A seismological overview of long-period ground motion

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1 J Seismol (2008) 12: DOI /s ORIGINAL ARTICLE A seismological overview of long-period ground motion Kazuki Koketsu & Hiroe Miyake Received: 12 May 2007 / Accepted: 29 November 2007 / Published online: 11 January 2008 # Springer Science + Business Media B.V Abstract Long-period ground motion has become an increasingly important consideration because of the recent rapid increase in the number of large-scale structures, such as high-rise buildings and oil storage tanks. Large subduction-zone earthquakes and moderate to large crustal earthquakes can generate far-source long-period ground motions in distant sedimentary basins with the help of path effects. Near-fault longperiod ground motions are generated, for the most part, by the source effects of forward rupture directivity. Farsource long-period ground motions consist primarily of surface waves with longer durations than near-fault long-period ground motions. They were first recognized in the seismograms of the 1968 Tokachi-oki and 1966 Parkfield earthquakes, and their identification has been applied to the 1964 Niigata earthquake and earlier earthquakes. Even if there is no seismogram, we can identify far-source long-period ground motions through the investigation of tank damage by liquid sloshing. Keywords Far-source long-period ground motion. Near-fault long-period ground motion. Source effect. Path effect. Site effect. Liquid sloshing K. Koketsu (*) : H. Miyake Earthquake Research Institute, University of Tokyo, Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo , Japan koketsu@eri.u-tokyo.ac.jp 1 Introduction The long-period component of seismic ground motion generated by earthquakes causes damage in near-fault regions through source effects such as the directivity effect of rupture propagation and the near-field term of body wave radiation. In addition, the long-period ground motions attenuate slowly with distance because of certain path effects, and site effects amplify these motions in distant basins so that they can cause destruction over a much greater range. Previously, most structures in earthquake-prone regions were low-profile structures, and so relatively short-period (1 s or shorter) ground motions, with which these structures might be resonant, were important. However, considering the increasing number of large structures, such as high-rise buildings, oil storage tanks, suspension bridges, off-shore oil drilling platforms, and recent base-isolated structures, long-period (1 to 10 s or longer) ground motions have been increasingly important (e.g., Kanamori 1979; Fukuwa 2008). The worst example of destruction caused by longperiod ground motion occurred in Mexico City, 400 km from the 1985 Michoacan earthquake (M W = 8.0; e.g., Beck and Hall 1986). Another example is the 2003 Tokachi-oki earthquake (M W =8.3) that occurred in Hokkaido, Japan (e.g., Koketsu et al. 2005). In the present study, we will review this long-period ground motion from a seismological point of view.

2 134 J Seismol (2008) 12: Nature of long-period ground motion The examples listed in the previous section indicate the existence of far-source long-period ground motion. Far-source long-period ground motion was identified, for the first time in Japan, in seismograms of the 1968 Tokachi-oki earthquake (M W =8.2) observed with large amplitudes and a predominant period of 2.5 s at Hachinohe, northeastern Japan. They were also observed by strong motion seismographs installed in the first super high-rise building in Japan. The Kasumigaseki building was located in Tokyo, 650 km from the earthquake source (Shima 1970). Trifunac and Brune (1970) observed longperiod ground motion in distant seismograms of the 1940 Imperial Valley earthquake (M S =7.1) in California. Both the Japanese and Californian authors attributed these far-source long-period ground motions to regional surface waves. On the other hand, Aki (1968) discovered nearfault long-period ground motion in strong motion accelerograms observed very close to the 1966 Parkfield earthquake (M W =6.1) in California. This shortduration ground motion was interpreted as resulting from propagating fault rupture. Hanks (1975) recovered 234 components of long-period ground motion in the source region of the 1971 San Fernando earthquake (M W =6.6), and the neighboring Los Angeles basin in California. He coined the term long-period strong ground motion in this paper (Zama 1993). The upper panels of Fig. 1 compare the typical velocity seismograms of far-source (left) and nearfault (right) long-period ground motions. The most obvious difference is the duration of ground motion. The far-source long-period ground motions continue for 1 min or longer, whereas the near-fault longperiod ground motions last only for 10 to 20 s. Accordingly, the far-source long-period ground motions have velocity response spectra that are comparable to those of the near-fault long-period ground motions despite their smaller amplitudes. We will describe these two types of long-period ground motion using actual seismograms. Seismic ground motion can be considered to be composed of source, path, and site effects, as mentioned earlier. As regional surface waves are significant beyond tens of kilometers, we will explain the far-source long-period Fig. 1 Examples of far-source long-period ground motions at epicentral distances of 400, 250, and 50 km (upper left) and near-fault long-period ground motions at fault distances of 1, 5, and 1 km (upper right). Their velocity response spectra are also shown in the lower half of the panels

3 J Seismol (2008) 12: ground motion based primarily on the effect of paths and sites and their velocity structures. The near-fault long-period ground motion will be explained based primarily on the source effect, some site effects, and local velocity structures because near-fault longperiod ground motion is significant at distances less than 50 km (Somerville et al. 1997). However, even when there is no seismographic evidence, the generation of far-source long-period ground motion can be identified based on damage to large tanks. This damage is caused primarily by sloshing of the liquid inside the tanks. Because the excitation of liquid sloshing appears to require longduration seismic ground motion, it can be linked to far-source long-period ground motion. Ohta and Zama (2005) documented 14 cases of tank damage because of liquid sloshing (Table 1). Among these cases, there are four obvious exceptions, namely, the 1923 Kanto earthquake, the 1979 Imperial Valley earthquake, 1983 Coalinga earthquake, and the 1999 Kocaeli earthquake (M W =7.9, 6.5, 6.2, and 7.6, respectively). In these cases, the damaged oil tanks were located in the source regions of these earthquakes. The near-fault ground motion observed near the tank damaged by the 1999 Kocaeli earthquake, which is the middle trace of the right-hand panel in Fig. 1, shows considerable later phases, which resulted in motion of longer duration compared to the other traces. This may be because of the long causative fault and site effect, and may have caused the exceptional tank damage. The 1983 Coalinga earthquake shows motion of a similar duration (Manos and Clough 1985), but this earthquake was of moderate magnitude, so its duration was due primarily to site effects. 3 Far-source long-period ground motion The potential impact of far-source long-period ground motion was first recognized worldwide in The Michoacan earthquake may have caused as many as 20,000 fatalities (Beck and Hall 1986), although the official estimate of human fatalities was 8,000. In Mexico City, at a distance of 400 km from the earthquake, approximately 300 buildings collapsed, and 800 buildings were later demolished because they were beyond repair (Celebi et al. 1987). The waveguide produced by the subduction of the Cocos plate lengthened the duration of ground motion (Furumura and Kennett 1998). Its long-period component with a period of 2 to 4 s was then amplified and further lengthened by the sediments of an ancient lake that once existed under Mexico City (Beck and Hall 1986). These path and site effects resulted in far-source long-period ground motions with large amplitudes and long duration, as shown in Fig. 2. As partially destroyed buildings having 6 to 15 stories resonate with the predominant periods of 2 to 4 s, many of Table 1 List of tank damage by liquid sloshing (Ohta and Zama 2005) Earthquake Year M W Damage Far-source? Reference Kanto a 6,000 t oil tank No Hirano (1982) Long Beach Water tank Yes? Steinbrugge (1970) Kern County Oil tanks Yes? Steinbrugge and Moran (1954) Alaska Many oil tanks, fires Yes Rinne (1967) Niigata b Many oil tanks, fires Yes FDMA (1965) Central Chile c Oil tanks Yes Shibata (1974) San Fernando Oil tank Yes Shibata (1971) Miyagi-oki d Oil tanks Short period FDMA (1979) Imperial Valley Oil tank No Horoun (1983) Coalinga Many oil tanks No Manos and Clough (1985) Japan Sea e Many oil tanks, fire Yes Yoshiwara et al. (1984) Kocaeli Many oil tanks, fires No JSCE (2000) Chi-Chi Oil tanks Yes Yoshida et al. (2000) Tokachi-oki Many oil tanks, fires Yes Ohta and Zama (2005) The moment magnitudes were retrieved from the USGS earthquake database except for a Wald and Somerville (1995), b Ruff and Kanamori (1983), c M S, d Seno et al. (1980), and e Dziewonski et al. (1983).

4 136 J Seismol (2008) 12: Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of accelerograms observed along the propagation path from the epicentral station at Caleta de Campos to Mexico City (Celebi et al. 1987; reprinted with permission from Earthquake Engineering Research Institute) these buildings eventually collapsed or were severely damaged (Beck and Hall 1986). The velocity structures along the propagation path and in the Mexico City valley controlled these damaging features of the far-source long-period ground motion (Furumura and Kennett 1998; Shapiro et al. 2002; Kawase and Aki 1989). Before the 1985 Michoacan earthquake, however, as mentioned earlier, Japanese seismologists observed far-source long-period ground motion during the 1968 Tokachi-oki earthquake (Fig. 3). This motion did not cause any significant damage, but the 1983 Japan Sea earthquake (M W =7.7) generated damaging longperiod ground motions, causing large fluid sloshing, Fig. 3 Strong motion records of the 1968 Tokachi-oki earthquake at Hachinohe 180 km from the epicenter. Dashed lines represent horizontal long-period components (Sakajiri et al. 1974) which damaged many oil storage tanks at Akita and Niigata, northeastern Japan (Fig. 4). In Akita, a damaged storage tank caught fire, and Niigata is located 300 km away from the earthquake. This far-source ground motion reminded seismologists of long-period ground motions caused by the 1964 Niigata earthquake (M S =7.4), which had been considered to result from local liquefaction. At Kawagishi-cho in Niigata, several apartment buildings were toppled or tilted by the liquefaction, and the strong motion records observed there show longperiod features (Fig. 5). The effect of liquefaction appears only during the initial 13 s of short-period ground motion (Fig. 6) but was also blamed for the later long-period ground motion. The seismograms shown in Fig. 5 are currently considered to be the first observation of far-source long-period ground motion in Japan (Kudo et al. 2000). Kawagishi-cho is not far from the source region of the 1964 Niigata earthquake, but we specify the long-period ground motions as in this category, as they mostly consist of surface waves. Liquid sloshing by them and the associated liquefaction caused severe damage to large oil storage tanks, five of which caught fire and burned for 2 weeks. As verified by the 1964 Niigata and 1983 Japan Sea earthquakes, the Niigata basin efficiently excites far-source long-period ground motion. A further example was provided by the 1993 Hokkaido Nanseioki earthquake (M W =7.7). The far-source long-period ground motion reached this basin at a distance of 500 km from the earthquake epicenter (Fig. 7), causing

5 J Seismol (2008) 12: Fig. 4 Acceleration (upper) and velocity (lower) seismograms of far-source longperiod ground motion at a distance of 300 km from the 1983 Japan Sea earthquake (Kudo and Sakaue 1984) liquid sloshing of oil storage tanks. A maximum sloshing height of 1.7 m was recorded and oil scattering was observed on the floating roofs of four of the tanks. The 2003 Tokachi-oki earthquake provided the southern coast of Hokkaido, Japan, with one of the most significant examples (Koketsu et al. 2005; Hatayama 2008) of far-source long-period ground motion. This largest earthquake in the world in 2003 occurred in the southeast of Hokkaido along the Kuril trench, although the 1968 Tokachi-oki earthquake mentioned earlier occurred near the junction of the Japan and Kuril trenches. The city of Tomakomai in Hokkaido suffered serious damage to large oil tanks from long-period ground motions generated by the earthquake more than 250 km away offshore. A very important contribution to this far-source long-period ground motion comes from surface waves stimulated in a basin, either directly or by conversion at the margins, which lead to large amplitudes and long durations of shaking (Fig. 8). The direct and converted surface waves also imply the importance of velocity structures both along the propagation path and within the basin, respectively. Fluid sloshing in damaged oil storage tanks occurred with a period similar to that of the dominant ground motion (7 to 8 s), producing displacements of a few meters and a long fluid oscillation that contributed to the destruction of floating roofs and fire in two tanks. The latest offshore example is the 2004 off Kii Peninsula earthquake (M W =7.4), which occurred in a shallow part of the subducting Philippine Sea plate, southwestern Japan. This also demonstrates that a large earthquake associated with an effective propagation path can generate damaging long-period ground motions in a distant sedimentary basin Fig. 5 Acceleration (top), velocity (middle), and displacement (bottom) seismograms of the 1964 Niigata earthquake observed at the basement of a damaged apartment house in the Niigata basin 50 km from the epicenter (Kudo et al. 2000)

6 138 J Seismol (2008) 12: Fig. 6 Close-up of the early 13 s of N S (top), E W (middle), and vertical (bottom) components of the acceleration observed at the basement of the damaged apartment house. Dashed lines represent the components at the roof of the apartment house (Kudo et al. 2000) (Fig. 9). Yamada and Iwata (2005) demonstrated that a low-velocity accretionary prism in this subduction zone worked as a waveguide for seismic energy transfer. Shapiro et al. (2000) pointed out this path effect for the Mexican subduction zone. In addition, site conditions of a sedimentary basin also affect far-source long-period ground motions (Miyake and Koketsu 2005). This can be confirmed by the distributions of pseudo-velocity response spectra observed during the earthquake. The velocity structure in the Kanto basin under Tokyo developed ground motions at periods of 7 to 10 s. As the Osaka and Nobi basins under Osaka and Nagoya have thinner sediments and a smaller extent, the peak responses appear at shorter periods (Kawabe and Kamae 2008; Iwaki and Iwata 2008). Mamula et al. (1984) investigated these types of site conditions in sedimentary basins all over Japan, using ground motions from the 1961 Kita Mino earthquake (M=7.0). Fig. 8 Sections of NS velocity seismograms of the 2003 Tokachi-oki earthquake observed at the stations along the southern coast of Hokkaido (Koketsu et al. 2005) An inland crustal earthquake called the 1999 Hector Mine earthquake (M W =7.1) generated farsource long-period ground motions in the San Bernardino basin 100 km from the earthquake (Fig. 10). Graves and Wald (2004) attributed the main characteristics of these motions, such as amplification and surface waves, to strong basin response effects. They then developed the 3D velocity structure model in this region by comparing the observed and simulated long-period ground motions. The 1999 Chi- Chi earthquake (M W =7.6) provided further examples Fig. 7 Ground accelerations observed in the Niigata basin 500 km from the 1993 Hokkaido Nansei-oki earthquake (Zama and Inoue 1994) Fig. 9 Section of EW acceleration seismograms observed at stations along a propagation path from the 2004 off Kii Peninsula earthquake to the Kanto basin (Miyake and Koketsu 2005)

7 J Seismol (2008) 12: in the distant Taipei and Ilan basins (Furumura et al. 2002). The 2004 Chuetsu earthquake (M W =6.6) in the central part of Japan also generated far-source longperiod ground motions in a large basin 200 km from the earthquake (Furumura 2005; Furumura and Hayakawa 2007). A main wave train from the earthquake was separated into S and surface waves at the northern margin of the Kanto basin, and the surface wave was developed into far-source longperiod ground motion in propagation toward Tokyo at the center of the basin (Fig. 11). The ground motion damaged an elevator in a new super high-rise building in downtown Tokyo. This secondary surface wave occurring in California was thoroughly investigated by Joyner (2000). 4 Near-fault long-period ground motion Fig. 10 Ground velocities for stations located along a profile from the Hector Mine earthquake at a 154 azimuth. The San Andreas (SAF) and San Jacinto faults indicated by the arrows bound the basin (Graves and Wald 2004; Seismological Society of America) The other type of long-period ground motion is found in the near-field of an earthquake source fault. This near-fault long-period ground motion for an inland crustal earthquake has been widely discussed with the advance of source theory and interpretation. Aki (1968) was one of the earliest examples of the study of near-fault ground motion with the finite-source Fig. 11 Record section of ground velocity motions from the 2004 Chuetsu earthquake toward Tokyo at the center of the Kanto basin (Furumura 2005)

8 140 J Seismol (2008) 12: Fig. 12 Near-fault ground motions at a distance of 80 m from the 1966 Parkfield earthquake (Aki 1968; American Geophysical Union) theory. He recovered the long-period ground motions shown in Fig. 12 from strong motion accelerograms observed at a distance of only 80 m from the source fault of the 1966 Parkfield earthquake. He then compared these long-period ground motions with theoretical ground motions computed for unilaterally propagating fault rupture. This favorable comparison led to the establishment of earthquake source theory. Hanks (1975) proved that strong motion accelerograms could provide sufficiently accurate long-period ground motions for the analysis of earthquake source parameters and velocity structures deterministically. He showed 234 components of near-fault long-period ground motion within the source region of the 1971 San Fernando earthquake and the neighboring Los Angeles basin. These components exhibit some complexities reflecting the details of the earthquake source and ground motion propagation. The rupture directivity pulse is one of the most significant features of near-fault long-period ground motions. The ground motion characteristic of the rupture directivity pulse is well summarized by Somerville (2003; Fig. 13). During the 1992 Landers earthquake (M w =7.2), near-fault long-period ground motion because of rupture directivity effects was clearly observed at Lucerne station. Somerville et al. (1997) pointed out that the forward rupture directivity pulse has a dominant period of 0.6 s or longer, and the velocity response in the fault-normal components is larger than in the fault-parallel component. Recent studies on attenuation relationships tried to incorporate this near-fault rupture directivity effect into the long-period component. Near-fault long-period ground motions for large earthquakes were also observed during the 1999 Kocaeli earthquake and the 1999 Chi-Chi earthquake. The dominant period of these velocity pulses was longer than 3 s. Based on the compilation of long-period pulses, Somerville (2003) found that the dominant period of the rupture directivity pulse can be expressed as a function of earthquake magnitude. The rupture directivity pulse with a period of around 1 s dominates near-fault long-period ground motions for earthquakes of moderate magnitude. The rupture directivity pulses of the 1994 Northridge and 1995 Kobe earthquakes (M W =6.6 and 6.9, respectively) have been examined most thoroughly. The rupture directivity effects from the source and basin edge effects caused severe damage in the San Fernando and Kobe regions. With the help of detailed models of the source processes and velocity structures, deterministic ground motion simulations reproduced the rupture directivity pulses well (e.g., Graves et al. 1998; Furumura and Koketsu 1998; Pitarka et al. 1998; Iwata et al. 1999). The impact of near-fault long-period ground motion on structures has been described by Heaton et al. (1995). Just after the 1994 Northridge earthquake, they focused on near-fault long-period ground motions with dominant periods of 1 s or longer. They examined the responses of high-rise and base-isolated buildings to large displacements and ground velocities because of a hypothetical M W =7.0 blind thrust earthquake. As a result of the very long recurrence time of large crustal earthquakes, deterministic ground motion simulation for earthquake scenarios has been a useful tool for estimating the ground response of a future large earthquake. Olsen et al. (2006, 2008) performed large-scale ground motion simulations (TeraShake) for scenario earthquakes of M=7.7 along the southern San Andreas fault. They simulated the rupture directivity effect and its modification by interactions with a chain of sedimentary basins. Love waves with a dominant period of 4.5 s are channeled into the Los Angeles basin and excite strong far-source long-period ground motions.

9 J Seismol (2008) 12: Fig. 13 Recent observation of rupture directivity pulses. The traces show faultnormal velocity ground motions at fault distances of 4 (Loma Prieta), 1 (Landers), 1 (Kobe), 5 (Kocaeli, Turkey), 7 (Northridge), and 6 km (Chi-Chi, Taiwan) (Somerville 2003; reprinted with permission from Elsevier) Regarding subduction-zone earthquakes, near-fault long-period ground motions from a megathrust earthquake were evaluated for the 1923 Kanto earthquake. Both long-period features of the earthquake source just beneath the Tokyo metropolitan area and ground motion response because of a deep sedimentary basin resulted in a significant level of long-period ground motion, as reported by Sato et al. (1999). As there were no super high-rise buildings or huge oil tanks at the time of the 1923 Kanto earthquake, the damage caused by near-fault longperiod ground motion was small (Table 1; Hirano 1982). However, the above-mentioned report cautions that damaging long-period ground motion caused by a future megathrust earthquake near an urban area is a considerable threat to countries in and around subduction zones. 5 Conclusions and discussion We divided long-period ground motions into farsource and near-fault classes. Most far-source longperiod ground motions were generated by large earthquakes and effective propagation paths, such as accretionary prisms. Therefore, far-source long-period ground motions are generally associated with offshore earthquakes in subduction zones. However, inland crustal earthquakes of moderate size, such as the 1999 Hector Mine earthquake and the 2004 Chuetsu earthquakes, have also generated far-source long-period ground motions in distant basins because of significant basin response effects. In the vicinity of earthquake source faults, near-fault long-period ground motions are generated mainly by rupture directivity effects. Accordingly, they consist primarily

10 142 J Seismol (2008) 12: of rupture directivity pulses, which can be damaging, especially when combined with site effects and/or basin edge effects. Far-source long-period ground motions consist primarily of surface waves excited by these path and site effects, and have longer durations than near-fault long-period ground motions. Far-source and nearfault long-period ground motions were first identified in the records of the 1968 Tokachi-oki and 1966 Parkfield earthquakes, respectively. The Mexico City records of the 1985 Michoacan earthquake lead to farsource long-period ground motions being known around the world, whereas knowledge of near-fault long-period ground motions was dispersed through the records of the 1992 Landers earthquake. Even in the absence of a seismographic record, we can confirm the generation of damaging long-period ground motions based on tank damage because of liquid sloshing. 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