Radiation Tolerant Sensors for Solid State Tracking Detectors. - CERN-RD50 project

EPFL LPHE, Lausanne, January 29, 27 Radiation Tolerant Sensors for Solid State Tracking Detectors - CERN-RD5 project http://www.cern.ch/rd5 Michael Moll CERN - Geneva - Switzerland

Outline Introduction: LHC and LHC experiment Motivation to develop radiation harder detectors Introduction to the RD5 collaboration Part I: Radiation Damage in Silicon Detectors (A very brief review) Microscopic defects (changes in bulk material) Macroscopic damage (changes in detector properties) Part II: RD5 - Approaches to obtain radiation hard sensors Material Engineering Device Engineering Summary and preliminary conclusion Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-2-

LHC - Large Hadron Collider Start : 27 Installation in existing LEP tunnel 27 Km ring p p 1232 dipoles B=8.3T 4 MCHF (machine+experiments) pp s = 14 TeV L design = 1 34 cm -2 s -1 Heavy ions (e.g. Pb-Pb at s ~ 1 TeV) LHC experiments located at 4 interaction points Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-3-

LHC Experiments + LHCf CMS Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-4-

LHC Experiments LHCf CMS Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-5-

RD5 LHC example: CMS inner tracker Inner Tracker CMS Outer Barrel Inner Barrel Inner Disks (TOB) End Cap (TIB) (TEC) 2.4 m (TID) Total weight 125 t Diameter 15m Length 21.6m Magnetic field 4T CMS Currently the Most Silicon Micro Strip: 5.4 m Pixel Pixel Detector ~ 214 m2 of silicon strip sensors, 11.4 million strips Pixel: Inner 3 layers: silicon pixels (~ 1m2) 66 million pixels (1x15µm) Precision: σ(rφ) ~ σ(z) ~ 15µm Most challenging operating environments (LHC) cm 3 93 c m Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-6-

Status December 26 LHC Silicon Trackers close to or under commissioning CMS Tracker (12/26) (foreseen: June 27 into the pit) ATLAS Silicon Tracker (8/26) August 26 installed in ATLAS CMS Tracker Outer Barrel Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-7-

Motivation for R&D on Radiation Tolerant Detectors: Super - LHC LHC upgrade LHC (27), L = 1 34 cm -2 s -1 1 years φ(r=4cm) ~ 3 1 15 cm -2 5 fb -1 5 Super-LHC (215?), L = 1 35 cm -2 s -1 5 years 25 fb -1 φ(r=4cm) ~ 1.6 1 16 cm -2 LHC (Replacement of components) e.g. - LHCb Velo detectors (~21) - ATLAS Pixel B-layer (~212) 1 2 3 4 5 6 r [cm] Linear collider experiments (generic R&D) Deep understanding of radiation damage will be fruitful for linear collider experiments where high doses of e, γ will play a significant role. Φ eq [cm -2 ] 1 16 5 1 15 5 1 14 5 1 13 SUPER - LHC (5 years, 25 fb -1 ) Pixel (?) Ministrip (?) ATLAS Pixel Macropixel (?) total fluence Φ eq ATLAS SCT - barrel (microstrip detectors) neutrons Φ eq pions Φ eq [M.Moll, simplified, scaled from ATLAS TDR] other charged hadrons Φ eq Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-8-

The CERN RD5 Collaboration http://www.cern.ch/rd5 RD5: Development of Radiation Hard Semiconductor Devices for High Luminosity Colliders Collaboration formed in November 21 Experiment approved as RD5 by CERN in June 22 Main objective: Development of ultra-radiation hard semiconductor detectors for the luminosity upgrade of the LHC to 1 35 cm -2 s -1 ( Super-LHC ). Challenges: - Radiation hardness up to 1 16 cm -2 required - Fast signal collection (Going from 25ns to 1 ns bunch crossing?) - Low mass (reducing multiple scattering close to interaction point) - Cost effectiveness (big surfaces have to be covered with detectors!) Presently 264 members from 52 institutes Belarus (Minsk), Belgium (Louvain), Canada (Montreal), Czech Republic (Prague (3x)), Finland (Helsinki, Lappeenranta), Germany (Berlin, Dortmund, Erfurt, Freiburg, Hamburg, Karlsruhe), Israel (Tel Aviv), Italy (Bari, Bologna, Florence, Padova, Perugia, Pisa, Trento, Turin), Lithuania (Vilnius), The Netherlands (Amsterdam), Norway (Oslo (2x)), Poland (Warsaw (2x)), Romania (Bucharest (2x)), Russia (Moscow), St.Petersburg), Slovenia (Ljubljana), Spain (Barcelona, Valencia), Switzerland (CERN, PSI), Ukraine (Kiev), United Kingdom (Diamond, Exeter, Glasgow, Lancaster, Liverpool, Sheffield), USA (Fermilab, Purdue University, Rochester University, SCIPP Santa Cruz, Syracuse University, BNL, University of New Mexico) Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-9-

Outline Motivation to develop radiation harder detectors Introduction to the RD5 collaboration Part I: Radiation Damage in Silicon Detectors (A very brief review) Microscopic defects (changes in bulk material) Macroscopic damage (changes in detector properties) Part II: RD5 - Approaches to obtain radiation hard sensors Material Engineering Device Engineering Summary and preliminary conclusion Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-1-

Radiation Damage Microscopic Effects Spatial distribution of vacancies created by a 5 kev Si-ion in silicon. (typical recoil energy for 1 MeV neutrons) van Lint 198 M.Huhtinen 21 V I V I particl e Si S E K >25 ev V I Vacancy + Interstitial point defects (V-O, C-O,.. ) E K > 5 kev point defects and clusters of defects Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-11-

Radiation Damage Microscopic Effects particl e Si S E K >25 ev V I Vacancy + Interstitial point defects (V-O, C-O,.. ) E K > 5 kev point defects and clusters of defects 6 Co-gammas Electrons Compton Electrons E e > 255 kev for displacement with max. E γ 1 MeV E (no cluster production) e > 8 MeV for cluster Only point defects point defects & clusters Neutrons (elastic scattering) E n > 185 ev for displacement E n > 35 kev for cluster Mainly clusters Simulation: Initial distribution of vacancies in (1µm) 3 after 1 14 particles/cm 2 [Mika Huhtinen NIMA 491(22) 194] 1 MeV protons 24 GeV/c protons 1 MeV neutrons Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-12-

Primary Damage and secondary defect formation Two basic defects I - Silicon Interstitial V - Vacancy Primary defect generation I, I 2 higher order I (?) I -CLUSTER (?) V, V 2, higher order V (?) V -CLUSTER (?) Damage?! V I I Secondary defect generation V Main impurities in silicon: Carbon (C s ) Oxygen (O i ) I+C s C i C i +C s C i C S C i +O i C i O i C i +P s C i P S V+V V 2 V+V 2 V 3 V+O i VO i V+VO i V 2 O i V+P s VP s Damage?! ( V 2 O-model ) I+V 2 V I+VO i O i... Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-13-

DLTS-signal (b1) [pf].8.6.4.2 -.2 -.4 -.6 (-/) C i Example of defect spectroscopy 6 min 17 days (-/) C i C s - neutron irradiated - Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy E(35K) E(4K) E(45K) (-/) VO i VV (--/-) (+/) C i (+/) C i O i H(22K) 5 1 15 2 25 Temperature [ K ] Introduction rates of main defects 1 cm -1 Introduction rate of negative space charge.5 cm -1? + VV (-/) +? Introduction Rates N t /Φ eq : C i : 1.55 cm -1 C i C s : C i O i :.4 cm -1 1.1 cm -1 example : Φ eq = 1 1 14 cm -2 defects 1 1 14 cm -3 space charge 5 1 12 cm -3 Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-14-

Impact of Defects on Detector properties Shockley-Read Read-Hall statistics (standard theory) Inter-center charge transfer model (inside clusters only) charged defects N eff, V dep e.g. donors in upper and acceptors in lower half of band gap Trapping (e and h) CCE shallow defects do not contribute at room temperature due to fast detrapping generation leakage current Levels close to midgap most effective enhanced generation leakage current space charge Impact on detector properties can be calculated if all defect parameters are known: σ n,p : cross sections E E : ionization energy N t : concentration Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-15-

Reverse biased abrupt p + -n n junction Poisson s equation 2 d q φ x = N 2 dx εε ( ) eff Electrical charge density depleted zone Positive space charge, N eff =[P] (ionized Phosphorus atoms) neutral bulk (no electric field) particle (mip) +V B<Vdep +V B>V dep Electrical field strength Full charge collection only for V B >V dep! depletion voltage Electron potential energy V dep q = εε 2 Neff d effective space charge density Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-16-

Macroscopic Effects I. Depletion Voltage U dep [V] (d = 3µm) Change of Depletion Voltage V dep (N eff ) 5 1 5 1 5 1 5 1. with particle fluence: n-type type inversion "p-type" 1 14 cm -2 6 V [M.Moll: Data: R. Wunstorf, PhD thesis 1992, Uni Hamburg] 1-1 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 Φ eq [ 1 12 cm -2 ] 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 1-1 N eff [ 1 11 cm -3 ] N eff [1 11 cm -3 ] 1 8 6 4 2. with time (annealing): N A g C Φ eq [M.Moll, PhD thesis 1999, Uni Hamburg] 1 1 1 1 1 annealing time at 6 o C [min] N C N Y N C Type inversion : N eff changes from positive to negative (Space Charge Sign Inversion) before inversion p + n + p + n + after inversion Short term: Beneficial annealing Long term: Reverse annealing - time constant depends on temperature: ~ 5 years (-1 C) ~ 5 days ( 2 C) ~ 21 hours ( 6 C) - Consequence: Detectors must be cooled even when the experiment is not running! Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-17-

Radiation Damage II. Leakage Current I / V [A/cm 3 ] Change of Leakage Current (after hadron irradiation) 1-1 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 n-type FZ - 7 to 25 KΩcm n-type FZ - 7 KΩcm n-type FZ - 4 KΩcm n-type FZ - 3 KΩcm p-type EPI - 2 and 4 KΩcm 1 11 1 12 1 13 1 14 1 15 Φ eq [cm -2 ] n-type FZ - 78 Ωcm n-type FZ - 41 Ωcm n-type FZ - 13 Ωcm n-type FZ - 11 Ωcm n-type CZ - 14 Ωcm p-type EPI - 38 Ωcm [M.Moll PhD Thesis] Damage parameter α (slope in figure) α =. with particle fluence: V I Φ 8 min 6 C eq Leakage current per unit volume and particle fluence α is constant over several orders of fluence and independent of impurity concentration in Si can be used for fluence measurement α(t) [1-17 A/cm] 6 5 4 3 2 1. with time (annealing): oxygen enriched silicon [O] = 2. 1 17 cm -3 parameterisation for standard silicon 1 1 1 1 1 annealing time at 6 o C [minutes] Leakage current decreasing in time (depending on temperature) Strong temperature dependence E I exp g 2 8 min 6 C [M.Moll PhD Thesis] Consequence: Cool detectors during operation! Example: I(-1 C) ~1/16 I(2 C) k B T Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-18- 6 5 4 3 2 1

Radiation Damage III. CCE (Trapping) Deterioration of Charge Collection Efficiency (CCE) by trapping Trapping is characterized by an effective trapping time τ eff for electrons and holes: Q e, h ( t) 1 = Q exp t e, h τ eff e, h where 1 τ eff e, h N defects Increase of inverse trapping time (1/τ) with fluence.. and change with time (annealing): Inverse trapping time 1/τ [ns -1 ].5.4.3.2.1 24 GeV/c proton irradiation data for electrons data for holes [M.Moll; Data: O.Krasel, PhD thesis 24, Uni Dortmund] 2. 1 14 4. 1 14 6. 1 14 8. 1 14 1 15 particle fluence - Φ eq [cm -2 ] Inverse trapping time 1/τ [ns -1 ].25.2.15.1 24 GeV/c proton irradiation Φ eq = 4.5. 1 14 cm -2 data for holes data for electrons [M.Moll; Data: O.Krasel, PhD thesis 24, Uni Dortmund] 51 1 51 2 51 3 annealing time at 6 o C [min] Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-19-

Summary: Radiation Damage in Silicon Sensors Influenced by impurities in Si Defect Engineering is possible! Same for all tested Silicon materials! Two general types of radiation damage to the detector materials: Bulk (Crystal) damage due to Non Ionizing Energy Loss (NIEL) - displacement damage, built up of crystal defects I. Change of effective doping concentration (higher depletion voltage, under- depletion) II. Increase of leakage current (increase of shot noise, thermal runaway) III. Increase of charge carrier trapping (loss of charge) Surface damage due to Ionizing Energy Loss (IEL) - accumulation of positive in the oxide (SiO 2 ) and the Si/SiO 2 interface affects: interstrip capacitance (noise factor), breakdown behavior, Impact on detector performance and Charge Collection Efficiency (depending on detector type and geometry and readout electronics!) Signal/noise ratio is the quantity to watch Sensors can fail from radiation damage! Can be optimized! Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-2-

Scientific strategies: I. Material engineering II. III. Device engineering Variation of detector operational conditions CERN-RD39 Cryogenic Tracking Detectors Approaches of RD5 to develop radiation harder tracking detectors Defect Engineering of Silicon Understanding radiation damage Macroscopic effects and Microscopic defects Simulation of defect properties and defect kinetics Irradiation with different particles at different energies Oxygen rich silicon DOFZ, Cz, MCZ, EPI Oxygen dimer enriched silicon Hydrogen enriched silicon Pre-irradiated silicon Influence of processing technology New Materials Silicon Carbide (SiC), Gallium Nitride (GaN) Diamond: CERN RD42 Collaboration Device Engineering (New Detector Designs) p-type silicon detectors (n-in-p) Thin detectors 3D and Semi 3D detectors Cost effective detectors Simulation of highly irradiated detectors Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-22-

Defect Engineering of Silicon Influence the defect kinetics by incorporation of impurities or defects Best example: Oxygen Initial idea: Incorporate Oxygen to getter radiation-induced vacancies prevent formation of Di-vacancy (V 2 ) related deep acceptor levels Observation: Higher oxygen content less negative space charge (less charged acceptors) One possible mechanism: V 2 O is a deep acceptor V O VO (not harmful at room temperature) VO V 2 O (negative space charge) V 2 O(?) E c VO V 2 in clusters E V Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-23-

Spectacular Improvement of γ-irradiation tolerance V dep [V] 25 2 15 1 5 Depletion Voltage CA: <111> STFZ CB: <111> DOFZ 24 h CC: <111>DOFZ 48 h CD: <111> DOFZ 72 h CE: <1> STFZ CF: <1> DOFZ 24h CG: <1> DOFZ 48h CH: <1> DOFZ 72h (a) 2 4 6 8 1 dose [Mrad] No type inversion for oxygen enriched silicon! Slight increase of positive space charge (due to Thermal Donor generation?) Leakage increase not linear and depending on oxygen concentration 4 3 2 1 N eff [1 11 cm -3 ] I rev [na] 15 1 5 Leakage Current CA: <111> STFZ CB: <111> DOFZ 24h CC: <111> DOFZ 48h CD: <111> DOFZ 78h CE: <1> STFZ CF: <1> DOFZ 24h CG: <1> DOFZ 48h CH: <1> DOFZ 72h (b) 2 4 6 8 1 (b) dose [Mrad] [E.Fretwurst et al. 1 st RD5 Workshop] See also: - Z.Li et al. [NIMA461(21)126] - Z.Li et al. [1 st RD5 Workshop] Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-24-

Characterization of microscopic defects - γ and proton irradiated silicon detectors - 23: Major breakthrough on γ-irradiated samples For the first time macroscopic changes of the depletion voltage and leakage current can be explained by electrical properties of measured defects! [APL, 82, 2169, March 23] since 24: Big steps in understanding the improved radiation tolerance of oxygen enriched and epitaxial silicon after proton irradiation Levels responsible for depletion voltage changes after proton irradiation: Almost independent of oxygen content: Donor removal Cluster damage negative charge Influenced by initial oxygen content: I defect: deep acceptor level at E C -.54eV (good candidate for the V 2 O defect) negative charge [I.Pintilie, RESMDD, Oct.24] Influenced by initial oxygen dimer content (?): BD-defect: bistable shallow thermal donor (formed via oxygen dimers O 2i ) positive charge ΒD-defect I-defect Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-25-

Oxygen enriched silicon DOFZ - proton irradiation - DOFZ (Diffusion Oxygenated Float Zone Silicon) 1982 First oxygen diffusion tests on FZ [Brotherton et al. J.Appl.Phys.,Vol.53, No.8.,572] 1995 First tests on detector grade silicon [Z.Li et al. IEEE TNS Vol.42,No.4,219] 1999 Introduced to the HEP community by RD48 (ROSE) N eff [1 12 cm -3 ] 1 8 6 4 2 First tests in 1999 show clear advantage of oxygenation Carbon-enriched (P53) Standard (P51) O-diffusion 24 hours (P52) O-diffusion 48 hours (P54) O-diffusion 72 hours (P56) Carbonated Standard 1 2 3 4 5 Φ 24 GeV/c proton [1 14 cm -2 ] [RD48-NIMA 465(21) 6] Oxygenated 6 5 4 3 2 1 V dep [V] (3 µm) N eff [1 12 cm -3 ] 1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ROSE RD48 http://cern.ch/rd48 Later systematic tests reveal strong variations with no clear dependence on oxygen content 15 KΩ cm <111> - standard 15 KΩ cm <111> - oxygenated [M.Moll - NIMA 511 (23) 97] 2 4 6 8 1 Φ 24GeV/c proton [1 14 cm -2 ] However, only non-oxygenated diodes show a bad behavior. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 V dep [V] (3 µm) Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-26-

Silicon Growth Processes Floating Zone Silicon (FZ) Poly silicon Czochralski Silicon (CZ) The growth method used by the IC industry. Difficult to produce very high resistivity RF Heating coil Single crystal silicon Czochralski Growth Float Zone Growth Basically all silicon detectors made out of high resistivety FZ silicon Epitaxial Silicon (EPI) Chemical-Vapor Deposition (CVD) of Si up to 15 µm thick layers produced growth rate about 1µm/min Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-27-

Oxygen concentration in FZ, CZ and EPI O-concentration [cm -3 ] DOFZ and CZ silicon DOFZ: inhomogeneous oxygen distribution DOFZ: oxygen content increasing with time at high temperature 1 18 5 1 17 5 1 16 DOFZ 72h/115 o C DOFZ 48h/115 o C DOFZ 24h/115 o C Cz as grown 5 5 1 15 2 25 depth [µm] Data: G.Lindstroem et al. [M.Moll] 5 1 18 5 1 17 5 1 16 CZ: high O i (oxygen) and O 2i (oxygen dimer) concentration (homogeneous) CZ: formation of Thermal Donors possible! 5 O-concentration [1/cm 3 ] Epitaxial silicon 5 1 18 5 1 17 5 1 16 5 EPI layer 25 mu CZ substrate 5 mu 75 mu SIMS 25 µm SIMS 5 µm SIMS 75 µm simulation 25 µm simulation 5 µm simulation 75µm [G.Lindström et al.,1 th European Symposium on Semiconductor Detectors, 12-16 June 25] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 Depth [µm] EPI: O i and O 2i (?) diffusion from substrate into epi-layer during production EPI: in-homogeneous oxygen distribution Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-28-

standard for particle detectors Silicon Materials under Investigation by RD5 Material Symbol ρ (Ωcm) [O i ] (cm -3 ) Standard FZ (n- and p-type) FZ 1 7 1 3 < 5 1 16 Diffusion oxygenated FZ (n- and p-type) DOFZ 1 7 1 3 ~ 1 2 1 17 used for LHC Pixel detectors new material Magnetic Czochralski Si, Okmetic, Finland (n- and p-type) MCz ~ 1 1 3 ~ 5 1 17 Czochralski Si, Sumitomo, Japan (n-type) Cz ~ 1 1 3 ~ 8-9 1 17 Epitaxial layers on Cz-substrates, ITME, Poland (n- and p-type, 25, 5, 75, 15 µm thick) EPI 5 4 <1 1 17 Diffusion oxygenated Epitaxial layers on CZ EPI DO 5 1 ~ 7 1 17 DOFZ silicon CZ/MCZ silicon Epi silicon Epi-Do silicon - Enriched with oxygen on wafer level, inhomogeneous distribution of oxygen - high Oi (oxygen) and O 2i (oxygen dimer) concentration (homogeneous) - formation of shallow Thermal Donors possible -high O i, O 2i content due to out-diffusion from the CZ substrate (inhomogeneous) - thin layers: high doping possible (low starting resistivity) - as EPI, however additional O i diffused reaching homogeneous O i content Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-29-

Standard FZ, DOFZ, Cz and MCz Silicon 24 GeV/c proton irradiation Standard FZ silicon type inversion at ~ 2 1 13 p/cm 2 strong N eff increase at high fluence Oxygenated FZ (DOFZ) type inversion at ~ 2 1 13 p/cm 2 reduced N eff increase at high fluence CZ silicon and MCZ silicon V dep (3µm) [V] 2 4 6 8 1 proton fluence [1 14 cm -2 ] no type inversion in the overall fluence range (verified by TCT measurements) (verified for CZ silicon by TCT measurements, preliminary result for MCZ silicon) donor generation overcompensates acceptor generation in high fluence range 8 6 4 2 FZ <111> DOFZ <111> (72 h 115 C) MCZ <1> CZ <1> (TD killed) 12 1 8 6 4 2 N eff [1 12 cm -3 ] Common to all materials (after hadron irradiation): reverse current increase increase of trapping (electrons and holes) within ~ 2% Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-3-

N eff (t ) [cm -3 ] Epitaxial silicon 2. 1 14 1 14 EPI Devices Irradiation experiments Layer thickness: 25, 5, 75 µm (resistivity: ~ 5 Ωcm); 15 µm (resistivity: ~ 4 Ωcm) Oxygen: [O] 9 1 16 cm -3 ; Oxygen dimers (detected via IO 2 -defect formation) 25 µm, 8 o C 5 µm, 8 o C 75 µm, 8 o C 23 GeV protons 2. 1 15 4. 1 15 6. 1 15 8. 1 15 1 16 Φ eq [cm -2 ] Only little change in depletion voltage 15V (25µm) 23V (5µm) 32V (75µm) No type inversion up to ~ 1 16 p/cm 2 and ~ 1 16 n/cm 2 high electric field will stay at front electrode! reverse annealing will decreases depletion voltage! Explanation: introduction of shallow donors is bigger than generation of deep acceptors G.Lindström et al.,1 th European Symposium on Semiconductor Detectors, 12-16 June 25 G.Kramberger et al., Hamburg RD5 Workshop, August 26 Signal [e] 12 1 8 6 4 2 15 µm - neutron irradiated 75 µm - proton irradiated 75 µm - neutron irradiated 5 µm - neutron irradiated 5 µm - proton irradiated [Data: G.Kramberger et al., Hamburg RD5 Workshop, August 26] [M.Moll] 2 4 6 8 1 Φ eq [1 14 cm -2 ] CCE (Sr 9 source, 25ns shaping): 64 e (15 µm; 2x1 15 n/cm -2 ) 33 e (75µm; 8x1 15 n/cm -2 ) 23 e (5µm; 8x1 15 n/cm -2 ) Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-31-

Advantage of non-inverting material p-in-n detectors (schematic figures!) Fully depleted detector (non irradiated): Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-32-

Be careful, this is a very schematic explanation, reality is more complex! Advantage of non-inverting material p-in-n detectors (schematic figures!) Fully depleted detector (non irradiated): heavy irradiation inverted non inverted inverted to p-type, under-depleted: Charge spread degraded resolution Charge loss reduced CCE non-inverted, under-depleted: Limited loss in CCE Less degradation with under-depletion Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-33-

Epitaxial silicon - Annealing 5 µm thick silicon detectors: - Epitaxial silicon (5Ωcm on CZ substrate, ITME & CiS) - Thin FZ silicon (4KΩcm, MPI Munich, wafer bonding technique) V dep [V] 25 2 15 1 5 T a =8 o C t a =8 min EPI (ITME), 5µm FZ (MPI), 5µm 2 4 6 8 1 proton fluence [1 14 cm -2 ] 1.4 1.2 1..8.6.4.2 N eff [1 14 cm -3 ] V fd [V] 15 1 5 [E.Fretwurst et al.,resmdd - October 24] EPI (ITME), 9.6. 1 14 p/cm 2 FZ (MPI), 1.7. 1 15 p/cm 2 T a =8 o C [E.Fretwurst et al., Hamburg] 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 annealing time [min] Thin FZ silicon: Type inverted, increase of depletion voltage with time Epitaxial silicon: No type inversion, decrease of depletion voltage with time No need for low temperature during maintenance of SLHC detectors! Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-34-

New Materials: Epitaxial SiC A material between Silicon and Diamond Property Diamond GaN 4H SiC Si E g [ev] 5.5 3.39 3.3 1.12 E breakdown [V/cm] 1 7 4 1 6 2.2 1 6 3 1 5 µ e [cm 2 /Vs] 18 1 8 145 µ h [cm 2 /Vs] 12 3 115 45 v sat [cm/s] 2.2 1 7-2 1 7.8 1 7 Z 6 31/7 14/6 14 ε r 5.7 9.6 9.7 11.9 e-h energy [ev] 13 8.9 7.6-8.4 3.6 Density [g/cm3] 3.515 6.15 3.22 2.33 Displacem. [ev] 43 15 25 13-2 Wide bandgap (3.3eV) lower leakage current than silicon Signal: Diamond 36 e/µm SiC 51 e/µm Si 89 e/µm more charge than diamond R&D on diamond detectors: RD42 Collaboration http://cern.ch/rd42/ Higher displacement threshold than silicon radiation harder than silicon (?) Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-35-

SiC: CCE after neutron irradiation CCE before irradiation 1 % with α particles and MIPS CCE after irradiation (example) material produced by CREE 55 µm thick layer neutron irradiated samples tested with β particles Conclusion: SiC is less radiation tolerant than expected Collected Charge ( e - ) 3 2 1 Before irradiation @ 95 V.1 1E14 1E15 1E16 Fluence ((1MeV) n/cm 2 ) Consequence: RD5 will stop working on this topic [F.Moscatelli, Bologna, December 26] Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-36-

Device engineering p-in-n versus n-in-p detectors n-type silicon after high fluences: p-type silicon after high fluences: p + on-n n + on-p p-on-n silicon, under-depleted: Charge spread degraded resolution Charge loss reduced CCE Be careful, this is a very schematic explanation, reality is more complex! n-on-p silicon, under-depleted: Limited loss in CCE Less degradation with under-depletion Collect electrons (fast) Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-38-

n-in-p microstrip detectors CCE (1 3 electrons) n-in-p: - no type inversion, high electric field stays on structured side - collection of electrons n-in-p microstrip detectors (28µm) on p-type FZ silicon Detectors read-out with 4MHz 2 25 18 24 GeV/c p irradiation 16 2 14 12 CCE ~ 65 e (3%) 15 1 after 7.5 1 15 p cm -2 at 9V 8 1 6 4 5 2 [Data: G.Casse et al., NIMA535(24) 362] [M.Moll] 2 4 6 8 1 fluence [1 15 cm -2 ] CCE (1 3 electrons) time [days at 2 o C] 5 1 15 2 25 1.1 x 1 15 cm -2 3.5 x 1 15 cm -2 (5 V) 8 V 5 V 7.5 x 1 15 cm -2 (7 V) [Data: G.Casse et al., to be published in NIMA] M.Moll 1 2 3 4 5 time at 8 o C[min] no reverse annealing visible in the CCE measurement! e.g. for 7.5 1 15 p/cm 2 increase of V dep from V dep ~ 28V to V dep > 12V is expected! Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-39-

3D detector - concepts Introduced by: S.I. Parker et al., NIMA 395 (1997) 328 3D electrodes: - narrow columns along detector thickness, - diameter: 1µm, distance: 5-1µm Lateral depletion:- lower depletion voltage needed - thicker detectors possible - fast signal - radiation hard 3D p + 5 µm - - - - + + + n + 3 µm PLANAR p + p + - - - - - + + + + + n-columns p-columns wafer surface n-type substrate Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-4-

3D detector - concepts 3D electrodes: - narrow columns along detector thickness, - diameter: 1µm, distance: 5-1µm Lateral depletion:- lower depletion voltage needed - thicker detectors possible - fast signal - radiation hard n-columns p-columns wafer surface n-type substrate Simplified 3D architecture n + columns in p-type substrate, p + backplane operation similar to standard 3D detector Simulations performed Fabrication: IRST(Italy), CNM Barcelona hole metal strip [C. Piemonte et al., NIM A541 (25) 441] hole Simplified process hole etching and doping only done once no wafer bonding technology needed Hole depth 12-15µm Hole diameter ~1µm C.Piemonte et al., STD6, September 26 First CCE tests under way Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-41-

Comparison of measured collected charge on different radiation-hard materials and devices In the following: Comparison of collected charge as published in literature Be careful: Values obtained partly under different conditions irradiation temperature of measurement electronics used (shaping time, noise) type of device strip detectors or pad detectors This comparison gives only an indication of which material/technology could be used, to be more specific, the exact application should be looked at! Remember: The obtained signal has still to be compared to the noise Acknowledgements: Recent data collections: Mara Bruzzi (Hiroschima conference 26) Cinzia Da Via (Vertex conference 26) Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-42-

4 Comparison of measured collected charge on different radiation-hard materials and devices SiC, n-type, 55 µm, (RT, 2.5µs) [Moscatelli et al. 26] signal [electrons] 3 2 1 sample: irradiation: measurement: analysis: 4H-SiC layer, 55µm, pad detector 24 GeV/c protons Sr-9 source, 2.5 µs shaping, room temperature mean values presented 2 4 6 8 1 12 Φ eq [1 14 cm -2 [M.Moll 27] ] Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-43-

signal [electrons] 6 5 4 3 2 1 Comparison of measured collected charge on different radiation-hard materials and devices pcvd-diamond, 5µm, (RT, µs) [RD42 22] SiC, n-type, 55 µm, (RT, 2.5µs) [Moscatelli et al. 26] sample: irradiation: measurement: analysis: polycrystal, 5µm thick, strip 24 GeV/c protons testbeam, µs shaping most probable values 2 4 6 8 1 12 Φ eq [1 14 cm -2 [M.Moll 27] ] Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-44-

signal [electrons] 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Comparison of measured collected charge on different radiation-hard materials and devices pcvd-diamond, 5µm, (RT, µs) [RD42 25] pcvd-diamond, 5µm, (RT, µs) [RD42 22] SiC, n-type, 55 µm, (RT, 2.5µs) [Moscatelli et al. 26] sample: irradiation: measurement: analysis: polycrystal, 5µm thick, strip 24 GeV/c protons testbeam, µs shaping most probable values 2 4 6 8 1 12 Φ eq [1 14 cm -2 [M.Moll 27] ] Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-45-

signal [electrons] 1 8 6 4 2 Comparison of measured collected charge on different radiation-hard materials and devices pcvd-diamond, 5µm, (RT, µs) [RD42 26] pcvd-diamond, 5µm, (RT, µs) [RD42 25] pcvd-diamond, 5µm, (RT, µs) [RD42 22] SiC, n-type, 55 µm, (RT, 2.5µs) [Moscatelli et al. 26] sample: irradiation: measurement: analysis: polycrystal, 5µm thick, strip 24 GeV/c protons testbeam, µs shaping most probable values Diamond quality increasing [2-26] 2 4 6 8 1 12 Φ eq [1 14 cm -2 [M.Moll 27] ] Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-46-

1 Comparison of measured collected charge on different radiation-hard materials and devices signal [electrons] 8 6 4 2 pcvd-diamond, 5µm, (RT, µs) [RD42 22-26] (scaled) SiC, n-type, 55 µm, (RT, 2.5µs) [Moscatelli et al. 26] sample: irradiation: measurement: analysis: polycrystal, 5µm thick, strip 24 GeV/c protons testbeam, µs shaping most probable values 2 4 6 8 1 12 Φ eq [1 14 cm -2 [M.Moll 27] ] Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-47-

signal [electrons] 12 1 8 6 4 2 Comparison of measured collected charge on different radiation-hard materials and devices pcvd-diamond, 5µm, (RT, µs), strip, [RD42 22-26] (scaled) n-epi Si, 15 µm, (-3 o C, 25ns), pad [Kramberger 26] n-epi Si, 75 µm, (-3 o C, 25ns), pad [Kramberger 26] SiC, n-type, 55 µm, (RT, 2.5µs), pad [Moscatelli et al. 26] 2 4 6 8 1 12 Φ eq [1 14 cm -2 [M.Moll 27] ] Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-48-

25 Comparison of measured collected charge on different radiation-hard materials and devices signal [electrons] 2 15 1 5 p-fz Si, 28 µm, (-3 o C, 25ns), strip [Casse 24] p-mcz Si, 3 µm, (-3 o C, µs), pad [Bruzzi 26] n-epi Si, 15 µm, (-3 o C, 25ns), pad [Kramberger 26] n-epi Si, 75 µm, (-3 o C, 25ns), pad [Kramberger 26] pcvd-diamond, 5µm, (RT, µs), strip, [RD42 22-26] (scaled) SiC, n-type, 55 µm, (RT, 2.5µs), pad [Moscatelli et al. 26] 2 4 6 8 1 12 Φ eq [1 14 cm -2 [M.Moll 27] ] Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-49-

signal [electrons] 25 2 15 1 5 Comparison of measured collected charge on different radiation-hard materials and devices 3D FZ Si, 235 µm, (laser injection, scaled!), pad [Da Via 26] p-fz Si, 28 µm, (-3 o C, 25ns), strip [Casse 24] p-mcz Si, 3 µm, (-3 o C, µs), pad [Bruzzi 26] n-epi Si, 15 µm, (-3 o C, 25ns), pad [Kramberger 26] n-epi Si, 75 µm, (-3 o C, 25ns), pad [Kramberger 26] pcvd-diamond, 5µm, (RT, µs), strip, [RD42 22-26] (scaled) SiC, n-type, 55 µm, (RT, 2.5µs), pad [Moscatelli et al. 26] 2 4 6 8 1 12 Φ eq [1 14 cm -2 [M.Moll 27] ] Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-5-

signal [electrons] 25 2 15 1 5 Comparison of measured collected charge on different radiation-hard materials and devices 3D FZ Si, 235 µm, (laser injection, scaled!), pad [Da Via 26] p-fz Si, 28 µm, (-3 o C, 25ns), strip [Casse 24] p-mcz Si, 3 µm, (-3 o C, µs), pad [Bruzzi 26] n-epi Si, 15 µm, (-3 o C, 25ns), pad [Kramberger 26] n-epi Si, 75 µm, (-3 o C, 25ns), pad [Kramberger 26] scvd-diamond, 77µm, (RT, µs), [RD42 26] (preliminary data, scaled) pcvd-diamond, 5µm, (RT, µs), strip, [RD42 22-26] (scaled) SiC, n-type, 55 µm, (RT, 2.5µs), pad [Moscatelli et al. 26] 2 4 6 8 1 12 Φ eq [1 14 cm -2 [M.Moll 27] ] Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-51-

Signal Charge / Threshold Do not forget: The signal has still to be compared to the noise (the threshold) Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-52-

Summary Radiation Damage Radiation Damage in Silicon Detectors Change of Depletion Voltage (type inversion, reverse annealing, ) (can be influenced by defect engineering!) Increase of Leakage Current (same for all silicon materials) Increase of Charge Trapping (same for all silicon materials) Signal to Noise ratio is quantity to watch (material + geometry + electronics) Microscopic defects Good understanding of damage after γ-irradiation (point defects) Damage after hadron damage still to be better understood (cluster defects) CERN-RD5 collaboration working on: Material Engineering (Silicon: DOFZ, CZ, EPI, other impurities,. ) (Diamond) Device Engineering (3D and thin detectors, n-in-p, n-in-n, ) To obtain ultra radiation hard sensors a combination of material and device engineering approaches depending on radiation environment, application and available readout electronics will be best solution Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-53-

Summary Detectors for SLHC At fluences up to 1 15 cm -2 (Outer layers of SLHC detector) the change of the depletion voltage and the large area to be covered by detectors are major problems. CZ silicon detectors could be a cost-effective radiation hard solution no type inversion (to be confirmed), use cost effective p-in-n technology oxygenated p-type silicon microstrip detectors show very encouraging results: CCE 65 e; Φ eq = 4 1 15 cm -2, 3µm At the fluence of 1 16 cm -2 (Innermost layers of SLHC detector) the active thickness of any silicon material is significantly reduced due to trapping. The two most promising options besides regular replacement of sensors are: Thin/EPI detectors : drawback: radiation hard electronics for low signals needed (e.g. 23e at Φ eq 8x1 15 cm -2, 5µm EPI) 3D detectors : looks very promising, drawback: technology has to be optimized SiC and GaN have been characterized and abandoned by RD5. Further information: http://cern.ch/rd5/ Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-54-

# electrons 25 2 15 1 5 Comparison of measured collected charge on different radiation-hard materials and devices Line to guide the eye for planar devices strips pixels 1 14 1 15 1 16 1 MeV n fluence [cm -2 ] p FZ Si 28µm; 25ns; -3 C [1] p-mcz Si 3µm;.2-2.5µs; -3 C [2] n EPI Si 75µm; 25ns; -3 C [3] n EPI Si 15µm; 25ns; -3 C [3] scvd Diam 77µm; 25ns; +2 C [4] pcvd Diam 3µm; 25ns; +2 C [4] n EPI SiC 55µm; 2.5µs; +2 C [5] 3D FZ Si 235µm [6] 16V [1] G. Casse et al. NIM A (24) [2] M. Bruzzi et al. STD6, September 26 [3] G. Kramberger, RD5 Work. Prague 6 [4] W: Adam et al. NIM A (26) [5] F. Moscatelli RD5 Work.CERN 25 [6] C. Da Vià, "Hiroshima" STD6 (charge induced by laser) M. Bruzzi, Presented at STD6 Hiroshima Conference, Carmel, CA, September 26 Thick (3µm) p-type planar detectors can operate in partial depletion, collected charge higher than 12e up to 2x1 15 cm -2. Most charge at highest fluences collected with 3D detectors Silicon comparable or even better than diamond in terms of collected charge (BUT: higher leakage current cooling needed!) Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-55-

Comparison of measured collected charge on different radiation-hard materials and devices Michael Moll Lausanne, 29. January 27-56-