Dosimetry of ionizing radiation
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1 Dosimetry of ionizing radiation Estimated average of annual dose from natural background and man-made sources is 3.6 msv. environmental occupation military nuclear industry medical use Distribution of annual dose among sources Sources of natural background consumer products 3% cosmic radiatiom ~ 0,4 msv/year 238 U Radon cc. 54% other 1% nuclear medicine 4% medical X-ray. 11% internal radon: cc. 1,8 msv/year 222 Ra 11% 4 2α 232 Th, 218 Po, 214 Pb 4 2α 4 2α terrestrial 8% potassium: cc 0,1 msv/year cosmic 8%
2 Risk loss of life expectancy Distribution of naturally occuring background levels of radiation in Europe The highest known level of background radiation is in Kerala and Madras States in India where a population of over 100,000 people receive an annual dose rate which averages 13 millisieverts. Days of average life expectancy lost Being unmarried male Smoking (pack/day) Being unmarried female Being a coal miner 25% overweight Alcohol abuse Being a construction worker Driving motorcycle 1 msv/year effective dose for 70 years Coffee Relative risk of dying: 1 in a million odds Smoking 1.4 cigarettes (lung cancer) Eating 40 tablespoons of peanut butter Eating 100 charcoal broiled steaks 2 days in New York City (air pollution) Driving 40 miles in a car (accident) Flying 2500 miles in a jet (accident) Canoeing for 6 miles Receiving 0.10 msv radiation dose (cancer) Radiation protection Radiation protection lies on the following principles: Optimization: All exposures should be kept As Low As Reasonable Achievable (ALARA) Justification: no practice shall be adopted unless it produces a positive net benefit Limitation: the effective dose (E) to individuals shall not exceed the limits recommended by the ICRP (maximum permitted doses)
3 Optimization of radiation protection ALARA-principle As Low As Reasonably Achievable Dose limits in radiation protection Occupational (msv/year) Population (msv/year) X : cost of radiation protection Y : cost of treatment X+Y: total cost Effective dose Dose equivalent (eye lens) Dose equivalent (limb/skin) 20* Optimum is the minimum * Over the average of 5 years but maximum 50 msv/year Cosmic ray contributions to dose rate as the function of the altitude Relative risk of various professions E rel (msv) 5μSv/óra 1μSv/óra 0,1μSv/óra 0,03μSv/óra
4 Detection of radiation dose measurement What? How much energy? α ++ p + (n) β γ ν Measuring devices Alteration of a physical parameter ~ absorbed dose How much intensity? How good accuracy? Detection of particles Types of Dosimeters Bubble chamber superheated transparent liquid (H 2, Ar, Xe) Cloud chamber supersaturated vapor of water or alcohol Spark chamber high voltage wiers * Electronic Dosimeters radiation generates free charges electric signal is detected Gas-filled detectors Scintillation detectors Semiconductor detectors * Chemical detectors based on radiation induced chemical processes Film Badges * Solid state detectors based on physical behavior of crystals Thermo Luminescent Dosimeters TLD (LiF, CaF 2, BeO, Al 2 O 3 )
5 Electronic Dosimeters Ionization chambers Ionization chambers Dose measurement: the voltage U that is produced by collected charge Q on the capacitor C is proportional to the total amount of the separated charges. Dose rate measurement: the potential drop is measured on a large resistance R, that is proportional to the charge Q that flows through at unit time. U = Q C ~ X. U = QR t ~ X t. Ionization chambers Geiger range Ionization chambers Geiger-Müller counter current α-particles α-electrons discharge range The dependence of ionization on voltage - Inert gas filling - High accelerating voltage Avalanche effect between electrods Current pulse Recombination Proportional region region Ionization chamber region Number of current pulses ~ number of ionising particles
6 Multiwire chamber Nobel prize in Physics 2002 Scintillation detectors Liquid scintillators Georges Charpak Plastic scintillators 2 Thermal transition Plastic scintillators electric current proportional to the energy of the detected particle localised cascade of ionization spatial sensitivity! 1 Excitation Light emission 0 Scintillation crystals Doped energy levels Conduction band Forbidden band Excitation Light emission Solid state scintillators Valence band Scintillation detectors Semiconductor detectors Light pulses electric signals 1. Photoelectric effect 2. Amplification - Multiplication of secondary electrons Semiconductors (e.g. Ge, Si) Conduction band n n 0 = e Δε kt Forbidden band Valence band σ e Δε 2kT Conductivity ~ number of excitations
7 Chemical processes Film badges It measures darkening of the developed photographic film that was exposed to ionizing radiation. Film badges Darkening depends on the type and energy of radiation, and the thickness and material of absorber. Darkening of the developed photographic film is proportional to the dose rate of the ionizing radiation and to the irradiation time. Solid phase detectors Thermoluminescent dosimeter Band structure on electronic transitions Calculation of the dose in case of γ - radiation The absorbed dose in air (D air ) for any γ - radiating isotope Ionizing radiation exposition Conduction band Electron trap Valence band heating evaluation light D air = K γ Λt 2 r Λ: activity of the isotope preparation t: time of exposition r: distance from the source K γ : dose constant (specific γ - ray constant) [ K ] γ 2 μgy m = h GBq
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