FUNDAMENTALS OF DIMENSIONAL METROLOGY CEJohansson Irvine, California SUB Gfittingen 7 215 940 806 Mesa Community College Mesa, Arizona
CONTENTS ASUREMENT AND METROLOGY 1 1-1 Measurement as the Language of Science 1 1-2 The Uses of Measurement 3 1-3 Communications about Measurement 5 1-4 Acts and Applications of Measurement 7 1-5 Codification of Measurement 8 1-6 A Look Ahead 9 Summary 10 End-of-Chapter Questions 10 CHAPTER 2 LANGUAGE AND SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENT..12 How Big? 13 How Far Apart? 14 From End to End.15 Accuracy, Precision, and Reliability 19 Accuracy versus Precision... 22 Evolution of Standards 22 Origin of the Metric System 24 Legality of the Metric System in the United States 26 The International Inch \ 26 Fundamental Criteria 26 The Best System 28 Practical Criteria 28 The Decimal-Inch System 29 Metrological Considerations 29 Communications Considerations 30 Computational Considerations 30 Rounding off, Numerical Values.31 Summary * 37 End-of-Chapter Questions 38 MEASUREMENT AND TOLERANCES 12. 3-1 Meaning of Tolerance 42 3-2 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing 43
VI Fundamentals of Dimensional Metrology 3-3 Tolerancing 45 Summary 51 End-of-Chapter Questions 51 CHAPTER 4 STATISTICS AND METROLOGY 4-1 * Basic Statistics 54 4-2 Probability 58 4-3 Acceptance Sampling 61 Summary 65 End-of-Chapter Questions...67 CHAPTER 5 MEASUREMENT WITH GRADUATED SCALES AND SCALED INSTRUMENTS 68 5-1 The Steel Rule 70 5-2 The Role of Error 73 5-3 Scaled Instruments 78 5-4 Calipers: The Original Transfer Instruments 85 Summary 98 End-of-Chapter Questions 100» CHAPTER 6 VERNIER INSTRUMENTS 1O6 6-1 Vernier Instruments 106 6-2 Vernier Caliper 109 6-3 Vernier Depth Gage 119 6-4 Vernier Height Gage 120 6-5 Three Elements of Measurement 128 Summary 128 End-of-Chapter Questions 129] \ > CHAPTER 7 MICROMETER INSTRUMENTS.131 7-1 Micrometers 131 7-2 Using the Micrometer 144 I 7-3 Care of Micrometers 150 7-4 Variations of Micrometers 155 Summary 156 End-of-Chapter Questions 157 CHAPTER 8 DEVELOPMENT AND USE OP GAGE BLOCKS.160 8-1 Development of Gage Blocks 160 8-2 Modern Gage Blocks 166 8-3 Calibration of Gage Blocks 172 8-4 Gage Block Applications 174 8-5 Combining Gage Blocks 181 Summary 198 End-of-Chapter Questions 200
Contents VII CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER 1O CHAPTER 11 CHAPTER 12 MEASUREMENT BY COMPARISON 2O4 9-1 The Dial Indicator 208 9-2 Selection of a Dial Indicator 228 9-3 Use of Dial Indicators 230 9-4 Calibration of Dial Indicators 230 9-5 Accessories and Attachments 232 9-6 Constructive Use of Error 240 Summary 240 End-of-Chapter Questions.243 HIGH-AMPLIFICATION COMPARATORS 247 10-1 High-Amplification Comparators 249 10-2 Electronic Measurement 253 10-3 Applications Unique to Electronic Measurement 268 10-4 Metrological Advantages of Multiple Scales 270 Summary 278 End-of-Chapter Questions 280 PNEUMATIC MEASUREMENT 283 11-1 Background 283 11-2 From History to Semantics 284 11-3 Principles of Pneumatic Instruments 284 11-4 Application of Pneumatic Metrology 288 11-5 Metrological Advantages of Pneumatic Comparators 294 11-6 Reading the Pneumatic Comparator i 295 Summary 299 End-of-Chapter Questions.300 CALIBRATION 3O4 12-1 The Role of Error!. 305 12-2 Basic Calibration Procedure '. 309 12-3 Record and Correct Calibration Readings 328 Summary 331 End-of-Chapter Questions 331 OPTICAL FLATS AND OPTICAL ALIGNMENT...336 13-1 Importance of Standards 338 13-2 Light Waves as Standards,..338 13-3 Measurement with Optical Flats 345 13-4 Applications of Optical Flat Measurement' 358 13-5 Principles of Optical Metrology 362 13-6 Alignment Telescope Straightness Measurement 365 13-7 Optical Squares Squareness 380 13-8 Sight Level Plumbness 388 13-9 Optical Polygons Angles 393 13-10 Jig Transit Planes 399
VIII Fundamentals of Dimensional Metrology 13-11 Theodolite Angles and Planes... : 404 13-12 Beyond Vision 407 Summary 412 End-of-Chapter Questions _ 413 CHAPTER 14 CHAPTER 15 CHAPTER 16 REFERENCE PLANES 418 14-1 Background 418 14-2 Flatness 419 14-3 Perpendicularity 423 14-4 Modern Reference Planes 424 14-5 How Flat Is Flat? 432 Summary 436 End-of-Chapter Questions 437 ANGLE MEASUREMENT 439 15-1 Basic Geometry x 441 15-2 Angle Measurement '. 444 15-3 The Level 451 15-4 The Protractor :,...462 15-5 Trigonometric Functions 470 15-6 Sine Bars and Plates 473 15-7 Mechanical Angle Measurement 483 15-8 Measurements to Seconds of Arc 487 15-9 Accuracy and Precision in Angle Measurement 488 15-10 The Degree, Grad, and Gon 491 Summary 493 End-of-Chapter Questions' 494 SURFACE MEASUREMENTS.499 16-1 Background \. 501 16-2 Surface Evaluation, Stylus Method.\ 502 16-3 Numerical Values for Surface Assessment 510 16-4 Surface Texture Specimens 514 16-5 Surface Evaluation, Other Methods 516 16-6 Roundness 517 16-7 Notation for Surface Assessment 520 Summary 520 End-of-Chapter Questions.521 COORDINATE MEASURING MACHINES 525 17-1 Background 526 17-2 The Role of Coordinate Measuring Machines 527 17-3 Types of Coordinate Measuring Machines 527 17-4 Modes of Operation 529 17-5 Metrological Features 539 17-6 Coordinate Systems 540
Contents IX 17-7 Future Expectations 540 Summary 540 End-of-Chapter Questions 541 CHAPTER 18 OPTICAL METROLOGY.544 18-1 Principles of the Microscope 545 18-2 Applications.549 18-3 Comparison of Optical Comparators and Microscopes 552 18-4 Optical Considerations 553 18-5 Applications of the Optical Comparator 558 18-6 Accuracy of Optical Comparators 567 18-7 Machine Vision Systems 571 Summary 575 End-of-Chapter Questions 576 APPENDICES Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Appendix D Decimal Equivalents 581 Conversion Tables 583 Conversion Table: Inches to Millimeters 583 Conversion Table: Millimeters to Inches 585 Geometric Optics 587 Geometric Optics 587 Single Lens Magnifiers 593 Summary 596 Prefixes Used as Multipliers 597 Recommended Pronunciation of Prefixes 597 Bibliography 598.615