties. He suggested that a combined "localcosmopolitan" orientation did exist. He concluded that reference group make-up is different depending on the type of organization and no generalized statement could be made that would apply across all types. Origin of One s Orientation The study by Miller and Wager (1971) used nonsupervisory scientists and engineers from an aero-space company. It, too, proposed a combined localcosmopolitan category. A mail questionnaire was sent to the homes of the employees and resulted in a sample of 390. The researchers' central question was whether professionally trained persons became "organization men" or

36 whether employees of the organization became "professional men." Itwasfound that the longer the formal training a person had, the greater the professional (cosmopolitan) orientation. It was interpreted that the scientists and engineers were socialized in their professional training programs in school and were little affected by subsequent organizational experiences. The researchers discovered both orientations, local and cosmopolitan, could exist within the same individual since they were not necessarily incompatible. Likewise, it was found that some persons might have neither orientation, in that they had failed to extract benefits from either kind of career path. They proposed four categories, based on their research, into which the participants were classified: (1) cosmopolitan, (2) local, (3) local-cosmopolitan, and (4) indifferent. Their study showed the orientation to be mainly the result of the difference in the length and type of educational training. In other words, they argued that the professional schools were responsible for the development of the orientation, while the employing organization just reinforced that orientation. It was concluded that values and expectations acquired during one s training phase were consistent with those in place within organizations where the actual career unfolded. Abrahamson s (1965) study of geographical mobility and academic scientists had different results in terms of origin of one s orientation. A sample of 67faculty members of natural science departments at a midwestern university were surveyed, it was maintained that young scientists had a particular orientation as a part of their personality, not their training, and that graduate

37 schools would find changing that orientation to be a job harder than they expected. It was argued that the orientation of the individual was built upon underlying psychological needs and not professional concerns. In another interpretation, the Tuma and Grimes (1981) study, done with 298faculty members at a large research university, concluded that organizations do shape the role orientations of their professionals. They argued that it was the organization that had a primary effect upon the employee s process of interpreting the world, rather than the influence of the previously held orientation. They proposed five elements of role orientation: (1) professional commitment (2) commitment to organizational goals, (3) organizational loyalty, (4) external orientation, and (5) concern with advancement. Although these were similar to Gouldner s elements, they did broaden the concept. Unlike Gouldner s study, it was found in this work that there was no direct relationship between professional commitment and commitment to organizational goals. It was also found that persons orientations varied with the stage of their careers. That is, they could be local at one time and cosmopolitan at another. This finding was further affirmation of Goldberg s work (1976) showing career stage to be a determining factor in orientation choice. The rank or position of an employee was also felt to have an impact on a particular orientation. It was felt that further study was needed to determine if this orientation was caused by the impact of the organizational culture or rather by a hiring process that only selected persons

38 with similar beliefs. By means of this study, it was proposed that organizational structures and procedures do influence the role orientations of professionals. A common thread through all the studies is the conflict between the orientations, whether represented in different persons or present in one person exhibiting both orientations. The research of Flango and Brumbaugh (1974) showed that the cosmopolitan-local construct assumed an inverse relationship between loyalty to the organization and commitment to the profession. They addressed this area of conflict present within professional organizations with a study of 813 faculty members at universities in Pennsylvania. This work showed another variable, rule tropism, could be used to distinguish the orientations. Rule tropism was defined as the degree to which an organization was administered in terms of formal rules and regulations. It was found that cosmopolitans were less likely to be concerned with the regulations than were the locals. Discovering the local-cosmopolitan orientation was felt to be the key in relating faculty attitudes to faculty behavior. The relationship between the local-cosmopolitan orientation and job performance was studied by London et al. (1977). A questionnaire was administered to 150 male technical employees at three architectural firms. The assessment of orientation was done using items proposed by Gouidner (1957, 1958) and age, tenure, level of education, and salary. This study described the locals as persons unwilling to leave the organization, deriving their intellectual stimulation from an inner reference group,

39 and holding a feeling that employee unity is vital. The cosmopolitans appeared as persons involved in professional societies, subscribing to professional journals, and possessing higher education levels. This study proposed thatthe differences between the locals and cosmopolitans be carefully considered when proposing job incentives. Each type would need to be provided with a package that matched the particular orientation. Locals should be offered attractive fringe benefits, career advancement opportunities within the organization, and pleasant physical surroundings. The involvement in professional societies should be encouraged for cosmopolitans, as well as subscriptions to journals and travel to professional meetings provided by the organization. Academic Settings As noted above, the academic staff at universities has been used frequently as the population for studies concerning localism and cosmopolitanism. Alie (1980) studied the relationship between the amount of time spent on teacher training and the local-cosmopolitan orientation of the academic staff at Western Michigan University. His sample consisted of 184 faculty members from eight academic departments. He used the three dimensions proposed by Gouidner (1957, 1958) in his original study to differentiate the locals from the cosmopolitans and treated the orientations as polar sets of roles. He found that there existed a positive relationship between the amount of time spent on teacher training within a department and a local

40 orientation. In other words, those who spent less time on teacher training were found to have a more cosmopolitan role orientation. It was felt that knowledge of the prevailing orientation would be of benefit in decision making concerning the department. Incentives and rewards could also be tailored in response to the preferences of a particular orientation. In another academic setting, the local-cosmopolitan orientation was used to explain resistance to change. Bringing about changes in higher education was described as risky business by Lutz and Amey (1987). In fact, they predicted that if the change was "real," the administrator in charge of the change was at great personal risk and often forced out. Using previous social/psychological concepts, they built a model in which eight prototypes of personality were proposed. Each prototype had three factors: (1) locus of control (external or internal), (2) professional orientation (local or cosmopolitan), and (3) high need achievement (hope of success or fear of failure). It was theorized that most change agents and followers of the change would come from the cosmopolitans. Likewise, the leaders of the resistance and followers of the resistance would come from the locals. A rather discouraging view of attempting change at a university was proposed as it was noted that the "innovative people" (the cosmopolitans) were apt to be the first ones to leave an organization. It was felt that the particular local-cosmopolitan orientation held by an individual is very influential upon one s behavior. The importance of identifying orientations should be of primary concern.

41 26 Summary There seems to be acceptance of the mode! developed by Gouidner (1957,1958) to expand the local and cosmopolitan orientations. Various theories have been offered concerning the factors responsible for the orientations. There is agreement that role orientations have an important impact on the employee s perception of an organization. However, disagreement arises over the characteristics used to define the elements of localism and cosmopolitanism and the source of the orientation. Viewpoints range from mutually exclusive groups of locals and cosmopolitans to one composite orientation that has components of both (the cosmo-local). The origin of these orientations has been credited to many sources. Among them are the length and type of education, the employing organization, and the career stage of the employee. Most of the variables incorporated in this study relate to ones in previous research. The impact of age and years of service has been studied with academic groups (Berger & Grimes, 1973; Delbecq & Either, 1970; Goldberg, 1976; Lammers, 1974; Smith, 1982; Stahl et al., 1978), but fewer studies have been done to determine what influence gender has on the selection of an orientation (Berger & Grimes, 1973; Smith, 1982; Tuma & Grimes, 1981). The effect of business tasks was examined in a study by Shepherd (1961). Stahl et al. reported on the importance of a feeling of worth in the determination of an orientation. The many studies listed above conducted

42 on university campuses assumed student interaction. However, none addressed the university employee who has little or no student contact. Although many populations have been studied using the localcosmopolitan concept, none previous has been carried out using support staff members at a university. The local-cosmopolitan orientation is referred to in current literature (Bergquist, 1992), but little research on the orientation has been done in the 1990s. This research will provide current information and enlarge the types of positions studied.

43 CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Theoretical Framework The theoretical basis for this research is drawn from the work of Gouidner (1957) concerning manifest and latent social identities within universities. He proposed that the employee s latent roles would influence organizational behavior because of the power of personal views in determining one s action. He predicted that such beliefs of individual employees could conflict, and this conflict could disturb the implementation of the organization s mission. This premise has roots in Gestalt psychology where it has been proven that people respond to and treat the world as they personally construe it. Simon (1976) also concluded that there was a relationship between personal orientation and organizational behavior. According to Simon, personal views have primary influence in deciding which organization a person will join initially for employment and determining how long that person will remain working there. This study assumes that the three elements proposed and validated by Gouidner (1957) to define local-cosmopolitan orientation in the academic staff at universities will also describe the local-cosmopolitan orientation of support staff employees. The three elements are: 28