Contents. Part I Regional Aspects of Coral Reef Health and Disease

Transcription

1 Contents Part I Regional Aspects of Coral Reef Health and Disease 1 The Coral Reefs of Eilat Past, Present and Future: Three Decades of Coral Community Structure Studies...1 Yossi Loya 1.1 Introduction The Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba: Geographical Setting, Geological, Physical and Biological Characteristics The Coral Reefs of Eilat Changes in Coral Community Structure at Eilat Due to Natural Perturbations and Human Disturbances During Natural Catastrophes: Extreme Midday Low Tides Coral Community Stability Oil-Pollution Effects on Eilat Corals Mechanisms That Generate and Maintain Coral Diversity in the Northern Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba Hypothesis Hypothesis Man s Destructive Activities: Acute Degradation of the Coral Reefs of Eilat Due to Eutrophication Acute Degradation of Coral Diversity and Living Cover at Eilat During Due to Eutrophication by Urban Sewage and Net Pen Fish Farms Eutrophication Effects on the Reef s Food Chain, Metabolism, Interspecific Interactions and Genetic Structure of Coral Populations Detrimental Effects of Eutrophication on Coral Reproduction Coral Diseases and Syndromes Local Extinction or Decrease in Abundance of Organisms Associated with Corals Recent Assessments of the Effects of the Fish Farms on the Coral Reefs of Eilat Conclusions and a Word of Warning...27 References...29

2 VIII Contents 2 Coral Reef Diseases in the Wider Caribbean...35 Ernesto Weil 2.1 Introduction Historical Perspective Current Status Pathology and Etiology Epizootiology Causes, Origin and Ecological Consequences Some Unresolved Questions and Future Directions...58 References Coral Disease on the Great Barrier Reef...69 Bette L. Willis, Cathie A. Page, and Elizabeth A. Dinsdale 3.1 Introduction Overview of Diseases Infecting Great Barrier Reef and Indo-Pacific Corals Black Band Disease on the Great Barrier Reef Skeletal Eroding Band: an Indo-Pacific Coral Disease? White Syndrome a Collective Term for Conditions Producing White Symptoms on the Great Barrier Reef Brown Band: a New Syndrome on the Great Barrier Reef Gorgonian Infections on the Great Barrier Reef: Black Necrosing Syndrome Coral-Algal Interactions: Algal Infections? Pigmentation Response in Porites: A symptom with a variety of causes? Coral Tumours Coral Disease Surveys on the Great Barrier Reef Survey Protocols Results of Large-Scale AIMS LTMP Surveys Results of Regional Disease Prevalence Surveys Discussion and Conclusions Some Unresolved Questions and Future Research References Coral Diseases in Gulf of México Reefs Eric Jordán-Dahlgren and Rosa.E.Rodríguez-Martínez 4.1 Introduction Study Sites Methods Results Community Structure of the Reefs Diseases and Syndromes...110

3 Contents IX 4.5 Discussion References Coral Bleaching: Signs of Change in Southern Japan Robert van Woesik, Akiyuki Irikawa, and Yossi Loya 5.1 Introduction Environmental Setting Objectives Materials and Methods Field Study Data Acquisition and Processing Results Community Responses Species-Specific Responses Discussion Unresolved Questions and Future Research References Coral Bleaching in a Temperate Sea: From Colony Physiology to Population Ecology Maoz Fine and Yossi Loya 6.1 Introduction Spatial Distribution of Bleaching Physiological Effects of Bleaching on Oculina patagonica Reproduction Regeneration and Growth Alternative Source of Photosynthetic Products During Coral Bleaching Prospects for Oculina patagonica Population Unresolved Questions References Coral Bleaching, Diseases and Mortality in the Western Indian Ocean Tim McClanahan 7.1 Introduction Bleaching The Environmental Background Bleaching in Bleaching in Coral Bleaching and Mortality Acclimation and Adaptation to Bleaching The Effects of Coral Bleaching and Mortality on Fish and Fisheries Recovery from Coral Mortality...167

4 X Contents 7.3 Coral Diseases The Fungal Syndrome The Working Hypotheses Some Unresolved Questions and Future Research References Part II Microbial Ecology and Physiology of Corals 8 Symbiont Diversity on Coral Reefs and Its Relationship to Bleaching Resistance and Resilience Andrew C. Baker 8.1 Introduction Overview Diversity of Symbiodinium Historical Perspective on Diversity Current Understanding of Diversity Distribution of Symbiodinium Host-Systematic Distribution of Symbiodinium Symbiont Diversity Within Single Species of Host Recombinant Symbioses and the Return of the Hopeful Monster Resistance and Resilience to Coral Bleaching Bleaching Resistance Bleaching Resilience Environmental History, Time Delays and Naïveté Regional Differences in Bleaching Response Symbiont Diversity and Bacterial Bleaching Understanding the Past History and Future Fate of Coral Reefs Research Priorities References Stress Effects on Metabolism and Photosynthesis of Hermatypic Corals Noga Stambler and Zvy Dubinsky 9.1 Introduction Methods Used for Measuring Stress on Coral Photosynthesis and Respiration Photoacclimation Photoinhibition Depth Effects on Metabolism and Photosynthesis Temperature Stress Anthropogenic Effects...207

5 Contents XI Eutrophication Herbicide Cyanide Copper Starvation Sedimentation Effects Pathogens Zooxanthellae Genetic Variation Coral Bleaching Unresolved Questions and Future Research References What Can Regeneration Processes Tell Us About Coral Disease? Esti Kramarsky-Winter 10.1 Introduction Environmental Conditions Affecting Regeneration Physiological Parameters Bleaching and Regeneration Cellular Aspect of Regeneration What Regeneration Mechanisms May Tell Us About Disease and Recovery? Unresolved Questions and Future Research References Bacteria as a Source of Coral Nutrition Ariel Kushmaro and Esti Kramarsky-Winter 11.1 Introduction Bacterial Suspension Feeding Endolithic Community and Nitrogen Fixation in the Coral Skeleton Coral Surface and the Mucus Microlayer Interaction Between Corals and Bacteria Aggregates as a Possible Nutrition Source Conclusion Unanswered Questions and Further Research Directions References Antimicrobial Activity of Sponges and Corals Dovi Kelman 12.1 Introduction Antimicrobial Activity of Sponges Antimicrobial Activity of Corals Some Unresolved Questions and Future Research Nontoxic Antimicrobial Activity Localization of Antimicrobials...255

6 XII Contents Role of Associated Bacteria in the Production of Antimicrobials References Microbial Communities of Coral Surface Mucopolysaccharide Layers Kim B. Ritchie and Garriet W. Smith 13.1 Introduction Structure of the Coral Surface Mucopolysaccharide Layer Changes in the Coral Surface Mucopolysaccharide Layer Composition Lead to Changes in the Bacterial Population Structure Unresolved Questions and Future Research References Culture-Independent Analyses of Coral-Associated Microbes Forest Rohwer and Scott Kelley 14.1 Introduction Coral Reefs and the Marine Microbial Food Web Uncultured Microbes and the Three Domains of Life Uncultured Microbes Associated with Healthy Corals Culture-Independent Analyses of Coral Diseases Microbial Growth on Corals Conclusions Major Unanswered Questions and Future Research What Are Coral-Associated Prokaryotes Doing? What Is the Mucus Made of? Culturing the Uncultured References Part III Coral Diseases 15 Aspergillosis of Gorgonians Garriet W. Smith and Ernesto Weil 15.1 Introduction and History Infection Patterns Identity of the Pathogen Host Range Future Work References White Pox Disease of the Caribbean Elkhorn Coral, Acropora palmata Kathryn Patterson Sutherland and Kim B. Ritchie 16.1 Introduction...289

7 Contents XIII 16.2 The Coral Pathogen, Serratia marcescens Loss of Acropora palmata in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary: Potential Sources of the White Pox Pathogen Unresolved Questions and Future Research References Temperature-Regulated Bleaching and Tissue Lysis of Pocillopora damicornis by the Novel Pathogen Vibrio coralliilyticus Yael Ben-Haim Rozenblat and Eugene Rosenberg 17.1 Introduction Pocillopora damicornis How General Is Bacterial Bleaching of Corals? Isolation and Characterization of Vibrio coralliilyticus Bleaching of Pocillipora damicornis by Vibrio coralliilyticus The Pathogen Was Present in Bleached Corals in the Red Sea, Eilat Lysis of Coral Tissue by Vibrio coralliilyticus The Effect of Temperature on the Infection Protease Activity of Vibrio coralliilyticus Effect of Higher Than Normal Temperatures on Different Eilat Corals General Discussion and Conclusions Unresolved Problems and Directions of Future Research References Black Band Disease Laurie L. Richardson 18.1 The First Coral Disease Epizootiology The Search for the Black Band Disease Pathogen Phormidium corallyticum An Alternative View Black Band Disease as a Pathogenic Microbial Consortium Chemical Microenvironments Within Black Band Disease Characterization of Black Band Disease Functional Groups Molecular Analysis of Black Band Disease-Associated Microorganisms Black Band Disease-Associated Heterotrophs as Primary Pathogens Histopathology of Black Band Disease-Affected Coral Tissue Some Unresolved Questions and Future Directions References...335

8 XIV Contents 19 Dark Spots Disease and Yellow Band Disease, Two Poorly Known Coral Diseases with High Incidence in Caribbean Reefs Diego L. Gil-Agudelo, Garriet W. Smith, Jaime Garzón-Ferreira, Ernesto Weil, and Dirk Petersen 19.1 Introduction Dark Spots Disease Original Description Species Affected by the Disease Geographic Range and Prevalence of the Disease Environmental Parameters Affecting Dark Spots Disease Growth Rate of Dark Spots Disease Pathological Studies Other Studies and Observations Yellow Band and/or Blotch Disease Original Description Species Affected by the Disease Geographic Range and Prevalence of the Disease Growth Rate of Yellow Band Disease Pathological Studies Other Studies and Observations Unresolved Questions and Future Research Field Determinations Laboratory Determinations References White Plague, White Band, and Other White Diseases John Bythell, Olga Pantos, and Laurie Richardson 20.1 Introduction White Plague One Disease or Many? White Band Disease A Different Pathology? Other White Diseases Outbreaks of the White Diseases: Relative Severity and Prevalence Bacterial 16S rdna Diversity of White Plague Affected Corals Histopathology Some Unresolved Questions and Future Directions References Monitoring the Health of Coral Reef Ecosystems Using Community Metabolism Jack Silverman, Boaz Lazar, and Jonathan Erez 21.1 Introduction Coral Reef Metabolism The Response of Coral Reefs to Eutrophication...369

9 Contents XV 21.4 Case Studies in the Red Sea System Open Questions and Future Research References Coral Resistance to Disease Kerri M. Mullen, Esther C. Peters, and C. Drew Harvell 22.1 Theoretical Framework Known Mechanisms of Coral Resistance Structure and Function of Coral Cells Innate Immune Response Coral Immune System Gorgonians: the Sea Fan as a Model System Generalized Antifungal Activity Chitinase Melanin Amoebocyte Recruitment Encapsulation with Gorgonin Some Unresolved Questions and Future Research References Part IV Coral Bleaching 23 Temperature Stress and Coral Bleaching Paul L. Jokiel 23.1 Introduction The Bleaching Phenomenon Bleaching as a Disease Symptom Coral Bleaching as an Environmental Indicator Phenomenology Versus Mechanisms Phenomenology Overview Bleaching and Coral Function General Principles of Bleaching Phenomena Evidence for Acclimatization Evidence for Adaptation Mechanisms Involved in Bleaching, Acclimatization and Adaptation Primary Mechanisms of Cause Acclimatization Mechanisms Behavioral Protective Mechanisms Adaptation Mechanisms Climate Change, Bleaching and the Future of Coral Reefs Unresolved Questions and Future Research References...419

10 XVI Contents 24 TheAdaptiveHypothesisofBleaching Robert W. Buddemeier, Andrew C. Baker, Daphne G. Fautin, and J. Rebecca Jacobs 24.1 Introduction Biological Background Conceptual Background Aim and Scope Adaptive Bleaching: Characteristics and Definitions Terminology Diversity in Taxonomy, Scale, and Environment Stochasticity Accumulating Evidence Taxonomic and Functional Diversity Existence of Distinguishable, Changeable Partnerships Characteristics of Ecospecies Discussion and Development The Adaptive Bleaching Hypothesis in Its Original Sense Evidence for Existence Symbiotic Adaptation as a General Phenomenon Conclusions and Recommendations Summary Unresolved Questions and Future Research References The Bacterial Disease Hypothesis of Coral Bleaching Eugene Rosenberg 25.1 Introduction The Bleaching Disease of Oculina patagonica Vibrio shiloi: the Causative Agent of Bleaching of O. patagonica Virulence Mechanisms of V. shiloi Effect of Temperature on V. shiloi Virulence Factors Transmission of the Disease The Generality of the Bacterial Infection Hypothesis of Coral Bleaching Patchy Bleaching Mass Bleaching Some Unresolved Questions and Future Research References CoralReefsandProjectionsofFutureChange Ove Hoegh-Guldberg 26.1 Introduction The State of the World s Reefs Human Impacts on Reefs...465

11 Contents XVII Anthropogenic Changes to Reef Health Climate Change: Past and Current Coral Bleaching and Climate Change Projections of Future Change Projected Conditions over this Century Responses of Coral Populations to Global Climate Change Implications for Reef Distribution and Biodiversity Integrated Impacts: the Importance of Reef Resilience Conclusion: Socio-Economic Costs and the Precautionary Principle References Subject Index...485

12