F O U R T H E D I T I O N Introduction to Environmental Geology Edward A. Keller University of California, Santa Barbara PEARSON Prentice Hall Pearson Education International
CONTENTS Preface xiii PART ONE Foundations of Environmental Geology 1 Chapter 1 Philosophy and Fundamental Concepts 2 CASE HISTORY: Easter Island: Are We on the Same Path at a Global Scale? 4 1.1 Introduction to Environmental Geology 5 A Closer Look: Earth's Place in Space 5 1.2 Fundamental Concepts of Environmental Geology 10 Concept One: Human Population Growth 10 Concept Two: Sustainability 15 A Closer Look: Human Landscape Modification: Ducktown, Tennessee 16 Concept Three: Earth as a System 18 Case History: The Aral Sea: The Death of a Sea 19 A Closer Look: The Gaia Hypothesis 23 Concept Four: Hazardous Earth Processes 24 Concept Five: Scientific Knowledge and Values 25 Chapter 2 Internal Structure of Earth and Plate Tectonics 36 CASE HISTORY: Two Cities on a Plate Boundary 38 2.1 Internal Structure of Earth 39 2.2 How We Know about the Internal Structure of Earth 2.3 Plate Tectonics 42 A Closer Look: The Wonder of Mountains 48 2.4 A Detailed Look at Seafloor Spreading 51 2.5 Pangaea and Present Continents 55 2.6 How Plate Tectonics Works: Putting It Together 61 2.7 Plate Tectonics and Environmental Geology 63 Chapter 3 Minerals and Rocks 66 CASE HISTORY: The Asbestos Controversy 68 3.1 Minerals 69 3.2 Important Rock-Forming Minerals 74 A Closer Look: Weathering 76 A Closer Look: Clay 79 3.3 Rock Cycle 81 3.4 Three Rock Laws 82 3.5 Igneous Rocks 82 3.6 Sedimentary Rocks 88 3.7 Metamorphic Rocks 91 Case History: St. Francis Dam 95 3.8 Rock Strength and Deformation 97 3.9 Rock Structures 98 41 Chapter 4 Ecology and Geology 104 CASE HISTORY: Endangered SteelheadTrout in Southern California: It's All About Geology 106 4. 1 Ecology for Geologists: Basic Terms 106 4.2 Geology and Biodiversity 109 A Closer Look: Seawalls and Biodiversity 119 4.3 Ecological Restoration 121 A Closer Look: Restoration of the Kissimmee River 122 vii
viii Contents A Closer Look: Restoration of the Florida Everglades 124 A Closer Look: Coastal Sand Dune Restoration at Pocket Beaches: University of California, Santa Barbara 127 PART TWO Earth Processes and Natural Hazards 131 Chapter 5 Introduction to Natural Hazards 132 CASE HISTORY: Hurricane Katrina, Most Serious Natural Catastrophe in U.S. History 134 5.1 Hazards, Disasters, and Natural Processes 136 A Closer Look: The Magnitude-Frequency Concept 138 5.2 Evaluating Hazards: History, Linkages, Disaster Prediction, and Risk Assessment 143 A Closer Look: Scientists, Hazards, and the Media 148 5.3 The Human Response to Hazards 149 5.4 Global Climate and Hazards 153 5.5 Population Increase, Land-Use Change, and Natural Hazards 154 Chapter 6 A Closer Look: Nevado del Ruiz: A Story of People, Land Use, and Volcanic Eruption 156 Earthquakes and Related Phenomena 160 CASE HISTORY: Northridge, 1994 162 6.2 Earthquake Magnitude 162 6.3 Earthquake Intensity 167 6.4 Plate Boundary Earthquakes 168 6.5 Intraplate Earthquakes 170 6.6 Earthquake Processes 172 6.7 Earthquake Shaking 176 6.8 Earthquake Cycle 186 6.9 Earthquakes Caused by Human Activity 188 6.10 Effects of Earthquakes 189 6.11 Tsunami 192 A Closer Look: Indonesian Tsunami 193 6.12 Earthquake Risk and Earthquake Prediction 198 6.13 Toward Earthquake Prediction 203 6.14 Sequence of Earthquakes in Turkey: Can One Earthquake Set Up Another? 203 6.15 The Response to Earthquake Hazards 204 Chapter 7 A Closer Look: The Alaska Earthquake of 2002 and the Value of Estimating Potential Ground Rupture 206 Volcanic Activity 214 CASE HISTORY: Mt. Unzen, 1991 216 7.1 Introduction to Volcanic Hazards 217 7.2 Volcanism and Volcanoes 217 7.3 Volcano Types 219 7.4 Volcano Origins 224 7.5 Volcanic Features 225 7.6 Volcanic Hazards 230 7.7 Two Case Histories 238 7.8 Forecasting Volcanic Activity 243 7.9 Adjustment to and Perception of the Volcanic Hazard 247 6.1 Introduction to Earthquakes 162 Chapter 8 Rivers and Flooding 250 CASE HISTORY: Mississippi River Flooding, 1973 and 1993 252 8. 1 Rivers: Historical Use 254 8.2 Streams and Rivers 254 8.3 Sediment in Rivers 256 8.4 River Velocity, Discharge, Erosion, and Sediment Deposition 257 A Closer Look: History of a River 259 8.5 Effects of Land-Use Changes 261 8.6 Channel Patterns and Floodplain Formation 262
Contents ix 8.7 River Flooding 264 A Closer Look: Magnitude and Frequency of Floods 265 8.8 Urbanization and Flooding 269 8.9 The Nature and Extent of Flood Hazards 271 Case History: Flash Floods in Eastern Ohio 272 8.10 Adjustments to Flood Hazards 273 8.11 Perception of Flooding 281 11.3 Mass Extinctions 368 11.4 Minimizing the Impact Hazard 374 A Closer Look: Near-Earth Objects 376 PART THREE Resources and Pollution 379 Chapter 9 Slope Processes, Landslides, and Subsidence 286 CASE HISTORY: La Conchita Landslide of 2005 288 9.1 Introduction to Landslides 288 9.2 Slope Processes and Types of Landslides 290 9.3 Slope Stability 294 A Closer Look: Translation Slides Along Bedding Planes 295 Case History: Vaiont Dam 301 9.4 Human Use and Landslides 303 9.5 Minimizing the Landslide Hazard 306 9.6 Snow Avalanches 311 9.7 Subsidence 312 9.8 Perception of the Landslide Hazard 318 Chapter 10 Coastal Processes 322 CASE HISTORY: The Cape Hatteras Lighthouse Controversy 324 10.1 Introduction to Coastal Hazards 324 10.2 Coastal Processes 325 10.3 Coastal Erosion 331 A Closer Look: Measuring Coastal Change 335 10.4 Coastal Hazards and Engineering Structures 336 10.5 Human Activity and Coastal Erosion: Some Examples 340 10.6 Tropical Cyclones 343 10.7 Perception of and Adjustment to Coastal Hazards 349 A Closer Look: E-Linesand EZones 352 Chapter 12 Water Resources 380 CASE HISTORY: Long Island, New York 382 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 Chapter Water: A Brief Global Perspective 383 Surface Water 384 Groundwater 387 Interactions between Surface Water and Groundwater 394 Case History: The Edwards Aquifer, Texas-Water Resource in Conflict 397 Desalination 398 Water Use 398 Water Management in the Future 402 A Closer Look: Management of the Colorado River 403 Water and Ecosystems 406 A Closer Look: Wetlands 407 Emerging Global Water Shortages 408 13 Water Pollution 412 CASE HISTORY: North Carolina's Bay of Pigs 414 13.1 An Overview of Water Pollution 415 Chapter 11 Impact of Extraterrestrial Objects 356 CASE HISTORY: TheTunguska Event 358 11.1 Earth's Place in Space 359 1 1.2 Aerial Bursts and Impacts 360
Contents 13.2 Selected Water Pollutants 416 1 3.3 Surface Water Pollution and Treatment 425 A Closer Look: Acid Mine Drainage 426 1 3.4 Groundwater Pollution and Treatment 428 13.5 Water-Quality Standards 431 13.6 Wastewater Treatment 433 A Closer Look: Boston Harbor-Cleaning up a National Treasure 436 1 3.7 Federal Legislation 438 13.8 What Can Be Done to Reduce Effects of Water Pollution? 439 Chapter 14 Mineral Resources 442 CASE HISTORY: Mine Near Golden, Colorado, Is Transformed into a Golf Course 444 1 4.1 Minerals and Human Use 444 14.2 Geology of Mineral Resources 449 A Closer Look: Plate Tectonics and Minerals 450 14.3 Environmental Impact of Mineral Development 456 A Closer Look: Mining and Itai-ltai Disease 461 A Closer Look: Homestake Mine, South Dakota 463 14.4 Recycling Mineral Resources 465 14.5 Minerals and Sustainability 466 Chapter 15 Energy Resources 470 CASE HISTORY: Peak Oil: When Will It Occur and What Is Its Importance? 472 1 5. 1 Worry over Energy Sources Is Nothing New: Energy Shocks Past and Present 472 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 15.9 15.10 Chapter 16 Energy Supply and Energy Demand 474 A Closer Look: Energy Units 474 Fossil Fuels 477 A Closer Look: Coal Sludge in the Appalachian Mountains 483 Future of Oil 492 Fossil Fuel and Acid Rain 493 Nuclear Energy 496 A Closer Look: Radioactivity 498 Geothermal Energy 508 Renewable Energy Sources 513 Conservation. Efficiency, and Cogeneration 521 Energy Policy for the Future 522 Soils and Environment 526 CASE HISTORY: Times Beach, Missouri 528 1 6.1 Introduction to Soils 528 16.2 Soil Profiles 529 16.3 Soil Properties 531 16.4 Soil Fertility 533 16.5 Water in Soil 534 1 6.6 Soil Classification 534 16.7 Engineering Properties of Soils 534 16.8 Rates of Soil Erosion 539 16.9 Sediment Pollution 540 A Closer Look: Universal Soil Loss Equation 541 Case History: Reduction of Sediment Pollution, Maryland 542 1 6.1 0 Land Use and Environmental Problems of Soils 542 1 6.1 1 Soil Pollution 547 16.12 Soil Surveys and Land-Use Planning 549 Chapter 17 Waste as a Resource: Waste Management 552 CASE HISTORY: Where Does E-Waste Go? 554 17.1 Concepts of Waste Management: An Overview 554 17.2 Materials Management 556 17.3 Solid Waste Disposal 557 17.4 Hazardous Waste Management 564 A Closer Look: Love Canal 566
Contents XI Chapter 18 Air Pollution 576 CASE HISTORY: The London Smog Crisis of 1952 578 18.1 Introduction to Air Pollution 578 18.2 Pollution of the Atmosphere 579 18.3 Sources of Air Pollution 580 18.4 Air Pollutants 580 18.5 Urban Air Pollution 587 18.6 Indoor Air Pollution 592 18.7 Control of Air Pollution 594 18.8 Air Quality Standards 597 18.9 Cost of Controlling Air Pollution 598 Chapter 20 Geology, Society, and the Future 636 CASE HISTORY: China on the Edge of an Environmental Crisis? 638 20.1 Introduction 638 20.2 Geology and Environmental Health 639 A Closer Look: Lead in the Environment 639 20.3 Environmental Planning: Site Selection 642 A Closer Look: Radon Gas 643 20.4 Environmental Impact Analysis 646 20.5 Land Use and Planning 651 20.6 Environmental Law 655 20.7 Geology, the Environment, and the Future 657 PART FOUR Environmental Management, Global Perspective, and Society 603 Appendix Minerals A-l Appendix Rocks B-l A B Chapter 19 Global Climate Change 604 CASE HISTORY: Eric the Red and Climate Change 606 19.1 Global Change and Earth System Science: An Overview 606 19.2 Tools for Studying Global Change 607 19.3 Earth's Atmosphere and Climate Change 608 19.4 Global Warming 612 19.5 Potential Effects of Global Climate Change 622 A Closer Look: Glaciers 624 A Closer Look: Desertification 625 A Closer Look: El Nino 628 A Closer Look: Discussion on How to Stop Global Warming Heats Up 632 19.6 Coupling of Global Change Processes: Ozone Depletion and Global Warming 632 Appendix C Maps and Related Topics C-l Appendix D How Geologists Determine Geologic Time Appendix E Darcy's Law E-l Glossary G-l References R-l Index 1-1 D-l