Chapter 2 The Chemistry of Life
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1 Chapter 2 The Chemistry of Life Newt Brand X Pictures/PunchStock RF Copyright McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
2 Atoms Make Up All Matter This dog, the water, and the air are all forms of matter. Section 2.1 Dog: Photodisc/Getty Images RF
3 Atoms Make Up All Matter Matter is any material that takes up space. Section 2.1 Dog: Photodisc/Getty Images RF
4 Atoms Make Up All Matter The matter that makes up every object consists of one or more elements. Section 2.1 Dog: Photodisc/Getty Images RF
5 Atoms Make Up All Matter An element is a substance that cannot be broken down by chemical means into other substances. Section 2.1 Dog: Photodisc/Getty Images RF
6 Bulk vs. Trace Elements Bulk elements are required in the largest amount and make up the bulk of living cells Bulk elements C, H, O, N, P, Na, Mg, K, Ca Trace elements are required but in smaller amounts Trace elements: Fe, Zn, Cr A person w/out essential elements can become sick or die Ex. No Iodine or low Iron
7 Atoms Make Up All Matter The periodic table lists all of the known elements. Section 2.1 Figure 2.1
8 Atoms Make Up All Matter This abbreviated periodic table shows some of the most important elements in life. Section 2.1 Figure 2.1
9 Atoms Make Up All Matter In a complete periodic table (like the one in Appendix D), each box contains four pieces of information: Section 2.1 Figure 2.1
10 Atoms Make Up All Matter (1) The element s full name. Section 2.1 Figure 2.1
11 Atoms Make Up All Matter (2) The element s one-letter symbol, like those in this abbreviated periodic table. Section 2.1 Figure 2.1
12 Atoms Make Up All Matter (3) and (4): The element s atomic number and atomic weight. To understand these, we first need to learn about protons, neutrons, and electrons. Section 2.1 Figure 2.1
13 Atoms Make Up All Matter This is an atom, the smallest piece of an element that retains the characteristics of the element. Section 2.1 Figure 2.2
14 Atoms Make Up All Matter An atom is composed of three smaller particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. Section 2.1 Figure 2.2
15 Atoms Make Up All Matter Protons and neutrons are close together in the nucleus, which is the center of the atom. Section 2.1 Figure 2.2
16 Atoms Make Up All Matter Electrons surround the nucleus. They are very small and move very fast. How can atom made up mostly empty space still feel solid? Section 2.1 Figure 2.2
17 Atoms Make Up All Matter Protons are positively charged, neutrons are neutral, and electrons are negatively charged. Section 2.1 Table 2.1
18 Atoms Make Up All Matter An element s atomic number indicates how many protons are in each atom of that element. Section 2.1 Figure 2.1
19 Atoms Make Up All Matter An atom s mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. The mass number of the atom shown below is 12. Section 2.1 Figure 2.2
20 Atoms Make Up All Matter The number of neutrons may vary among atoms of the same element. An isotope is any of these different forms of an element. Section 2.1 Figure 2.3
21 Atoms Make Up All Matter Each isotope of an element therefore has a different mass number. Carbon isotopes have mass numbers of 12, 13, and 14. Section 2.1 Figure 2.3
22 Atoms Make Up All Matter An element s atomic weight is the average mass of all isotopes of that element. Section 2.1 Figure 2.1
23 Atoms Make Up All Matter Carbon s atomic weight is close to 12, even though some carbon isotopes have an atomic mass of 13 and 14. This low atomic weight means that most carbon isotopes have an atomic mass of 12. Section 2.1 Figure 2.1
24 Quick Check Question #1 The atomic mass of nitrogen is very near 14, indicating that most nitrogen atoms have a mass number of 14. How many neutrons does the average nitrogen atom have? A. 0 B. 7 C. 8 D. 14 E. Not enough information to determine. Flower: Doug Sherman/Geofile/RF
25 Quick Check Question #1 The atomic mass of nitrogen is very near 14, indicating that most nitrogen atoms have a mass number of 14. How many neutrons does the average nitrogen atom have? A. 0 B. 7 C. 8 D. 14 E. Not enough information to determine. Flower: Doug Sherman/Geofile/RF
26 Mastering Concepts 1. Which 4 chemical elements are required in the largest amounts? -C,H,O,N 2. What is the location of p +, n 0, and e -, in an atom? - p +, n 0 inside nucleus; e - in orbitals 3. What does the atomic # indicate? - # of - p + 4. What s the relationship btw mass # and atomic weight? -Mass # total weight of - p +, n 0 also can deduce # of n 0 5. What constitutes an isotope? -same # - p +, but varying # of n 0 Newt Brand X Pictures/PunchStock RF
27 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms Atoms are organized into molecules O H Molecules are 2 or more chemically joined atoms H H O H Each of these water molecules is a composite of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Section 2.2
28 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms Electrons determine bonding. The number and distribution of electrons around an atom determines whether atoms react with one another. Section 2.2 Figure 2.4
29 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms Electrons exist in energy shells of various distances from the atom s nucleus. The shell farthest from the nucleus is important for bonding. Section 2.2 Figure 2.4
30 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms Within each energy shell, electrons are arranged in pairs. Unpaired electrons form bonds with other atoms. Section 2.2 Figure 2.4
31 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms Atoms are most stable when their outer shells have no vacancies. Bonding with other atoms fills the vacancies. Section 2.2 Figure 2.4
32 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms For example, carbon has four vacancies in its outer shell. Hydrogen has one vacancy. Section 2.2 Figure 2.7
33 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms When four hydrogen atoms share their electrons with one carbon atom, all five atoms fill their outer energy shells. Section 2.2 Figure 2.7
34 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms The result is a methane molecule. Notice how the outer shells of the atoms overlap to form this molecule. Section 2.2 Figure 2.7
35 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms When atoms share electrons, as in this methane molecule, covalent bonds are formed. Section 2.2 Figure 2.7
36 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms Some covalent bonds, called double bonds, share four electrons between atoms. Section 2.2 Figure 2.8
37 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms Water forms by a similar process to methane. Water is held together by single covalent bonds. Each bond has two electrons. Section 2.2 Figure 2.7
38 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms In methane, all atoms equally share electrons (nonpolar). In water, the oxygen atom pulls the electrons more strongly than the hydrogen atoms (polar). Section 2.2
39 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms Electronegativity is a measure of an atom s ability to attract electrons. Section 2.2
40 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms Look at a periodic table to determine the relative electronegativity of two elements. Section 2.2 Figure 2.5
41 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms The carbon and hydrogen atoms that make up methane have similar electronegativities. Neither pulls electrons much more strongly than the other. Section 2.2 Figure 2.5
42 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms Methane is therefore held together by nonpolar covalent bonds. Section 2.2 Figure 2.5
43 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms The oxygen and hydrogen atoms of a water molecule have very different electronegativities. Oxygen attracts electrons more strongly than hydrogen. Section 2.2 Figure 2.5
44 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms Since electrons spend more time near oxygen, the oxygen atom has a slightly negative charge. The hydrogen atoms have a slight positive charge. Section 2.2 Figure 2.9
45 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms The charge difference between oxygen and hydrogen in water gives the bonds polarity. A water molecule is held together by polar covalent bonds. Section 2.2 Figure 2.9
46 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms The polarity of water molecules results in another bond type, called the hydrogen bond. Section 2.2 Water McGraw-Hill Education/Jacques Cornell Photographer Figure 2.9
47 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms The slight positive charge on the hydrogen atom of one water molecule attracts the slight negative charge on the oxygen of an adjacent water molecule. The result is a hydrogen bond. Section 2.2 Water McGraw-Hill Education/Jacques Cornell Photographer Figure 2.10
48 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms Hydrogen bonds give water unique properties, and they are important in protein and DNA structure. We will return to these ideas later in the lecture. Section 2.2 Water McGraw-Hill Education/Jacques Cornell Photographer Figure 2.10
49 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms Some atoms have such different electronegativities that one atom completely pulls an electron from the other. Section 2.2 Figure 2.5
50 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms The atom that loses an electron is positively charged; the atom that gains an electron is negatively charged. This charge difference attracts the atoms to each other, forming an ionic bond. Section 2.2 Figure 2.6
51 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms Notice that even in an ionic bond, both atoms achieve full outer energy shells. Section 2.2 Figure 2.6
52 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms In summary, you can use electronegativity to make predictions about bonding. Section 2.2
53 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms Two elements with similar electronegativities will likely form nonpolar covalent bonds. Section 2.2
54 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms Two elements with moderately different electronegativities will likely form polar covalent bonds. Section 2.2
55 Chemical Bonds Link Atoms Two elements with very different electronegativities will likely form ionic bonds. Section 2.2
56 Quick Check Question #2 Nitrogen has three vacancies in its outer electron shell. What type of bond might nitrogen form with hydrogen? How many hydrogen atoms would one nitrogen atom bind? (You might need to reference the electronegativity scale in Fig. 2.6.) A. ionic bond; 1 hydrogen atom B. ionic bond; 3 hydrogen atoms C. covalent bond; 1 hydrogen atom D. covalent bond; 3 hydrogen atoms E. hydrogen bond; 1 hydrogen atom Flower: Doug Sherman/Geofile/RF
57 Quick Check Question #2 Nitrogen has three vacancies in its outer electron shell. What type of bond might nitrogen form with hydrogen? How many hydrogen atoms would one nitrogen atom bind? (You might need to reference the electronegativity scale in Fig. 2.6.) A. ionic bond; 1 hydrogen atom B. ionic bond; 3 hydrogen atoms C. covalent bond; 1 hydrogen atom D. covalent bond; 3 hydrogen atoms E. hydrogen bond; 1 hydrogen atom Flower: Doug Sherman/Geofile/RF
58 2.2 Mastering Concepts What is the relationship between polar covalent bonds and hydrogen bonds? How does the # of valence electrons determine an atom s tendency to form bonds? Explain how electronegativity differences btw atoms result in each type of chemical bond? Newt Brand X Pictures/PunchStock RF
59 Water Has Many Unique Properties The hydrogen bonds that hold water molecules together give water unique properties. Section 2.3
60 Water Has Many Unique Properties Water is cohesive Cohesion is the tendency of water molecules to stick to one another. Section 2.3
61 Water Has Many Unique Properties Water is cohesive Cohesion between molecules on the surface of liquid water give it high surface tension. Section 2.3 Water strider Herman Eisenbeiss/Science Source Figure 2.10
62 Water Has Many Unique Properties Water is adhesive Water molecules also form hydrogen bonds with other molecules, a property called cohesion. Section 2.3 Beach: Getty Images/flickr RF Figure 2.11
63 Water Has Many Unique Properties Water is cohesive and adhesive Together, cohesion and adhesion allow water molecules to climb from a tree s roots to its highest leaves. Section 2.3 Beach: Getty Images/flickr RF Figure 2.11
64 Water Has Many Unique Properties Water is a good solvent Water dissolves hydrophilic ( water-loving ) solutes. - Polar solutes - Ions Section 2.3
65 Water Has Many Unique Properties Water is a good solvent The polarity of water molecules helps water dissolve ions. Section 2.3 Figure 2.12
66 Water Has Many Unique Properties Water is a good solvent The slight negative charge on water attracts positive charges (Na + ). The slight positive charge on water attracts negative charges (Cl - ). Section 2.3 Figure 2.12
67 Water Has Many Unique Properties Water is a good solvent Water does not dissolve hydrophobic ( water-fearing ) solutes. - Nonpolar molecules, such as fats Section 2.3 Butter: D. Hurst/Alamy RF
68 Water Has Many Unique Properties Other characteristics of water Water regulates temperature. - Hydrogen bonds make water resist changes in temperature. - Explains why you can withstand a tremendous range in temperature - Coastal regions have milder temperatures than landlocked regions. - Sweating cools the body. Section 2.3
69 Water Has Many Unique Properties Other characteristics of water Water expands when it freezes. - Ice is less dense than liquid water. - Aquatic life survives the winter. Section 2.3 Figure 2.13
70 Water Has Many Unique Properties Other characteristics of water Water participates in chemical reactions. - Photosynthesis - Respiration Section 2.3
71 Quick Check Question #3 Which property contributes to the high surface tension of water? A. hydrogen bonding B. polar covalent bonds C. cohesion D. Actually all of these are correct Flower: Doug Sherman/Geofile/RF
72 Quick Check Question #3 Which property contributes to the high surface tension of water? A. hydrogen bonding B. polar covalent bonds C. cohesion D. Actually all of these are correct Flower: Doug Sherman/Geofile/RF
73 2.3 Mastering Concepts How are cohesion and adhesion important to life? Differentiate between hydrophilic and hydrophobic molecules. What happens in a chemical reaction? How does water participate in the chemistry of life? Newt Brand X Pictures/PunchStock RF
74 Organisms Balance Acids and Bases The ph scale is based on the amount of H + in a solution. Section 2.4 Figure 2.14
75 Organisms Balance Acids and Bases Acidic solutions have a low ph and a high H + concentration. Section 2.4 Figure 2.14
76 Organisms Balance Acids and Bases Basic solutions have a high ph and a low H + concentration. Bases have more OH - ions than H + ions. Section 2.4 Figure 2.14
77 Organisms Balance Acids and Bases If an organism strays too far from its optimal ph, it could die. Buffer solutions help maintain a constant ph by consuming or releasing H +. Section 2.4 Figure 2.14
78 Quick Check Question #4 Of the following, the most acidic solution is one with a(n): A. H + concentration of B. ph of 12. C. H + concentration of D. higher OH - concentration than H + concentration. E. ph of 3. Flower: Doug Sherman/Geofile/RF
79 Quick Check Question #4 Of the following, the most acidic solution is one with a(n): A. H + concentration of B. ph of 12. C. H + concentration of D. higher OH - concentration than H + concentration. E. ph of 3. Flower: Doug Sherman/Geofile/RF
80 2.4 Mastering Concepts How do acids and bases affect a solution s H + concentration? How do the values 0, 7, 14 relate to ph scale? How do buffer systems regulate the ph of a fluid? Newt Brand X Pictures/PunchStock RF
81 Organic Molecules: Overview H H C H An organic molecule contains both carbon and hydrogen. Methane is a simple organic molecule. H Methane Section 2.5
82 Organic Molecules: Overview H H C H H Many organic molecules are categorized into four main types: - Carbohydrates - Proteins - Nucleic acids - Lipids Methane Section 2.5
83 Organic Molecules: Overview Carbohydrates Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are common in our diets. Proteins Fats Section 2.5 Proteins: Comstock/Jupiter Images RF; Fried Chicken: Burke/Triolo/Brand X Pictures RF
84 Organic Molecules: Overview A monomer is a single unit of a carbohydrate, protein, or nucleic acid. Monomers join to form polymers. Section 2.5 Figure 2.31
85 Organic Molecules: Overview During dehydration synthesis, an enzyme binds two monomers, releasing a water molecule. Section 2.5 Figure 2.16
86 Organic Molecules: Overview Hydrolysis is the reverse reaction of dehydration synthesis; it breaks polymers into monomers. Section 2.5 Figure 2.16
87 Organic Molecules: Carbohydrates Carbohydrates include simple sugars and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are the monomers of carbohydrates. Section 2.5 Figure 2.17
88 Organic Molecules: Carbohydrates Dehydration synthesis binds two monosaccharides, forming a disaccharide. Hydrolysis separates disaccharides into monosaccharides. Section 2.5 Figure 2.17
89 Organic Molecules: Carbohydrates Polysaccharides are long chains of carbohydrates. Cellulose: structure Starch: energy Glycogen: energy Section 2.5 Cellulose: Dr. Dennis Kunkel; Starch: Gary Gaugler/Visuals Unlimited; Glycogen: Marshall Sklar/Science Source Figure 2.17
90 Organic Molecules: Proteins Proteins have more variable structures and functions than any of the other organic molecules. Section 2.5 Proteins: Comstock/Jupiter Images RF Figure 2.20
91 Organic Molecules: Proteins The monomers of proteins are amino acids. All amino acids have the same general structure. Section 2.5 Proteins: Comstock/Jupiter Images RF Figure 2.18
92 Organic Molecules: Proteins The R group of amino acids is variable. Section 2.5 Proteins: Comstock/Jupiter Images RF Figure 2.18
93 Organic Molecules: Proteins Dehydration synthesis binds two amino acids, forming a dipeptide. Hydrolysis separates dipeptides into amino acids. Section 2.5 Proteins: Comstock/Jupiter Images RF Figure 2.18
94 Organic Molecules: Proteins The function of a protein depends on its shape. Protein structure is described on the next two slides. Section 2.5 Proteins: Comstock/Jupiter Images RF Figure 2.21
95 Organic Molecules: Proteins Section 2.5 Proteins: Comstock/Jupiter Images RF Figure 2.19
96 Organic Molecules: Proteins Section 2.5 Proteins: Comstock/Jupiter Images RF Figure 2.19
97 Organic Molecules: Nucleic Acids Nucleic acids include DNA and RNA. These molecules contain genetic information. Section 2.5 Figure 2.23
98 Organic Molecules: Nucleic Acids The monomers of nucleic acids are nucleotides. Section 2.5 Figure 2.22
99 Organic Molecules: Nucleic Acids There are five types of nucleotides. DNA and RNA both incorporate adenine, cytosine, and guanine into their strands. Only DNA uses thymine. Only RNA uses uracil. Section 2.5 Figure 2.22
100 Organic Molecules: Nucleic Acids Dehydration synthesis links two nucleotides. Hydrolysis separates nucleotides. Section 2.5 Figure 2.22
101 Organic Molecules: Lipids Lipids are hydrophobic and energy-rich. This class of organic molecules includes triglycerides (fats) and sterols. Fried chicken: Burke/Triolo/Brand X Pictures RF; Butter: D. Hurst/Alamy RF Section 2.5 Figures 2.24, 2.26
102 Organic Molecules: Lipids Unlike carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids, lipids are not built from chains of monomers. Section 2.5 Fried chicken: Burke/Triolo/Brand X Pictures RF; Butter: D. Hurst/Alamy RF Figures 2.24, 2.26
103 Organic Molecules: Lipids Dehydration synthesis links three fatty acids to a glycerol molecule, forming a triglyceride. Hydrolysis separates fatty acids from glycerol. Section 2.5 Fried chicken: Burke/Triolo/Brand X Pictures RF; Butter: D. Hurst/Alamy RF Figures 2.24, 2.26
104 Organic Molecules: Lipids All carbons of a saturated fatty acid are bonded to four other atoms. Saturated fat Section 2.5 Fried chicken: Burke/Triolo/Brand X Pictures (RF); Butter: D. Hurst/Alamy (RF). Figure 2.24
105 Organic Molecules: Lipids An unsaturated fatty acid contains at least one double bond, so at least two carbons are only bonded to three other atoms. Saturated fat Unsaturated fat Section 2.5 Fried chicken: Burke/Triolo/Brand X Pictures (RF); Butter: D. Hurst/Alamy (RF) Figure 2.24
106 Organic Molecules: Lipids Double bonds create kinks in the fatty acids that prevent them from packing close together. Unsaturated fats like oils are therefore liquids. Section 2.5 Fried chicken: Burke/Triolo/Brand X Pictures (RF); Butter: D. Hurst/Alamy (RF) Figure 2.24
107 Organic Molecules: Lipids Trans fats have double bonds, like unsaturated fats, but remain straight. They therefore are solid at room temperature. Section 2.5 Fried chicken: Burke/Triolo/Brand X Pictures RF; Butter: D. Hurst/Alamy RF Figure 2.25
108 Organic Molecules: Lipids Sterols are also important lipid molecules. Cholesterol is in animal cell membranes; also, several hormones are derived from cholesterol. Section 2.5 Fried chicken: Burke/Triolo/Brand X Pictures RF Figure 2.28
109 Quick Check Question #5 Which monomer is incorrectly paired? A. protein: monopeptide B. carbohydrate: monosaccharide C. nucleic acid: nucleotide D. lipid: no monomer Flower: Doug Sherman/Geofile/RF
110 Quick Check Question #5 Which monomer is incorrectly paired? A. protein: monopeptide B. carbohydrate: monosaccharide C. nucleic acid: nucleotide D. lipid: no monomer Flower: Doug Sherman/Geofile/RF
111 2.5 Mastering Concepts What is the relationship between hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis? Compare and contrast the structures of polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids. List examples of carbs, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids, and name the function of each. What is the significance of the shape of a protein, and how can the shape be destroyed? Newt Brand X Pictures/PunchStock RF
112 Investigating Life: Infected Insects Go Green Organic chemicals called pigments account for color variation in insects called aphids. Section 2.6 Aphids Tsutomu Tsuchida, PhD Figure 2.28
113 Investigating Life: Infected Insects Go Green Researchers were curious about the shift in pigment production through aphid development. Section 2.6 Aphids Tsutomu Tsuchida, PhD Figure 2.28
114 Investigating Life: Infected Insects Go Green They discovered that an infection by a bacterium called Rickettsiella cause the color change. Section 2.6 T. Tsuchida, et al. "Symbiotic bacterium modifies aphid body color," Science, Vol. 330, no. 6007,November 19, 2010, pp AAAS. All rights reserved. Used with permission. Figure 2.29
115 Investigating Life: Infected Insects Go Green Both the aphids and the bacteria benefit from aphids producing more green pigments. Predators eat red aphids more often than green aphids. Section 2.6 T. Tsuchida, et al. "Symbiotic bacterium modifies aphid body color," Science, Vol. 330, no. 6007,November 19, 2010, pp AAAS. All rights reserved. Used with permission. Figure 2.29
116 Investigating Life: Infected Insects Go Green How might the color change be adaptive to both aphids and the bacteria that infect them? Section 2.6 T. Tsuchida, et al. "Symbiotic bacterium modifies aphid body color," Science, Vol. 330, no. 6007,November 19, 2010, pp AAAS. All rights reserved. Used with permission. Figure 2.29
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