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1 Journal of Hydrology (2007) xxx, xxx xxx available at journal homepage: 2 Reduced raindrop-impact driven soil erosion 3 by infiltration 4 Jeffrey D. Walker a, M.Todd Walter a, *, Jean-Yves Parlange a, 5 Calvin W. Rose b, H.J. Tromp-van Meerveld c, Bin Gao a, Aliza M. Cohen a a Department of Biological and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, United States b Faculty of Environmental Science, Griffith University, Nathan, Qld 4111, Australia c Simon Fraser University, Department of Geography, Burnaby, BC, Canada V5A-1S6 Received 1 November 2006; received in revised form 15 May 2007; accepted 4 June 2007 KEYWORDS Sediment transport; Infiltration; Shield formation; soil erosion; Rainfall impact; Deposition 12 Introduction 13 After more than a half-century of intense study, water-in- 14 duced soil erosion mechanisms continue to stir controversy. 15 It is widely recognized that upland erosion is largely initiated 16 by the impact of raindrops on the soil surface (e.g., Kinnell, Morgan, 1995), a process that has been recently investi- Summary We used a simple laboratory experiment to investigate whether infiltration influences raindrop-impact induced soil erosion. There was substantially less erosion under infiltration conditions than with no infiltration. This was because a shield layer of deposited particles developed more rapidly under infiltration compared to no-infiltration conditions. Interestingly, the shield depth that fully protected the underlying soil from raindrop-impacts was shallower under infiltrating conditions. We found that the Rose soil erosion model captured the erosion dynamics well (R 2 0.9). Predicting the full-shield depth remains unresolved. These results add evidence to previous studies indicating that saturated, slowly draining areas in the landscape are particularly susceptible to soil erosion from raindrop impact. ª 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. gated using some simple, small-scale experiments that allow researchers to isolate the role of raindrop impact from overland flow (e.g., Heilig et al., 2001; Gao et al., 2003; Gao et al., 2005). These studies have also corroborated various aspects of the Rose model, a mechanistic model of soil erosion on a hillslope (e.g., Rose and Dalal, 1988; Hairsine and Rose, 1991; Rose et al., 1994; Hairsine et al., 1999), adding to findings from other researchers that used more complicated, and realistic, experiments (e.g., Proffitt et al., 1991; Sander et al., 1996; Rose et al., 1998; Parlange et al., 1999). The objectives of this short study were to see if infiltration influences soil erosion due to raindrop- * Corresponding author. Tel.: ; fax: address: mtw5@cornell.edu (M. Walter) /$ - see front matter ª 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
2 2 J.D. Walker et al. 30 impact and to test the Rose model s ability to correctly cap- 31 ture these influences. It is traditionally recognized that re- 32 duced infiltration may lead to increased surface runoff, 33 which can be extremely erosive (e.g., Meeuwig, 1970; Brad- 34 ford et al., 1987; Shakesby et al., 2000; Nord and Esteves, ). Interaction between infiltration and raindrop-impact 36 driven erosion in the absence of runoff shear forces has not 37 been directly studied. There is good evidence that reduced 38 infiltration will increase raindrop-impact erosion, but it is of- 39 ten difficult to see the effects of raindrop impact in the ab- 40 sence of other processes (e.g., Torri et al., 1999) or specific 41 soil properties like hydrophobicity (e.g., Terry and Shakesby, ) and surface sealing (e.g., Bradford et al., 1987). 43 Therefore, in this study we have chosen to use a simple soil 44 structure in order to isolate the interactions between infil- 45 tration and raindrop-impact erosion. 46 Brief review of the Rose model (Hairsine and Rose, ) for raindrop-impact erosion 48 We characterize soil as being composed of I particle classes 49 of equal mass and differentiated by settling velocity. The 50 mass balance for particle class i is: oðdc i Þ þ oðqc iþ ¼ e i r i d i ot ox ð2þ 54 where D is the depth of surface flow (l), c i is the suspended sed- 55 iment concentration of class size iin the overland flow (Ml 3 ), 56 q is the volumetric water flux per unit width of slope (l 2 T 1 ), 57 and e i, r i,andd i are the rates of ejection of original soil, re- 58 ejection of deposited material, and deposition, respectively. 59 One unique aspect of the Rose model is the development 60 of a shield layer composed of deposited particles. As the 61 shield layer develops, the underlying soil is increasingly pro- 62 tected from erosion by raindrops. The ejection or erosion 63 rate, e, is therefore described as: 64 e ¼ ap ð1 HÞ 66 I 67 where p is the rain rate (lt 1 ), a is the soil detachability 68 (Ml 3 ], and H is the shielding parameter, i.e., H = 0 indi- 69 cates no shield formation and H = 1 indicates complete 70 shielding and no additional erosion of the underlying mate rial, and can be estimated as: 74 H ¼ M d 75 where M d is the accumulated mass of deposited material 76 and is the mass of material needed to completely shield 77 the soil. 78 We typically assume, in the absence of infiltration, that 79 suspended particles will settle out of the surface runoff 80 according to Stoke s law, so that the d i is dependent on 81 the particle class s size and weight. In the presence of infil- 82 tration, the downward flux of the infiltrating water will also 83 contribute to the settling rate and we assume the deposition 84 rate of particles that would normally remain suspended will 85 be equal to the rate of infiltrating water. ð1þ ð3þ the erosion shield to measure its final mass, M. As a check, pre-saturated soil was placed in a small plexiglass cylinder 89 (diameter = 7.5 cm). Four small holes in the cylinder s walls 90 maintained a constant ponding depth and a hole in the bot- 91 tom of the cylinder allowed water to drain from the soil. To 92 facilitate drainage, the soil rested on a porous plate (0.5 cm 93 thick, pour sizes of lm) below which the column was 94 filled with glass beads (diameter of 4 mm) and a second por- 95 ous plate to keep the beads from falling out of the chamber 96 (Fig. 1); free drainage from our column was cm 97 min 1. The bead-layer and porous plate were saturated 98 prior to adding the soil. The soil was a homogeneous mixture 99 of 90% black sand ( lm) and 10% white clay (hydrous 100 Kaolin supplied by Englehard Corp., NJ), by mass (i.e., 101 I = 10), pre-saturated at a ratio of 3 g soil to 1 g water. As 102 noted earlier, this simple soil largely removes many compli- 103 cating processes that would be present in a natural soil and, 104 because the sand and clay are contrasting colors, we can 105 easily see the shield layer (e.g., see photographs in Hei- 106 lig et al., 2001). The soil column was placed 3 m below a 107 computer-controlled rain maker at the soil and water labo- 108 ratory in Cornell University s Biological and Environmental 109 Engineering Department. The rain intensity was constant 110 for all experiments (0.115 cm min 1 ); measured once for 111 each experiment. An initial 0.6 cm ponding depth was at- 112 tained by placing a piece of wetted filter paper directly 113 on the soil surface while water was slowly added. The filter 114 paper minimized disturbance to the soil surface and was 115 carefully removed once the ponding depth was achieved. 116 Samples of the ponded water were taken every 15 s over 117 the first 10 min of each experiment; samples were taken 118 using a pipette, which was inserted into one of the overflow 119 holes and the sample size was < < 1% of the total volume of 120 ponded water. Each experiment was videotaped and run un- 121 til the ponded water became completely clear indicating 122 complete formation of the shield. The video was used to 123 confirm that we had steady conditions throughout each 124 experiment, e.g., check to see if the depth of ponded water 125 changed substantially. We ran experiments under no-infil- 126 tration and free-drainage conditions and each was dupli- 127 cated. We measured clay concentrations with a 128 spectrophotometer (wavelength = 590 nm). At the end of 129 each experiment we carefully removed, dried, and weighed d we also back-calculated as nine times the total mass of Methods 87 Our experimental apparatus was essentially the same as Gao 88 et al. (2003); Gao et al. (2004); Gao et al. (2005). Briefly, Figure 1 Schematic of the experimental soil chamber.
3 Reduced raindrop-impact driven soil erosion by infiltration clay that was eroded. We observed no sediment on the 134 splash guard at the end of the experiments; thus, all sedi- 135 ment either left the chamber with the overland flow or re- 136 mained in the soil column. 137 Following Heilig et al. (2001); Gao et al. (2003); Gao 138 et al. (2005), we assumed that the sand particles settle 139 instantaneously and the clay, in the absence of infiltration, 140 has a settling velocity of zero; henceforth we are modeling 141 for the clay unless otherwise noted. Overland flow export of 142 clay is qæc and the overland flow, q, from the system is 143 constant: q ¼ p f ð4þ 147 where f is the constant infiltration rate and p is the rain 148 rate. The deposition rate of the clay is assumed to be pro- 149 portional to the infiltration rate d ¼ f c ð5þ 153 Knowing the sand:clay ratio in our original soil (9:1), the 154 rate of sand accumulation in the shield can be calculated 155 by substituting Eq. (3) into Eq. (2) and multiplying Eq. (2) 156 by 9, i.e., dm d /dt =9e: dm d dt ¼ ap 9 I 1 M d 160 Our experiment is designed to have a small infiltration rate 161 relative to rain intensity, thus, the rate of clay deposition 162 into the shield is negligible compared to the potential for 163 rain to re-entrain the deposited clay. Thus, we assume that 164 the shield is essentially completely composed of sand and 165 can we can rewrite Eq. (3) by solving Eq. (6) for M d : H ¼ 1 exp ap 9 I t 169 Because D is constant in our experiments, Eq. (1) can be 170 simplified by substituting Eqs. (2), (4), and (5) for e, q, 171 and d, respectively, and Eq. (7) for H: 173 dc dt ¼ 1 D ap I exp ap t ðq þ fþc I 174 Note that q + f in Eq. (6) can be replaced by p (Eq. 175 (4)), which is the same form of the model used by Heilig 176 et al. (2001); Gao et al. (2005), who have previously shown 177 that the solution is: 179 cðtþ ¼ a 10 ad 180 Results and discussion exp p D t 1 exp D a 10M pt 1 d 181 The general behavior of suspended clay concentrations over 182 time are similar to previous results (Heilig et al., 2001; Gao 183 et al., 2005), with a rapid increase in concentration which 184 slows and then dilutes as the shield develops and clay flows 185 from the chamber (Fig. 2). However, with infiltration, this 186 progression is substantially faster (Fig. 2). It is remarkable 187 how large an effect infiltration had on erosion rates given 188 that the infiltration rate (free drainage) was so small. We 189 ran one experiment at a 20% higher infiltration rate (Table 190 1) by putting a small amount of suction on the bottom of the ð6þ ð7þ ð8þ ð9þ Concentration (g/l) the best-fit soil detachability, a, varied from 1150 mg cm 3 column with a peristaltic pump and observed an associated 191 additional decrease in soil erosion (Fig. 2). 192 Interestingly, and perhaps counter-intuitively, the shield 193 depth at the end of the infiltration experiments 194 (0.4 ± 0.1 cm) was much shallower than with no infiltration 195 (0.8 ± 0.1) cm) and was considerably smaller for infil- 196 tration (Table 1). The shield was even smaller for our higher 197 infiltration experiment, although we cannot draw any strong 198 conclusions based on a single experimental run. One possi- 199 ble explanation for this is that the density of the shallow, 200 infiltration-induced shield (i.e., /shield depth) was % higher than for the free-draining, infiltration case 202 than in the no infiltration case and, thus, may have been 203 more resistant to raindrop impact. Another speculative 204 explanation might be that some drop energy was absorbed 205 as water moved into the soil under infiltration, thus, less en- 206 ergy was transferred to soil ejection. 207 We applied the Rose model (Eq. (7)) to our experiments 208 and were able to achieve good corroboration with our 209 experimental data (Fig. 2; Table 1). Although we found that with infiltration to 800 mg cm 3 for no infiltration, our re- 212 sults were not very sensitive within this range and we found 213 that the model using a = 800 mg cm 3 agreed with the data 214 nearly as well as the best-fit a values (Fig. 2 uses 215 a = 800 mg cm 3 for all experiments). 216 Of course this simple study was designed to isolate the 217 role of infiltration on raindrop-impact driven erosion. Natu- 218 ral soils contain components like organic matter, calcium 219 carbonates, and various oxides that will undoubtedly play 220 important and possibly complex roles in raindrop-impact 221 erosion. However, our results suggest that inasmuch as 222 these characteristics influence infiltration, they will play 223 an associated role in erosion as shown here. Indeed, there 224 are many other factors that will contribute to raindrop-im- 225 pact erosion and, although many require attention (e.g., 226 surface sealing), some have already been investigated, 227 e.g., the effect of ponded water in absorbing raindrop-im- 228 pacts (e.g., Gao et al., 2003) and how rain intensity influ No Infiltration Infiltration (free drainage) time (min) Figure 2 Experimental clay concentrations (symbols) and the associated Rose model results (lines); circles = no infiltration, triangles = infiltration with free drainage, diamonds = increased infiltration (one replicate only). The filled and open symbols are for replicate experiments.
4 4 J.D. Walker et al. Table 1 Parameter values and R 2 statistic for the experiments, except for the Fast infiltration experiment, values are averages from duplicate runs and in all cases variability was below the significant digits shown f (cm/min) D (cm) a a (mg/cm 3 ) M 1 (mg/cm2 ) R 2 No infiltration /0.99 Infiltration (free drainage) /0.99 Fast infiltration b a Although we found unique best-fit a values of 800, 1150, and 1050 mg cm 3 for no infiltration, infiltration (free drainage), and fast infiltration, respectively, a = 800 mg cm 3 worked nearly as well for all experiments. b Attempts to increase infiltration beyond free drainage resulted in an unstable system, note the slightly higher D, and we were only able to complete one marginally acceptable experiment. 230 ences raindrop-impact erosion (e.g., Heilig et al., 2001). By 231 understanding the roles of individual processes in isolation, 232 we can start to develop better hypotheses about how these 233 processes may interact. 234 Conclusions 235 Using a simple soil erosion experiment, we found that infil- 236 tration profoundly reduces soil erosion from raindrop-im- 237 pact. It had been widely recognized that low infiltration 238 rates can lead to high erosion rates due to increased surface 239 runoff, but these results indicate that soil erosion may in- 240 crease even in areas where there is not substantial overland 241 flow. The Rose model captures the behavior, although fur- 242 ther work is needed to develop predictive models of shield- 243 ing behavior. Although the simple soil composition used 244 here helped isolate the specific role that infiltration plays, 245 additional experimentation is needed to see how significant 246 the role of infiltration is in the context of natural soils more 247 complex composition. Based on our findings, we speculate 248 that soil (or landscape) characteristics that promote infiltra- 249 tion will probably reduce susceptibility to raindrop-impact 250 erosion. 251 Acknowledgements 252 The authors note that Aliza Cohen s leaky experimental 253 apparatus lead us to the hypothesis for this study. the 254 authors also acknowledge Laura Agnew and Rickia Malcolm 255 who investigated some dead ends along the way. This 256 work was partially supported by Grants from the National 257 Science Foundation (NSF REU/EEC ), the Cornell 258 University Agricultural Experiment Station (Hatch, Federal 259 Formula Funds), and the Cornell undergraduate Learning Ini- 260 tiatives for Engineers (LIFE) program. 261 References 262 Bradford, J.M., Ferris, J.E., Remley, P.A., Interrill soil- 263 erosion processes 1. Eftect of surface sealing on infiltration, 264 runoff, and soil splash detachment. Soil Science Society of 265 America Journal 51 (6), Gao, B., Walter, M.T., Steenhuis, T.S., Parlange, J.-Y., Nakano, K., 267 Rose, C.W., Hogarth, W.L., Investigating ponding depth 268 and soil detachability for a mechanistic erosion model using a 269 simple experiment. Journal of Hydrology 277, Gao, B., Walter, M.T., Steenhuis, T.S., Hogarth, W.L., Parlange, J.- Y., Rainfall induced chemical transport from soil to runoff: Theory and experiments. Journal of Hydrology 295 (1-4), Gao, B., Walter, M.T., Steenhuis, T.S., Parlange, J.-Y., Richards, B.K., Hogarth, W.L., Rose, C.W., Sander, G., Investigating raindrop effects on the transport of sediment and non-sorbed chemicals from soil to surface runoff. Journal of Hydrology 308, Hairsine, P.B., Rose, C.W., Rainfall detachment and deposition: sediment transport in the absence of flow-driven processes. Soil Science Society of America Journal 55, Hairsine, P.B., Sander, G.C., Rose, C.W., Parlange, J.-Y., Hogarth, W.L., Lisle, I.G., Rouhipour, H., Unsteady soil erosion due to rainfall impact: A model of sediment sorting on the hillslope. Journal of Hydrology 220, Heilig, A., DeBruyn, D., Walter, M.T., Rose, C.W., Parlange, J.-Y., Sander, G.C., Hairsine, P.B., Hogarth, W.L., Walker, L.P., Steenhuis, T.S., Testing a mechanistic soil erosion model with a simple experiment. Journal of Hydrology 244, Kinnell, P.I.A., Laboratory studies on the effect of drop size on splash erosion. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 27, Meeuwig, R.O., Infiltration and soil erosion as influenced by vegetation and soil in northern Utah. Journal of Range Management 23 (3), Morgan, R.P.C., Soil Erosion and Conservation, second ed. Addison Wesley Longman Group Unlimited, London, UK. Nord, G., Esteves, M., PSEM_2D: A physically based model of erosion processes at the plot scale. 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AGU Pub, pp Sander, G.C., Hairsine, P.B., Rose, C.W., Cassidy, D., Parlange, J.- Y., Hogarth, W.L., Lisle, I.G., Unsteady soil erosion
5 Reduced raindrop-impact driven soil erosion by infiltration model, analytical solutions and comparison with experimental 323 results. Journal of Hydrology 178, Shakesby, R.A., Doerr, S.H., Walsh, R.P.D., The ero- 325 sional impact of soil hydrophobicity: Current problems and 326 future research directions. Journal of Hydrology , Terry, J.P., Shakesby, R.A., Soil hydrophobicity effects on rainsplash: Simulated rainfall and photographic evidence. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 18, Torri, D., Regues, D., Pellegrini, S., Bazzoffi, P., Within-storm soil surface dynamics and erosive effects of rainstorms CATENA 38 (2),
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