Object Recognition, Symmetry Detection, Jigsaw Puzzles, and Melanomas

Transcription

1 Object Recognition, Symmetry Detection, Jigsaw Puzzles, and Melanomas Peter J. Olver University of Minnesota olver Lubbock, February, 2014

2 Symmetry = Group Theory!

3 Next to the concept of a function, which is the most important concept pervading the whole of mathematics, the concept of a group is of the greatest significance in the various branches of mathematics and its applications. P.S. Alexandroff

4 Definition. Examples: Groups A group G is a set with a binary operation (g, h) g h G satisfying Associativity: Identity: Inverse: G = R addition G = R + multiplication G =GL(n) ={det A 0} g (h k) =(g h) k g e = g = e g g g 1 = e = g 1 g matrix multiplication G =SO(n) ={A T = A 1, det A =+1} rotation group

5 Definition. Examples: Groups A group G is a set with a binary operation (g, h) g h G satisfying Associativity: Identity: Inverse: G = R addition G = R + multiplication G =GL(n) ={det A 0} g (h k) =(g h) k g e = g = e g g g 1 = e = g 1 g matrix multiplication G =SO(n) ={A T = A 1, det A =+1} rotation group

6 Symmetry Definition. A symmetry of a set S is a transformation that preserves it: g S = S The set of symmetries forms a group, called the symmetry group of the set S.

7 Symmetry Definition. A symmetry of a set S is a transformation that preserves it: g S = S The set of symmetries forms a group G S, called the symmetry group of the set S.

8 Discrete Symmetry Group Rotations by 90 : G S = Z 4 Rotations + reflections: G S = Z 4 Z 4

9 Discrete Symmetry Group Rotations by 90 : G S = Z 4 Rotations + reflections: G S = Z 4 Z 4

10 More Complicated Discrete Symmetry = David Richter

11 Continuous Symmetry Group Rotations: G S =SO(2) Rotations + reflections: G S =O(2) Inversions: x x = x 2 + y 2 ȳ = y x 2 + y 2 A continuous group is known as a Lie group in honor of Sophus Lie.

12 Continuous Symmetry Group Rotations: G S =SO(2) Rotations + reflections: G S =O(2) Inversions: x x = x 2 + y 2 ȳ = y x 2 + y 2 A continuous group is known as a Lie group in honor of Sophus Lie.

13 Continuous Symmetry Group Rotations: G S =SO(2) Rotations + reflections: G S =O(2) Inversions: x x = x 2 + y 2 ȳ = y x 2 + y 2 A continuous group is known as a Lie group in honor of Sophus Lie.

14 Continuous Symmetry Group Rotations: G S =SO(2) Rotations + reflections: G S =O(2) Inversions: x x = x 2 + y 2 ȳ = y x 2 + y 2 A continuous group is known as a Lie group in honor of Sophus Lie.

15 Continuous Symmetries of a Square R

16 Symmetry Definition. A symmetry of a set S is a transformation that preserves it: g S = S The symmetry group G S depends on the underlying group of allowable transformations or, equivalently, the geometry of the space!

17 Symmetry Definition. A symmetry of a set S is a transformation that preserves it: g S = S The symmetry group G S depends on the underlying group of allowable transformations or, equivalently, the geometry of the space!

18 Geometry = Group Theory Felix Klein s Erlanger Programm (1872): Each type of geometry is founded on atransformationgroup. AgroupG acts on a space M via z g z, with g (h z) =(g h) z e z = z for all g, h G and z M.

19 Geometry = Group Theory Felix Klein s Erlanger Programm (1872): Each type of geometry is founded on atransformationgroup. AgroupG acts on a space M via z g z, with g (h z) =(g h) z e z = z for all g, h G and z M.

20 Plane Geometries/Groups Euclidean geometry: SE(2) rigid motions (rotations and translations) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) x cos θ sin θ x a = + ȳ sin θ cos θ y b E(2) plus reflections? Equi-affine geometry: SA(2) area-preserving affine transformations: ( ) ( )( ) ( ) x α β x a = + αδ βγ=1 ȳ γ δ y b Projective geometry: PSL(3) projective transformations: x = αx+ βy+ γ ρx+ σy+ τ ȳ = λx+ µy+ ν ρx+ σy+ τ

21 Plane Geometries/Groups Euclidean geometry: SE(2) rigid motions (rotations and translations) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) x cos θ sin θ x a = + ȳ sin θ cos θ y b E(2) plus reflections? Equi-affine geometry: SA(2) area-preserving affine transformations: ( ) ( )( ) ( ) x α β x a = + αδ βγ=1 ȳ γ δ y b Projective geometry: PSL(3) projective transformations: x = αx+ βy+ γ ρx+ σy+ τ ȳ = λx+ µy+ ν ρx+ σy+ τ

22 Plane Geometries/Groups Euclidean geometry: SE(2) rigid motions (rotations and translations) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) x cos θ sin θ x a = + ȳ sin θ cos θ y b E(2) plus reflections? Equi-affine geometry: SA(2) area-preserving affine transformations: ( ) ( )( ) ( ) x α β x a = + αδ βγ =1 ȳ γ δ y b Projective geometry: PSL(3) projective transformations: x = αx+ βy+ γ ρx+ σy+ τ ȳ = λx+ µy+ ν ρx+ σy+ τ

23 Plane Geometries/Groups Euclidean geometry: SE(2) rigid motions (rotations and translations) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) x cos θ sin θ x a = + ȳ sin θ cos θ y b E(2) plus reflections? Equi-affine geometry: SA(2) area-preserving affine transformations: ( ) ( )( ) ( ) x α β x a = + αδ βγ =1 ȳ γ δ y b Projective geometry: PSL(3) projective transformations: x = αx+ βy+ γ ρx+ σy+ τ ȳ = λx+ µy+ ν ρx+ σy+ τ

24 Tennis, Anyone?

25 The Basic Equivalence Problem G transformation group acting on M Equivalence: Determine when two subsets are congruent: Symmetry: N and N M N = g N for g G Find all symmetries, i.e., self-equivalences or self-congruences: N = g N

26 The Basic Equivalence Problem G transformation group acting on M Equivalence: Determine when two subsets are congruent: Symmetry: N and N M N = g N for g G Find all symmetries, i.e., self-equivalences or self-congruences: N = g N

27 The Basic Equivalence Problem G transformation group acting on M Equivalence: Determine when two subsets are congruent: Symmetry: N and N M N = g N for g G Find all symmetries, i.e., self-equivalences or self-congruences: N = g N

28 The Basic Equivalence Problem G transformation group acting on M Equivalence: Determine when two subsets are congruent: Symmetry: N and N M N = g N for g G Find all symmetries, i.e., self-equivalences or self-congruences: N = g N

29 Invariants The solution to an equivalence problem rests on understanding its invariants. Definition. If G is a group acting on M, thenan invariant is a real-valued function I : M R that does not change under the action of G: I(g z) =I(z) for all g G, z M If G acts transitively, there are no (non-constant) invariants.

30 Invariants The solution to an equivalence problem rests on understanding its invariants. Definition. If G is a group acting on M, thenan invariant is a real-valued function I : M R that does not change under the action of G: I(g z) =I(z) for all g G, z M If G acts transitively, there are no (non-constant) invariants.

31 Invariants The solution to an equivalence problem rests on understanding its invariants. Definition. If G is a group acting on M, thenan invariant is a real-valued function I : M R that does not change under the action of G: I(g z) =I(z) for all g G, z M If G acts transitively, there are no(non-constant) invariants.

32 Joint Invariants A joint invariant is an invariant of the k-fold Cartesian product action of G on M M: I(g z 1,...,g z k ) = I(z 1,...,z k )

33 Joint Euclidean Invariants Theorem. Every joint Euclidean invariant is a function of the interpoint distances d(z i,z j )= z i z j z j z i

34 Joint Equi Affine Invariants Theorem. Every planar joint equi affine invariant is a function of the triangular areas A(i, j, k) = 1 2 (z i z j ) (z i z k ) z j z i z k

35 Joint Projective Invariants Theorem. Every joint projective invariant is a function of the planar cross-ratios [ z i,z j,z k,z l,z m ] = AB CD A D C B

36 Differential Invariants Given a submanifold (curve, surface,...) N M, a differential invariant is an invariant of the action of G on N and its derivatives (jets). I(g z (k) ) = I(z (k) )

37 Euclidean Plane Curves: G =SE(2) The simplest differential invariant is the curvature, defined as the reciprocal of the radius of the osculating circle: κ = 1 r

38 Curvature

39 Curvature

40 Curvature r =1/κ

41 Euclidean Plane Curves: G =SE(2)=SO(2) R 2 Assume the curve is a graph: Differential invariants: κ = y = u(x) u xx (1 + u 2, dκ x )3/2 ds = (1 + u2 x )u xxx 3u x u2 xx (1 + u 2, x )3 Arc length (invariant one-form): ds = 1+u 2 x dx, d ds = 1 1+u 2 x d dx d 2 κ ds 2 = Theorem. All Euclidean differential invariants are functions of the derivatives of curvature with respect to arc length: κ, κ s, κ ss,

42 Equi-affine Plane Curves: G =SA(2)=SL(2) R 2 Equi-affine curvature: Equi-affine arc length: κ = 5 u xx u xxxx 3 u2 xxx 9 u 8/3 xx ds = 3 uxx dx dκ ds = d ds = 3 1 uxx d dx Theorem. All equi-affine differential invariants are functions of the derivatives of equi-affine curvature with respect to equi-affine arc length: κ, κ s, κ ss,

43 Moving Frames The equivariant method of moving frames provides a systematic calculus for determining complete systems of invariants (joint invariants, differential invariants, joint differential invariants, etc.) and invariant objects (invariant differential forms, invariant differential operators, invariant tensors, invariant variational problems, invariant numerical approximations).

44 Equivalence & Invariants Equivalent submanifolds N N must have the same invariants: I = I. Constant invariants provide immediate information: e.g. κ =2 κ =2 Non-constant invariants are not useful in isolation, because an equivalence map can drastically alter the dependence on the submanifold parameters: e.g. κ = x 3 versus κ = sinh x

45 Equivalence & Invariants Equivalent submanifolds N N must have the same invariants: I = I. Constant invariants provide immediate information: e.g. κ =2 κ =2 Non-constant invariants are not useful in isolation, because an equivalence map can drastically alter the dependence on the submanifold parameters: e.g. κ = x 3 versus κ = sinh x

46 Equivalence & Invariants Equivalent submanifolds N N must have the same invariants: I = I. Constant invariants provide immediate information: e.g. κ =2 κ =2 Non-constant invariants are not useful in isolation, because an equivalence map can drastically alter the dependence on the submanifold parameters: e.g. κ = x 3 versus κ = sinh x

47 However, a functional dependency or syzygy among the invariants is intrinsic: e.g. κ s = κ 3 1 κ s = κ 3 1 Universal syzygies Gauss Codazzi Distinguishing syzygies. Theorem. (Cartan) Two regular submanifolds are (locally) equivalent if and only if they have identical syzygies among all their differential invariants.

48 However, a functional dependency or syzygy among the invariants is intrinsic: e.g. κ s = κ 3 1 κ s = κ 3 1 Universal syzygies Gauss Codazzi Distinguishing syzygies. Theorem. (Cartan) Two regular submanifolds are (locally) equivalent if and only if they have identical syzygies among all their differential invariants.

49 However, a functional dependency or syzygy among the invariants is intrinsic: e.g. κ s = κ 3 1 κ s = κ 3 1 Universal syzygies Gauss Codazzi Distinguishing syzygies. Theorem. (Cartan) Two regular submanifolds are (locally) equivalent if and only if they have identical syzygies among all their differential invariants.

50 Finiteness of Generators and Syzygies There are, in general, an infinite number of differential invariants and hence an infinite number of syzygies must be compared to establish equivalence. But the higher order differential invariants are always generated by invariant differentiation from a finite collection of basic differential invariants, and the higher order syzygies are all consequences of a finite number of low order syzygies!

51 Finiteness of Generators and Syzygies There are, in general, an infinite number of differential invariants and hence an infinite number of syzygies must be compared to establish equivalence. But the higher order differential invariants are always generated by invariant differentiation from a finite collection of basic differential invariants, and the higher order syzygies are all consequences of a finite number of low order syzygies!

52 Example Plane Curves If non-constant, both κ and κ s depend on a single parameter, and so, locally, are subject to a syzygy: κ s = H(κ) ( ) But then κ ss = d ds H(κ) =H (κ) κ s = H (κ) H(κ) and similarly for κ sss,etc. Consequently, all the higher order syzygies are generated by the fundamental first order syzygy ( ). Thus, for Euclidean (or equi-affine or projective or...) plane curves we need only know a single syzygy between κ and κ s in order to establish equivalence!

53 Signature Curves Definition. The signature curve S R 2 of a plane curve C R 2 is parametrized by the two lowest order differential invariants Σ : C S = {( κ, dκ ds )} R 2 = Calabi, PJO, Shakiban, Tannenbaum, Haker Theorem. Two regular curves C and C are equivalent: C = g C if and only if their signature curves are identical: S = S = regular: (κ s,κ ss ) 0.

54 Theorem. Symmetry and Signature Continuous Symmetries The following are equivalent: The curve C has a 1-dimensional symmetry group H G C is the orbit of a 1-dimensional subgroup H G The signature S degenerates to a point: dim S =0 All the differential invariants are constant: κ = c, κ s =0,... = Euclidean plane geometry: circles, lines = Equi-affine plane geometry: conic sections. = Projective plane geometry: W curves (Lie & Klein)

55 Symmetry and Signature Discrete Symmetries Definition. The index of a curve C equals the number of points in C which map to a single generic point of its signature: ι C = min { # Σ 1 {w} } w S Theorem. The number of discrete symmetries of C equals its index ι C.

56 The Index Σ N S

57 The Curve x =cost cos2 t, y =sint sin2 t The Original Curve Euclidean Signature Equi-affine Signature

58 The Curve x =cost cos2 t, y = 1 2 x +sint sin2 t The Original Curve Euclidean Signature Equi-affine Signature

59 Object Recognition = Steve Haker

60 %#" &'()* $"" &'()5 %"" ##" $#" #""!#" 36782/2889)"+*:%$%:!"" #""!"" #"",-./0('12)3'142)&'()*,-./0('12)3'142)&'()5 "+"* "+""# "!"+""#!"+"* "+"* "+""# "!"+""#!"+"* "+"* "+""# "!"+""#!"+"*!"+"*#!"+"*#!"+"*#!"+"# " "+"# "+*!"+"# " "+"# "+*!"+"# " "+"# "+*

61 '(()*& :32*& &""" #," %"" #"" $"" 9," 6;(<505<<=*"+">&!&# #""!"" 8"","" -./012345*63475*'(()*& -./012345*63475*:32*& "+"& "+"", "!"+"",!"+"& "+"& "+"", "!"+"",!"+"& "+"& "+"", "!"+"",!"+"&!"+"&,!"+"&,!"+"&,!"+", " "+", "+&!"+", " "+", "+&!"+", " "+", "+&

62 Invariant Numerical Approximations When dealing with digital images, the calculation of the differential invariant signatures relies on invariant finite difference numerical approximations based on several sample points on the curve. In other words, one approximates differential invariants by suitable joint invariants. Moving frames & multi-space.

63 Invariant numerical approximation to curvature B A a c b C Heron s formula κ(b) κ(a, B, C) =4 abc =4 s = a + b + c 2 s(s a)(s b)(s c) abc semi-perimeter

64 Signatures κ s Classical Signature κ s Original curve κ Differential invariant signature

65 Signatures κ s Classical Signature κ s Original curve κ Differential invariant signature

66 Occlusions κ s Classical Signature κ s Original curve κ Differential invariant signature

67 Classical Occlusions κ s

68 3D Differential Invariant Signatures Euclidean space curves: C R 3 S = { ( κ, κ s,τ)} R 3 κ curvature, τ torsion Euclidean surfaces: S R 3 (generic) S = {( )} H,K,H,1,H,2,K,1,K,2 R 6 or Ŝ = {( )} H,H,1,H,2,H,11 R 4 H meancurvature, K Gausscurvature Equi affine surfaces: S R 3 (generic) S = {( )} P,P,1,P,2,P,11 R 4 P Pickinvariant

69 Generalized Vertices Ordinary vertex: local extremum of curvature Generalized vertex: κ s 0 critical point circular arc straight line segment Mukhopadhya s Four Vertex Theorem: A simple closed, non-circular plane curve has n 4 generalized vertices.

70 Counterexamples These degenerate curves all have the same signature: Replace vertices with circular arcs: Musso Nicoldi

71 Bivertex Arcs Bivertex arc: κ s 0everywhere except κ s =0atthetwoendpoints The signature S of a bivertex arc is a single arc that starts and ends on the κ axis. κ s κ

72 Bivertex Decomposition. v-regular curve finitely many generalized vertices C = m j=1 B 1,...,B m bivertex arcs B j n V k k=1 V 1,...,V n generalized vertices: n 4 Main Idea: Compareindividual bivertex arcs, andthen determine whether the rigid equivalences are (approximately) the same. (semi-local) D. Hoff & PJO, Extensions of invariant signatures for object recognition, J. Math. Imaging Vision 45 (2013)

73 Gravitational/Electrostatic Attraction Treat the two (signature) curves as masses or as oppositely charged wires. The higher their mutual attraction, the closer they are together. κ s κ

74 Gravitational/Electrostatic Attraction Treat the two (signature) curves as masses or as oppositely charged wires. The higher their mutual attraction, the closer they are together. In practice, we are dealing with discrete data (pixels) and so treat the curves and signatures as point masses/charges. κ s κ s κ κ

75 Piece Locking Minimize force and torque based on gravitational attraction of the two matching edges.

76 The Baffler Jigsaw Puzzle

77 The Baffler Solved

78 The Rain Forest Giant Floor Puzzle

79 The Rain Forest Puzzle Solved = D. Hoff & PJO, Automatic solution of jigsaw puzzles, J. Math. Imaging Vision, toappear.

80 The Rain Forest Puzzle Solved = D. Hoff & PJO, Automatic solution of jigsaw puzzles, J. Math. Imaging Vision, toappear.

81 The Distance Histogram Definition. The distance histogram of a finite set of points P = {z 1,...,z n } V is the function η P (r) =# { (i, j) 1 i<j n, d(zi,z j )=r }.

82 Characterization of Point Sets Note: If P = g P is obtained from P R m by a rigid motion g E(n), then they have the same distance histogram: η P = η P. Question: Can one uniquely characterize, up to rigid motion, a set of points P {z 1,...,z n } R m by its distance histogram? = Tinkertoy problem.

83 Characterization of Point Sets Note: If P = g P is obtained from P R m by a rigid motion g E(n), then they have the same distance histogram: η P = η P. Question: Can one uniquely characterize, up to rigid motion, a set of points P {z 1,...,z n } R m by its distance histogram? = Tinkertoy problem.

84 Yes: η = 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2.

85 No: Kite Trapezoid η = 2, 2, 2, 10, 10, 4.

86 No: P = {0, 1, 4, 10, 12, 17} Q = {0, 1, 8, 11, 13, 17} R η = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16, 17 = G. Bloom, J. Comb. Theory, Ser. A 22 (1977)

87 Characterizing Point Sets by their Distance Histograms Theorem. Suppose n 3orn m +2. Then there is a Zariski dense open subset in the space of n point configurations in R m that are uniquely characterized, up to rigid motion, by their distance histograms. = M. Boutin & G. Kemper, Adv. Appl. Math. 32 (2004)

88 Limiting Curve Histogram

89 Limiting Curve Histogram

90 Limiting Curve Histogram

91 Sample Point Histograms Cumulative distance histogram: n =#P : Note: Λ P (r) = 1 n + 2 n 2 s r η P (s) = 1 n 2 # { (i, j) d(zi,z j ) r }, η P (r) = 1 2 n2 [Λ P (r) Λ P (r δ)] δ 1. Local cumulative distance histogram: λ P (r, z) = 1 n # { j d(z,zj ) r } = 1 n #(P B r (z)) Λ P (r) = 1 n z P λ P (r, z) = 1 n 2 z P #(P B r (z)). Ball of radius r centered at z: B r (z) ={ v V d(v, z) r }

92 Limiting Curve Histogram Functions Length of a curve l(c) = Local curve distance histogram function C ds < h C (r, z) = l(c B r (z)) l(c) = The fraction of the curve contained in the ball of radius r centered at z. Global curve distance histogram function: H C (r) = 1 l(c) C h C (r, z(s)) ds.

93 Convergence of Histograms Theorem. Let C be a regular plane curve. Then, for both uniformly spaced and randomly chosen sample points P C, thecumulativelocalandglobalhistogramsconverge to their continuous counterparts: λ P (r, z) h C (r, z), Λ P (r) H C (r), as the number of sample points goes to infinity. D. Brinkman & PJO, Invariant histograms, Amer. Math. Monthly 118 (2011) 2 24.

94 Square Curve Histogram with Bounds

95 Kite and Trapezoid Curve Histograms

96 Histogram Based Shape Recognition 500 sample points Shape (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (a) triangle (b) square (c) circle (d) 2 3rectangle (e) 1 3rectangle (f) star

97 Distinguishing Melanomas from Moles Melanoma Mole = A. Rodriguez, J. Stangl, C. Shakiban

98 Cumulative Global Histograms Red: melanoma Green: mole

99 Logistic Function Fitting Melanoma Mole

100 Logistic Function Fitting Residuals Melanoma = ± Mole = ± % Confidence

101 Curve Histogram Conjecture Two sufficiently regular plane curves C and C have identical global distance histogram functions, so H C (r) =H C(r) for all r 0, if and only if they are rigidly equivalent: C C.

102 Possible Proof Strategies Show that any polygon obtained from (densely) discretizing a curve does not lie in the Boutin Kemper exceptional set. Polygons with obtuse angles: taking r small, one can recover (i) the set of angles and (ii) the shortest side length from H C (r). Further increasing r leads to further geometric information about the polygon... Expand H C (r) inataylorseriesatr =0andshowthatthe corresponding integral invariants characterize the curve.

103 Taylor Expansions Local distance histogram function: Lh C (r, z) =2r κ2 r 3 + ( 1 40 κκ ss κ2 s κ4 ) r 5 +. Global distance histogram function: H C (r) = 2r L + r3 12L 2 C κ2 ds + r5 40L 2 C ( 3 8 κ4 1 9 κ2 s ) ds +.

104 Saddle curve: Space Curves z(t) =(cost, sin t, cos 2t), 0 t 2π. Convergence of global curve distance histogram function:

105 Surfaces Local and global surface distance histogram functions: h S (r, z) = area (S B r (z)) area (S) Convergence for sphere:, H S (r) = 1 area (S) h S (r, z) ds. S

106 Area Histograms Rewrite global curve distance histogram function: H C (r) = 1 L h C (r, z(s)) ds = 1 C L 2 χ r C C (d(z(s),z(s )) ds ds { 1, t r, where χ r (t) = 0, t > r, Global curve area histogram function: A C (r) = 1 L 3 χ r (area C C C (z(ŝ),z(ŝ ),z(ŝ )) dŝdŝ dŝ, dŝ equi-affine arc length element L = Discrete cumulative area histogram 1 A P (r) = n(n 1)(n 2) z z z P χ r (area (z,z,z )), Boutin & Kemper: Theareahistogramuniquelydetermines generic point sets P R 2 up to equi-affine motion. C dŝ

107 Area Histogram for Circle Joint invariant histograms convergence???

108 Triangle Distance Histograms Z =(...z i...) M sample points on a subset M R n (curve, surface, etc.) T i,j,k triangle with vertices z i,z j,z k. Side lengths: σ(t i,j,k )=(d(z i,z j ),d(z i,z k ),d(z j,z k )) Discrete triangle histogram: Triangle inequality cone: S = σ(t ) K K = { (x, y, z) x, y, z 0, x+ y z, x + z y, y + z x } R 3.

109 Triangle Histogram Distributions Circle Triangle Square Convergence to measures... = Madeleine Kotzagiannidis

110 Practical Object Recognition Scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT) (Lowe) Shape contexts (Belongie Malik Puzicha) Integral invariants (Krim, Kogan, Yezzi, Pottman,...) Shape distributions (Osada Funkhouser Chazelle Dobkin) Surfaces: distances, angles, areas, volumes, etc. Gromov Hausdorff and Gromov-Wasserstein distances (Mémoli) = lower bounds & stability

111 References Brinkman, D., and Olver, P.J., Invariant histograms, Amer. Math. Monthly 119 (2012), Calabi, E., Olver, P.J., Shakiban, C., Tannenbaum, A., and Haker, S., Differential and numerically invariant signature curves applied to object recognition, Int. J. Computer Vision 26 (1998), Hoff, D., and Olver, P.J., Extensions of invariant signatures forobjectrecognition,j. Math. Imaging Vision 45 (2013), Hoff, D., and Olver, P.J., Automatic solution of jigsaw puzzles, J. Math. Imaging Vision, toappear. Kim, P., Invariantization of numerical schemes using moving frames,bit 47 (2007), Musso, E., and Nicolodi, L., Invariant signature of closed planar curves, J. Math. Imaging Vision 35 (2009), Olver, P.J., Joint invariant signatures, Found. Comput. Math. 1 (2001), Shakiban, C., and Stangl, J., Cumulative distance histogram andtheirapplicationto the identification of melanoma, in: Proceedings, Hawaii University International Conference on Math & Engineering Technology,