Towards the Conceptualisation of Maritime Delimitation Legal and Technical Aspects of a Political Process NUNO MARQUES ANTUNES MARTINUS NIJHOFF PUBLISHERS Ll-LIDEN BOSTON
CONTENTS General Introduction 1 I. DELIMITATION LAW IN THE LOSC: THREE DECADES OF DEVELOPMENT Introduction to Part I 13 Chapter 1 - The 1958 Conventions 15 1.1. Introduction 15 1.2. The ILC Pursuit of Normative Standards 17 1.2.a) Pre-1958 State Practice 17 1.2.b) First Drafts 19 1.2.b)(i) The Continental Shelf 19 1.2.b)(ii) The Territorial Sea 22 1.2.c) Subsequent Development of a General Substantive Rule 23 1.3. The First Conference on the Law of the Sea 27 1.3.a) Draft Articles 27 1.3.b) The Debates in the Conference 30 1.3.c) Ratio Legis of the Delimitation Rules 32 1.3.c)(i) Equidistance and Special Circumstances 32 1.3.c)(ii) Historie Title 35 1.3.c)(iii) Delimitation of the Contiguous Zone 38 1.3.c)(iv) Oppositeness and Adjacency in Continental Shelf Delimitation 39 1.3.c)(v) The'Procedural Element' 39 Chapter 2 - Relevant Case Law Pre-1982 41 2.1. The Selected Case Law 41 2.2. The Grisbadarna Arbitration 42 2.2.a) Overview: The Dispute and the Award 42 2.2.b) Critical Analysis 44 2.3. The North Sea Continental Shelf Cases 46 2.3.a) Overview of the Judgment 46 2.3.a)(i) The Dispute 46 2.3.a)(ii) The Reasoning 47 2.3.a)(iii) A Brief Initial Comment 49 2.3.b) The Assessment of Customary Law 49 2.3.b)(i) Summaryof State Practice Post-1958 49 2.3.b)(ii) The Court'sApproach 50 XI
xii TOWARDS THE C0NCEPTUAL1SAT10N OF MARITIME DELIMITATION 2.3.c) The Rule of Article 6 versus Natural Prolongation 56 2.3.d) Normative Standards of Delimitation 60 2.4. The Anglo/French Arbitration 64 2.4.a) Overview 64 2.4.a)(i) The Dispute 64 2.4.a)(ii) The Award 65 2.4.b) Some Points of Contrast with the North Sea Cases 67 2.4.b)(i) A Different Task 67 2.4.b)(ii) The Clarification of Certain Issues 68 2.4.b)(iii) The Contribution to International Law 69 2.4.C) Article 6 of the CS Convention 70 2.4.c)(i) Interpretation 70 2.4.c)(ii) Conventional and Customary Law 73 2.4.c)(iii) Special Circumstances, Geography and Equity 76 Chapter 3 - Maritime Delimitation in the LOSC 81 3.1. Introduction 81 3.2. Brief Notes on Treaty Interpretation 82 3.3. EEZ and Continental Shelf 84 3.3.a) Drafting History 84 3.3.b) The Interpretation of Articles 74(1) and 83(1) 87 3.3.b)(i) Common Intention of the Parties 87 3.3.b)(ii) The Text and the Context 89 3.3.b)(iii) Normativity and Equitable Solution 90 3.3.b)(iv) The Standards of Delimitation in International Law 94 3.4. Territorial Sea: Crystallisation of a Balanced Rule 98 3.5. Contiguous Zone: Non-Existence of a Delimitation Rule 100 3.6. The 'Procedural Element' of Delimitation Rules 102 3.6.a) Introductory Remarks 102 3.6.b) Agreements in Maritime Delimitation 103 3.6.c) Is There an Obligation to Negotiate? 105 3.6.d) The Justiciability of Maritime Boundary Disputes 106 Conclusions to Part I 109 II. CORE ISSUES: CONCEPT, METHODS AND NORMATIVITY Introduction to Part II 117 Chapter 4 - The Concept of Maritime Delimitation 119 4.1. The Need for Conceptualisation 119 4.2. Delimitation: A Two-Phase Operation 120 4.2.a) Political-Legal Determination and Technical Definition 120 4.2.b) Case Law 121 4.2.b)(i) North Sea Continental Shelf Cases 121 4.2.b)(ii) Anglo/French Arbitration 121 4.2.b)(iii) Dubai/Sharjah Arbitration 122 4.2.b)(iv) Tunisia/Libya Case 122 4.2.b)(v) Gulfof Maine Case 123
CONTENTS xiii 4.2.b)(vi) Jan Mayen Case 123 4.2.c) State Practice 124 4.2.d) Technical Support to Maritime Delimitation 125 4.2.e) Compliance of the Definition with the Determination 126 4.3. Overlapping of Entitlements as the Object-Matter 128 4.3.a) Early Developments in Case Law 128 4.3.b) Overlapping of Entitlements and Overlapping of Claims 129 4.3.c) Title, Entitlement and Delimitation 132 4.3.d) The Inexorable'Amputation'of Potential Entitlements 137 4.3.d)(0 The Overlapping of Entitlements as Concurrence of Rights ] 37 4.3.d)(ii) Delimitation as 'Amputation' of Entitlements of the Same Type 139 4.3.d)(iii) Precedence between Entitlements: Practice 141 4.3.d)(iv) Precedence between Entitlements: Rationale 142 Chapter 5 - Methods and Line-Defining Techniques 147 5.1. Introductory Notes 147 5. La) The Need for Technical Expertise 147 5.1.b) Methods and Line-Defining Techniques 149 5.1.c) Technicalities and Law 151 5.2. Equidistance and Equidistance-Related Methods 152 5.2.a) Method of Equidistance 152 5.2.a)(i) A Proper Historical-Technical Background 152 5.2.a)(ü) Contents and Technical Aspects 154 5.2.b) Simplified and Modified Equidistance 157 5.2.c) Adjustmentof Baselines and Partial-Effect Adjustments 158 5.2.d) "Methodes de Lissage" 161 5.2.d)(i) Perpendicular-Lines 161 5.2.d)(ü) Bisector-Lines 163 5.2.d)(üi) Radial-Lines of a Circumference 164 5.2.d)(iv) Appraisal and Rationale 164 5.2.e) Pseudo-Equidistance 166 5.2.f) Equiratio Method 167 5.3. Other Methods and Line-Defining Techniques 168 5.3.a) Enclaving 168 5.3.b) Navigable Channel (Thalweg) 170 5.3.c) Coastal Length Comparison (Proportionality) 171 5.3.d) ^//oc-approaches 173 5.3.d)(i) Basic Notion 173 5.3.d)(ii) Parallels, Meridians and Other Straight Lines 174 5.3.d)(iii) 'Corridor-Solutions' 175 Chapter 6 - Normativity in Maritime Delimitation 177 6.1. The Delimitation Process: Choice of Procedural Means 177 6. La) Preliminary Notes 177 6.1.b) Negotiation versus Adjudication: Outstanding Issues 177 6.1.b)(i) Operative Distinction between Negotiation and Adjudication 177 6.1.b)(ii) Normativity in Negotiated Agreements 179 6.1.b)(iii) Adjudication: Realjurisprudenz or Judicial Reasoning? 181 6.2. Dogmatics of Normativity and Maritime Delimitation 184
xiv TO WARDS THE CONCEPTUALISA TION OF MARITIME DELIMITA TION 6.2.a) KeyAspects 184 6.2.b) Legal Systems: Principles and Rules 186 6.2.c) Normativity in Maritime Delimitation 190 6.2.c)(i) Brief Appraisal 190 6.2.c)(ii) Legal Principles in International Law 193 6.3. The Principle of Maritime Zoning 195 6.3.a) Maritime Jurisdiction 195 6.3.a)(i) Basic Concept 195 6.3.a)(ii) Ambit of Interest for This Study 195 6.3.b) Allocation of Maritime Jurisdiction: Maritime Zoning 196 6.3.b)(i) Introductory Remarks 196 6.3.b)(ii) The Paramountcy of Proximity in Maritime Zoning 197 6.3.c) Maritime Zoning versus Maritime Delimitation 201 6.3.c)(i) Maritime Entitlement and Overlapping of Entitlements 201 6.3 x)(ii) Overview of Case Law. The Pre-LOSC Period 202 6.3.c)(iii) Overview of Case Law: The Post-LOSC Period 203 6.3.d) Equidistance ('Closer Proximity') asa Legal Concept 204 6.3.d)(i) Recent Trend in Case Law 204 6.3.d)(ii) A Corollary Emanating from to the Principle of Maritime Zoning 207 6.3.d)(iii) Equidistance as Reference Point for the "Third-State Issue' 209 6.3.d)(iv) The Equitable Normative Content of Equidistance 211 6.4. The Principle of Equity in Maritime Delimitation 214 6.4.a) Key Thoughtson the Concept of Equity 214 6.4.a)(i) An 'Indefinable' Concept 214 6.4.a)(ii) Legal Systems, Normativity and Equity 215 6.4.a)(iii) Justice In Casu and 'Normative Equity' 217 6.4.a)(iv) Functions and Bounds of 'Normative Equity' 220 6.4.a)(v) Reasonableness as the Scope of 'Normative Equity' 224 6.4.b) 'Normative Equity' in Maritime Delimitation 226 6.4.b)(i) First Period (1945-1969) 226 6.4.b)(ii) Second Period (1969-1993) 228 6.4.b)(iii) Third Period (1993 to date) 232 6.4.b)(iv) A Requiem for the Term "Equitable Principles" 234 Conclusions to Part II 239 III. DENOUEMENT Introduction to Part III 255 Chapter 7 - Delimitation Process: A Proposal for Rationalisation 257 7.1. Determination of a Line: The Key Issue 257 7.2. Choice of Factors: 'Factual Matrix' and 'Legal Matrix' 259 7.2.a) The Notion of Unicum 259 7.2.b) Delimitation Factors: Preliminary Approach 260 7.2.c) Delimitation Factors: A Basis for Objective 'Typification' 262 7.3. The 'Weighing-Up Process' 265 7.3.a) A Legal Multiple-Factor Analysis 265 7.3.b) 'Multicriteria Decision-Making' in an Extra-Legal Context 266
CONTENTS xv 7.3.c) From Objectivity to'subjectivity': An Inevitable Step 269 7.4. Modus Operandi of Delimitation Factors: Choice of Line 272 7.4.a) 'Multicriteria Decision-Making' in the Legal Context 272 7.4.b) Framework for Reasoning Discourse 275 7.4.c) The Determination of the Boundary 279 Chapter 8 - The Quest for a Boundary-Line 289 8.1. Elements Germane to the 'Weighing-Up Process' 289 8.2. Facts Related with the Basis of Maritime Entitlement 290 8.2.a) Coastline 290 8.2.b) 'Controlling Basepoints' 292 8.2.C) Islands 293 8.2.d) General Direction of the Coast and Facades 298 8.2.e) Coastal Length (and Its Role in Proportionality) 301 8.2.e)(i) Introductory Notes 301 8.2.e)(ii) Three Fundamental Issues 302 8.2.e)(iii) Tentative Suggestions for Practical Use 304 8.2.0 Macrogeography (and Entitlements of Third-States) 307 8.2.g) Natural Prolongation: Geology and Geomorphology 310 8.3. Facts Related with the Regime of Exclusiveness 313 8.3.a) Natural Resources: Petroleum and Fisheries in Particular 313 8.3.b) Defence and Security 317 8.3.c) Navigation 319 8.3.d) Historical Regimes 321 8.4. Complementary Delimitation Elements 324 8.4.a) Delimitation Area and the Scope to Redress Inequities 324 8.4.b) Continental Shelf Beyond 200 Nautical Miles 327 8.4.b)(i) Areas Beyond 200 Nautical Miles: Entitlement and Overlap 327 8.4.b)(ii) Overlapping of Two Entitlements Beyond 200 M 330 8.4.b)(iii) 200 M Entitlement versus Entitlement Beyond 200 M 333 8.4.c) The Single Maritime Boundary Issue 335 8.4.c)(i) Towards the 'Territorialisation' of Maritime Boundaries 335 8.4.c)(ii) All-Purpose Boundary: Single Line or Dual-Coincident Lines 338 8.4.d) The Emergence of 'Grey Areas' 342 8.4.e) Other Issues 346 8.4.e)(i) Simplicity of the Boundary-Line 346 8.4.e)(ü) Agreement on Aspects of the Boundary-Line 347 8.4.e)(iii) Joint Zones 348 Chapter 9 - Test Study: Maritime Delimitation between Australia and East Timor 351 9.1. Introductory Notes 351 9.2. Background Aspects 352 9.2.a) The Geographical Setting of the Timor Sea 352 9.2.a)(i) Coastal Geography 352 9.2.a)(ii) Seabed Aspects 353 9.2.b) Developments Conceming the Continental Shelf 354 9.2.b)(i) Emergence of the Australian Theory of the 'Two Shel ves" 354 9.2.b)(ii) The 1972 Australia/Indonesia Seabed Boundary Agreement 355 9.2.b)(iii) The Portuguese Approach 356
xvi TO WARDS THE CONCEPTUALISA TION OF MARITIME DELIMITA TION 9.2.b)(iv) The 1989 Timor Gap Treaty 359 9.2.b)(v) The 2002 Timor Sea Treaty 361 9.2.c) Jurisdiction over the Water Column: Brief Notes 364 9.3. Starting Point for the Delimitation 366 9.3.a) The Overlapping of Entitlements 366 9.3.a)(i) Entitlements Based on Distance 366 9.3.a)(ii) The Australian Theory of the 'Two Shelves': What Relevance? 367 9.3.b) The 'Third-State Issue': Aspects Relating to Indonesia 369 9.3.c) The Provisional Equidistance-Line 372 9.4. Relevant Facts 374 9.4.a) Coastal Length and Proportionality 375 9.4.a)(i) Coastal Lengths 376 9.4.a)(ii) Proportionality 377 9.4.b) Natural Prolongation: the Timor Trough 378 9.4.b)(i) Timor Trough: Brief Morphological and Geological Account 379 9.4.b)(ii) Timor Trough: Relevance for Continental Shelf Delimitation 380 9.4.c) Basepoints Unrepresentative of Coastal Relaüonships 382 9.4.c)(i) The Lateral Equidistance-Lines 382 9.4.c)(ii) Australian Basepoints to the East of Cape Londonderry 384 9.4.d) Macrogeographical Considerations 385 9.4.e) Natural Resources: Petroleum 386 9.5. The Choice of Boundary-Line 389 9.5.a) Delimitation Factors 389 9.5.a)(i) Factor A - Coastal Length and Proportionality 390 9.5.a)(ii) Factor B - Natural Prolongation (the Timor Trough) 390 9.5.a)(iii) Factor C - Cut-Off Effect of the 'Lateral-Equidistances' 390 9.5.a)(iv) Factor D~ Effect of the Islands East of Timor 390 9.5.a)(v) Factor - Holothuria Reefs 391 9.5.a)(vi) Factor F- Macrogeography 391 9.5.a)(vii) Factor G - Natural Resources 392 9.5.b 'Discovery' of an Equitable Solution 392 9.5.b)(i) The 'Decision-Matrix' 392 9.5.b)(ii) Recourse to 'Yardsticks' 394 9.5.b)(iü) The Boundary-Lines 399 Conclusions to Part III 403 General Conclusions 411 PostScript 423 APPENDICES Appendix 1. Sketch-Maps and Illustrations 441 Appendix 2. State Practice in Maritime Delimitation 557 Appendix 3. Elementar} Technical Aspects 583 Appendix 4. Glossary of Abbreviations and Acronyms 629 Appendix 5. Bibliographie References 637 Index 681
CONTENTS xvii TABLES Table 1 - Maritime Zoning and Maritime Delimitation: Analogical Relationships 207 Table 2 - 'Decision-Matrix': Analysis of the Parties' Claims 279 Table 3 - 'Decision-Matrix': 'Weighing-Up' of the Delimitation Factors 282 Table 4 - Average 'Distance Ratio' in Certain Adjacent Boundaries 284 Table 5 - 'Negotiation-Matrix': Identification of Goals of States A and B 287 Table 6 - 'Decision-Matrix': Delimitation between Australia and East Timor 393 GRAPHICS Graphic 1 - Intensity of Powers of the Coastal State versus Distance from the Coast 143 Graphic 2 - Principle of Maritime Zoning versus Principle of Equity 244