CHEM 116 Study Guide for General Chemistry Atom First by McMurry & Fay ( nd edition) Chapter 0 Chemical Tools: Experimentation and Measurement pp 1 Appendix A: Mathematical Operations Recommended Problems: pp 5: 18, 19, 36, 40, 44, 48, 54, 60, 70, 74, 8, 90 density hypothesis theory law precision accuracy significant figures Use scientific notation to express numbers (App. A) Estimate between smallest divisions on measurements Write numbers with proper number of significant figures Metric prefixes and values for 10 1 to 10 6 Calculations involving conversions of metric prefixes m V particle mole 3 3 7 D = N A = 6.0 x10 1mL = 1cm 1 amu = 1.66054 x 10 kg Chapter 1 The Structure and Stability of Atoms pp 655, table of ions and nomenclature rules Recommended Problems: pp 5559:, 4, 5, 6, 8, 54, 64, 76, 78, 86, 9, 106, 110 physical, chemical properties element compound atomic mass u (amu) isotope period group Avogadro s number mole α, β, γ particles/radiation Relate following to position on the periodic table main group elements transition metals lanthanides & actinides alkali metals alkaline earth metals halogens noble or inert gases metals, nonmetals semimetals gas, solid, liquid elements Write symbols of atoms with atomic number and atomic mass designations Determine number of protons, electrons, and neutrons in atoms given atomic number and mass Know names, symbols, charges listed in handout Write formulas and names for compounds derived from list in handout (Chap 3) When in doubt, change to moles. Use conversion factors derived from molar mass and Avogadro s Number Calculate and use concentrations based on mass percent Calculate molar mass from formula Calculate average atomic mass from percent abundances Recognize instances of the Laws of Definite and Multiple Proportions Write and balance nuclear reactions Chapter.7.14 Periodicity and Electronic Structure of Atoms pp 759 Recommended Problems: pp 997: 80, 8, 86, 94, 110 orbital ground state excited state photon isoelectronic valence electrons paramagnetic diamagnetic atomic radius effective nuclear charge Correlate the subshell model of the atom with the position on the periodic table Write electron configurations for elements based on position in periodic table using subshell and orbital filling notations Relate principle charges to the periodic table Relate atomic radii to position on the periodic table 1
Chapter 3.13.8 Atoms and Ionic Bonds pp 98118, 19130 Recommended Problems: pp 130135: 30, 3, 40, 4, 54, 66, 68, 96, 98, 106, 108, 118a, Name worksheet Directions for accessing in syllabus. cation, anion effective nuclear charge ionization energy covalent bond ionic bond electron affinity ionic radius octet rule Name compounds, write formulas from name Relate electron affinity to position on the periodic table Write electron configurations for ions and predict stable charges for elements (filled and half filled subshells) Relate ionic radii to charge on the ion and position on the periodic table Relate electron affinity and ionization energy to position on the periodic table Predict products of reactions of main group elements using charges Chapter 4 Atoms and Covalent Bonds pp 13616 Recommended Problems: pp 16167: 38, 40, 46, 48, 5, 6, 64, 70, 76, 78, 80, 84 polarity electronegativity formal charge bond energy Relate electronegativity to position on the periodic table Identify ionic, polar covalent, and purely covalent bonds Write Lewis Structures for ionic and covalent compounds, including those that violate the octet rule Draw Resonance Structures Determine bond order Determine the formal charge on all atoms in a Lewis structure Calculate the energy change for a reaction from bond energies Chapter 5.15.4 Covalent Bonds and Molecular Structure pp 168184, 193194 Recommended Problems: pp 194199: 18,, 6, 8, 30, 34, 46, 6, 70, 78 paramagnetic diamagnetic hybrid orbital σ, π bonds molecular orbital Determine the AXE designation and shape of covalent molecules from their Lewis structures Determine if a molecule is polar or nonpolar from the Lewis structure Identify the hybrid from the Lewis structure Identify sigma (σ) and pi (π) bonds in a Lewis Structure AX linear AX 5 trigonal bipyramid AX 6 octahedral AX 3 trigonal planar AX 4 E see saw AX 5 E square pyramid AX E bent AX 3 E T AX 4 E square planar AX 4 tetrahedral AX E 3 linear AX 3 E 3 T AX 3 E trigonal pyramid AX E 4 linear AX E bent (See also Table 5.1, p 174 in text) Chapter 6 Chemical Arithmetic: Stoichiometry pp 008 Recommended Problems: pp 835: 30, 3, 36, 4, 50, 56, 58, 64, 7, 76, 8, 86, 90, 94, 106, 108, 10 theoretical yield percent yield limiting reagent stoichiometry combustion empirical formula mass percent titration molarity Write and balance reactions Use conversion factors derived from formulas, balanced reactions, molar mass, Avogadro s Number Determine limiting reagent Determine empirical formula from mass percent and visa versa
Determine theoretical yield and percent yield Determine molecular formula from empirical formula and molecular mass Calculate and use concentrations based on mass percent Chapter 7.17.7 Reactions in Aqueous Solution pp 3653, 6566 Recommended Problems: pp 6673: 6, 8, 3, 34, 40, 46, 5, 64, 7, 74, 76, 114 oxidation reduction oxidizing agent reducing agent strong, weak electrolyte acid, base equilibrium electrolyte Recognize reactions as redox, acid/base (neutralization), precipitation and predict products Assign physical state designations: (s), (l), (g), (aq) Know the strong acids HCl, HBr, HI, HNO 3, H SO 4, HClO 4 Know the strong bases soluble oxides and hydroxides except ammonium hydroxide Identify Arrhenius acids and bases Identify spectator ions and neutral compounds in aqueous solutions Identify ionic compounds as soluble or insoluble according to the solubility rules p 4, also summarized in the table below Write and balance net ionic equations soluble ionic compounds, strong acids and bases are written as separate ions insoluble ionic compounds, weak acids and bases, unionizable compounds written as molecules Determine oxidation numbers of elements in compounds Calculations for titrations Soluble Compounds Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs (group 1A cations) NH 4 Cl, Br, I (halide) Halides of Ag, Hg, Pb NO 3 (nitrate) ClO 4 (perchlorate) C H 3 O or CH 3 COO (acetate) SO 4 (sulfate) Sulfates of Sr, Ba, Hg, Pb Insoluble Compounds CO 3 (carbonate) Carbonates of group 1A cations and NH 4 S (sulfide) Sulfides of group 1A cations, NH 4, Ca, Sr, and Ba 3 PO 4 (phosphate) Phosphates of group 1A cations and NH 4 O (oxide) and OH (hydroxide) Oxides and hydroxides of group 1A cations, NH 4, Ca, Sr, and Ba Chapter 8 Thermochemistry: Chemical Energy pp 74308 Recommended Problems: pp 308315: 8, 30, 34, 40, 50, 5, 6, 78, 8, 96, 98, 104, 108, 14 thermodynamics enthalpy (ΔH) state function standard conditions calorimetry endothermic exothermic heat temperature heat capacity specific heat entropy (ΔS) Gibbs free energy (ΔG) spontaneous or product favored internal energy (ΔE) 1 st Law of Thermodynamics Total energy in an isolated system is constant (energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted to other forms) nd Law of Thermodynamics In a spontaneous process, entropy in a system and its surroundings always increases (conversion of energy is never efficient, there are always some losses) Calculate ΔE and ΔH, as appropriate, from given conditions Calculate ΔH of reactions for temperature change data (calorimetry) Derive the ΔH reaction from heats of formation or bond energies of reactants and products Derive the ΔS reaction from entropies of formation Derive the ΔG reaction from free energies of formation Use Hess s law to derive ΔH rxn from a given set of reactions with known ΔH s Calculations using ΔG = ΔH TΔS 3
J K = C 73.15 C p (HO) = 4.184 q lost = q gained q = m Cp ΔT g deg rxn E = q w = q PΔV ΔH = ΔG = ΔH TΔS q mole lim reagent Chapter 9.19.5 Gases: Their Properties and Behavior pp 316335, 345346 Recommended Problems: pp 346353: 6, 8, 48, 50, 6, 70, 76, 8, 98, 130 pressure mole fraction absolute zero temperature where molecular motion stops STP Definition of an ideal gas gas where the molecules have no volume (point masses) and molecules do not interact, that is molecules are not sticky (elastic collisions) Celsius, Kelvin conversions Calculations with the combined gas law when sets of conditions are given (not explicitly discussed in text) Calculations with the ideal gas law when one set of conditions is given Calculations using Dalton s Law of partial pressures lb 1atm = 760 torr = 101.35kPa = 1.0135 bar = 14.7 1torr = 1mm Hg in L atm L torr ml torr J K = C 73.15 R = 0.0806 = 6.36 = 6360 = 8.314 K mole K mole K mole K mole P1 V1 PV PV = nrt = P T = P 1 P P 3... T T 1 Chapter 10.110.5, 10.11 Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes pp 354373, 38739 Recommended Problems: pp 39399: 6, 30, 34, 38, 44, 5, 56, 96, 130 intermolecular forces London dispersion forces instantaneous (induced) dipole hydrogen bonding boiling point vapor pressure surface tension sublimation melting point viscosity dipole moment van der Waals force phase diagram Identify intermolecular forces at work in a compound and in a binary mixture based on Lewis Structures, shape, and polarity of the molecules involved Rank intermolecular forces by strength Interpret phase diagrams Chapter 11.111.9 Solutions and Their Properties pp 40048, 433434 Recommended Problems: pp 434441: 34, 4, 54, 56, 60, 70, 80, 84, 96, 106, 134 miscible, immiscible parts per billion (ppb) mass percent mole fraction parts per million (ppm) molality vant Hoff factor Predict solubilities based on polarities of solute and solvent (like dissolves like) Definitions and calculations with various concentration units Calculations of gas solubilities Calculations with vapor pressure depression Calculations with melting point depression Calculations with boiling point elevation 4
Calculations with osmotic pressure moles solute moles solute moles solute mass solute m = M = = mass% = *100 kg solvent L soln total moles total mass Solubility = k * P P = P * T = ik m (freezing and boiling) = imrt A A A Chapter 13.1, 13., 13.713.11 Chemical Equilibrium: The Extent of Chemical Reactions pp 504507, 56 537, 539540 Recommended Problems: pp 540549: 6a, 36, 38, 64, 66, 86, 94 equilibrium constant [X] = molarity of X Write an equilibrium constant expression from a balanced reaction recognizing: products over reactants; coefficients become exponents; solids, pure liquids, and water left out Predict effect of stress on an equilibrium (LeChatelier s Principle) Chapter 14.114.6 Aqueous Equilibria: Acids and Bases pp 550564, 590591 Recommended Problems: pp 591599: 34abc, 38ab, 46, 60, 98, 106, 108 conjugate pairs ph, poh, K w BronstedLowry acid, base Lewis acid, base Identify acids, bases, buffers, spectator ions (partial review) Identify acid/base character of metal and nonmetal oxides (Lewis acid/base) Identify acid/base character of metal ions (Lewis aicd) Write reactions of acids and bases with water to justify identification Calculate ph, poh, K w Buffer definition and identification ph log[h O ] K 1.00 x10 [H O ][OH ] pk 14.00 ph poh 14 3 w 3 w Chapter 15.3 Applications of Aqueous Equilibria pp 608609 Recommended Problems: pp 645653: 34a, 5 buffer amphiprotic Identify buffers Chapter.3.6 Nuclear Chemistry pp 9119 Recommended Problems: pp 995: 8, 30, 3 α, β, γ particles/radiation positron transmutation band of stability binding energy mass defect fission, fusion halflife Balance nuclear reactions Age calculations using half lives Ci = 3.7 x 10 Bq 10 now C 1 C init n 5
Table of Equations and Constants Constants 3 particle J N A = 6.0 x10 C p(ho) = 4.184 mole g deg lb L atm L torr J 1atm = 760 torr = 101.35 kpa = 1.0135 bar = 14.7 R = 0.0806 = 6.36 = 8.31 in K mole K mole 4 K mole Basic Relationahips 3 10 1torr = 1mm Hg 1mL = 1cm K = C 73.15 D = Ci = 3.7 x 10 Bq Thermodynamics Equations rxn q lost = q gained q = m Cp ΔT ΔE = q w = q PΔV ΔH = mole li PV Gas Law Equations PV m V q m reagent 1 1 PV = nrt = P T = P 1 P P 3... T1 T Solutions Equations ΔG = ΔH TΔS moles solute moles solute mass solute = χ = mass% = *100 Solubility = k*p P = P *χ kg solvent total moles total mass m A A A ΔT = ik m Π = imrt Acid / Base Equations ph = log[h O ] K =1.00 x10 = [H O ][OH ] pk = 14.00 = ph poh 14 3 w 3 w Nuclear Chemistry Equations init n Cnow 1 = C = C 0 e C 0.69 t t1/ AX linear AX 5 trigonal bipyramid AX 6 octahedral AX 3 trigonal planar AX 4 E see saw AX 5 E square pyramid AX E bent AX 3 E T AX 4 E square planar AX 4 tetrahedral AX E 3 linear AX 3 E 3 T AX 3 E trigonal pyramid AX E 4 linear AX E bent Soluble Compounds Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs (group 1A cations) NH 4 Cl, Br, I (halide) Halides of Ag, Hg, Pb NO 3 (nitrate) ClO 4 (perchlorate) C H 3 O or CH 3 COO (acetate) SO 4 (sulfate) Sulfates of Sr, Ba, Hg, Pb Insoluble Compounds CO 3 (carbonate) Carbonates of group 1A cations and NH 4 S (sulfide) Sulfides of group 1A cations, NH 4, Ca, Sr, and Ba 3 PO 4 (phosphate) Phosphates of group 1A cations and NH 4 O (oxide) and OH (hydroxide) Oxides and hydroxides of group 1A cations, NH 4, Ca, Sr, and Ba 6