PROBLEMS IN TRANSPORTATION* DALE L. ANDERSON ARS -USDA INTRODUCTION

PROBLEMS IN TRANSPORTATION* DALE L. ANDERSON - ARS -USDA INTRODUCTION American a g r i c u l t u r a l producers have t r a d i t i o n a l l y marketed t h e i r l i v e s t o c k i n d i s t a n t p l a c e s. Hogs and c a t t l e were driven over t h e Cumberland road i n c o l o n i a l times i n order t o s e e them t o population c e n t e r s i n t h e E a s t. The Chisholm T r a i l d r i v e s of Texas c a t t l e t o t h e Kansas r a i l h e a d s a r e enshrined i n American l i t e r a t u r e. The huge, midwestern meat packaging i n d u s t r i e s i n Chicago and Kansas C i t y depended on l i v e s t o c k t h a t were t r a n s p o r t e d s u b s t a n t i a l d i s t a n c e s. It i s i r o n i c t h a t t h e Texas c a t t l e d r i v e s, which included a l l t h e hazards t o c a t t l e glamorized by books and f i l m s, may a c t u a l l y have r e s u l t e d i n fewer marketing l o s s e s than our modern t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n system. The U.S. l i v e s t o c k i n d u s t r i e s t r a n s p o r t r e l a t e d marketing l o s s e s were r e c e n t l y estimated t o be i n excess of one b i l l i o n d o l l a r s, while l o s s e s i n t r a n s p o r t i n g and d i s t r i b u t i n g meat from t h e slaughterhouse t o t h e consumer may be even g r e a t e r. A worldwide l i v e s t o c k and meat d i s t r i b u t i o n system r e q u i r e s a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of our d i s t r i b u t i o n processes. Both l i v e animals and f r e s h meat a r e p e r i s h a b l e products t h a t r e q u i r e s p e c i a l handling i n d i s t r i b u t i o n. Thus, t h e U.S must n e c e s s a r i l y develop an e f f i c i e n t " s p e c i a l handling," system f o r i t s l i v e s t o c k and meat.. About 3 years ago, I made a speech i n which I stated that t h e United S t a t e s w a s f a c i n g t h r e e formidable problems 51 exporting a g r i c u l t u r a l products. These were: (1) Trade b a r r i e r s and o t h e r r e s t r i c t i o n s t o e n t r y. (2) A p r i c e disadvantage caused by t h e e f f e c t s of i n f l a t i o n.. products i n poor condition. ( 3 ) An i n e f f i c i e n t t r a n s p o r t system t h a t added t o c o s t s and d e l i v e r e d U.S Since t h a t time the s i t u a t i o n has changed somewhat. Trade b a r r i e r s and r e s t r i c t i o n s t o e n t r y s t i l l e x i s t, b u t t h e problems of demand, t h e d e s i r e f o r high q u a l i t y American products, and t h e shortage of c e r t a i n types of f o o d s t u f f s i n various p a r t s of t h e world are having t h e i r * Presented a t t h e 27th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference of t h e American Meat Science Association, 1974.

e f f e c t s upon t h e s e b a r r i e r s. The United S t a t e s i s t h e only nation with an appreciable surplus of p r o t e i n. When t h e people of a country want a food product badly ensugh, a r t i f i c i a l b a r r i e r s j u s t seem t o melt away. The p r i c e s i t u a t i o n f o r American food products a l s o h a s changed considerably, e s p e c i a l l y with t h e d o l l a r devaluation. The problems of our t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system, however, have not melted away. This i s not t o say that we a r e not making some s i g n i f i c a n t improvements. Additional c o n t a i n e r s h i p s e r v i c e and f a s t e r s h i p s a r e Improving, considerably, our a b i l i t y t o d e l i v e r food products abroad, and t h e extension of containership r o u t e s i n t o new a r e a s can be of g r e a t h e l p. The e n t r y of h s h and Sea-Bee a l s o should have an e f f e c t upon our a b i l i t y t o d e l i v e r f o o d s t u f f s abroad, b u t we s t i l l have a h o s t of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n problems. The p r e s e n t p l i g h t of t h e Penn C e n t r a l Railway i s only one of them. Recently, we added up t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n b i l l f o r a g r i c u l t u r e and f o r e s t products; it came t o n e a r l y $20 b i l l i o n per y e a r. I n t h e United S t a t e s, t h e t o t a l food b i l l i s now about $134 b i l l i o n p e r y e a r. The farmer used t o g e t about one-third of t h i s amount; now he i s g e t t i n g 45 p e r c e n t. The remaining 55 percent goes t o marketing, and we expect t h e s e marketing c o s t s t o go up r a p i d l y t o t r y t o catch up with farm p r i c e s. O f t h i s 55 percent, about one-half i s f o r t h e p h y s i c a l d i s t r i b s l t i o n, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n, and handling of food a s it moves from t h e f a r m t o t h e consumer. I n our export t r a d e, however, t h e percentage of t h e food c o s t devoted t o t h e c o s t of p h y s i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n goes up considerably. Without question, t h e opportunity e x i s t s f o r many more products t o move i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e i f we can s o l v e t h e problems of d i s t r i b u t i o n. I n general, U.S farmers have been most s u c c e s s f u l i n exporting t h e following :. (1) The less l a b o r i n t e n s i v e crop--those f o r which production can be h i g h l y mechanized. (2) Products of e x c e p t i o n a l q u a l i t y as compared w i t h competing products i n f o r e i g n markets. ( 3 ) Products not produced by competieors o r i n which t h e world product ion is l i m i t e d. I n some ways meat f i t s a l l t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s. Our f e e d l o t s and processing p l a n t s axe second t o none. We have t h e q u a l i t y and o t h e r n a t i o n s have a s h o r t supply. However, as American a g r i c u l t u r a l e x p e r t i s e becomes known through A I D o r Self'-Help Programs, fewer and fewer crops remain exclusive t o t h e United S t a t e s. Also, U.S. mechanized production techniques a r e being adopted overseas and h i g h q u a l i t y p l a n t v a r i e t i e s and breeding s t o c k a r e being exported, which put f o r e i g n producers on a more equal f o o t i n g with t h e United S t a t e s. Our fancy foods can o f t e n command high p r i c e s i f t h e y a r e d e l i v e r e d i n good condition and a t

reasonable c o s t. This has not always happened because o f f a i l u r e s i n packaging and i n product p r o t e c t i o n i n t r a n s i t. Those crops t h a t can be produced domestically a t r e l a t i v e l y low c o s t s t i l l must f a c e a formidable hurdle of high t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o s t s t o foreign markets. The Livestock and Meat Industry In order t o examine t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n prospects f o r l i v e s t o c k and meat, we need t o e s t a b l i s h some b a s i c premises about t h e industry. Several years agg, t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l Research Service (ARS) began a systems study of l i v e s t o c k and meat. The idea was t o look a t t h e t o t a l l i v e s t o c k and meat industry as a physical d i s t r i b u t i o n system in order t o determine t h e l e a s t c o s t l y and most e f f i c i e n t o v e r a l l methods, r e g a r d l e s s of who uwned parts of t h e system. A s a r e s u l t of t h e systems study, it w a s discovered that not one but s e v e r a l i n t e r r e l a t e d i n d u s t r i e s were involved i n t h e physical d i s t r i b u t i o n, w i t h each industry pursuing i t s own goals. I n one study, done by t h e A. T. Kearney Company, t h e bottleneck of t h e whole system was described a s t h e supply of feeder calves (1). Every o t h e r segment of t h e i n d u s t r y had excess capacity t h a t could not be u t i l i z e d unless t h e i r supply of "raw materials" ( f e e d e r animals ) could be increased. Studies have indicated that s u b s t a n t i a l economics a r e possible by such innovations a s converting meat t o boxed beef and c e n t r a l r e t a i l c u t t i n g (2,3) a f a c t v e l 1 noted by t h e Cost of Living Council and t h e Food P r o d u c t i v i t y C o m i s s i o n. Market segmentation is w e l l i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e p o u l t r y industry Chicken b r e a s t s and thighs a r e marketed i n t h e U.S. Certain high priced p o u l t r y products and c u t s, such a s Cornish hens and premium boneless b r e a s t s, a r e marketed t o t h e f o r e i g n h o t e l t r a d e. Wings a r e sold a t a premium t o Hong Kong and Singapore where t h e Chinese demand seems t o exceed supply. Chicken necks and backs and low-grade frozen p a u l t r y a r e marketed t o l e s s well-to-do markets. Small r e t a i l s t o r e s in t h e Caribbean s e l l l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of t h e s e products which a r e used i n n a t i v e cooked r i c e d i s h e s. By use of t h i s sound and b a s i c merchandising technique, p o u l t r y processors a r e able t o maximize t h e i r r e t u r n. Something similar seems t o be happening with b e e f. w i t h cutup b i r d s. A recent cooperative study of CarAbbean perishable foods d e l i v e r i e s between t h e Foreign A g r i c u l t u r a l Service (FAS) and ARS shared that U.S. red meat exports were l a r g e l y high-priced h o t e l beef--& percent of which w a s consumed by American t o u r i s t s i n r e s o r t h o t e l s o r on c r u i s e s h i p s. The o t h e r 15 percent of t h e r e d meat shipnents were goat meat, cheap pork cuts, and o f f a l. A t t h e same time, we were importing from Central and South America a considerable amount of frozen boneless cow meat, probably destined f o r t h e c l a s s i c American hamburger. Our r e d meat exports t o Europe and t h e O r i e n t a l s o seem t o concentrate on h o t e l, r e s t a u r a n t, and i n s t i t u t i o n a l c u t s of o f f a l and byproducts. This s i t u a t i o n seems s u b j e c t t o change with consumers ready t o buy good beef i n r e t a i l food s t o r e s.

Meat Transportation The most s u c c e s s f u l of American meat exports have been o f f a l, hides, and t h e products of rendering p l a n t s. Exports of American frozen and f r e s h poultry were s o phenomenal i n t h e 1960's t h a t t h e importing countries began t o develop t h e i r own poultry i n d u s t r i e s and sane establ i s h e d a r t i f i c i a l b a r r i e r s t o e n t r y. However, poultry exports continue a t a healthy l e v e l. More r e c e n t l y, h o t e l beef and pork have been growing export items e s p e c i a l l y t o t h e Orient. This HRI t r a d e i s a r a t h e r heterogenous group ( 4 ). There a l s o seems t o be a growth i n t h e exports of f r e s h meat products, e s p e c i a l l y vacuum-packed boxed beef. The problem with o f f a l export has been t h a t packers do not pay much a t t e n t i o n t o t h e product. The methods of trimming and packing vary. The product i s accumulated i n f r e e z e r s f o r s3me time and t h e exporters, "super brokers," gather it from various sources t o accumulate an export load. Foreign buyers t e l l us that t h e y a r e not r e a l l y s a t i s f i e d with t h e q u a l i t y, trim, o r pack of U.S. o f f a l products a s compared with those they g e t from o t h e r c o u n t r i e s. Some similar problems e x i s t with green hides because some ocean c a r r i e r s refuse t o handle them. Some improvements a r e developing with p a l l e t i z e d handling and s p e c i a l v e n t i l a t e d van containers t o handle h i d e s. During t h e 1950's, considerable e f f o r t was made t o develop a market f o r U.S. beef i n Europe. A t t h e time t h e p r i c e d i f f e r e n t i a l was s i g n i f i c a n t, and t h e development of supermarkets i n Europe provided t h e opportunity t o promote t h i s American product. The European supermarkets had developed modern c e n t r a l r e t a i l c u t t i n g p l a n t s which eliminated many problems of r e t a i l d e l i v e r y. We had cooperated i n doing some research with t h e Department of Defense on exporting beef t o U.S. troops abroad. However, when we began experimental commercial t e s t shipments of beef, we encountered a number of problems. I n t h e 1950's, t h e I r i s h were shipping beef t o New York f o r one-half w h a t it c o s t us t o export beef t o Europe. Shipping schedules were "spotty, If and it was often d i f f i c u l t t o d e l i v e r t h e product on schedule. We had a number of problems with r e f r i g e r a t i o n units breaking down o r not d e l i v e r i n g t h e proper temperature t o maintain t h e product. European buyers requested s p e c i a l methods of c u t t i n g meat o f t e n unfamiliar t o t h e American packers. Handling by longshoremen in d m e s t i c and f o r e i g n p o r t s became a problem when containers were "stuffed" a t dockside or had t o be inspected t h e r e. Also, t h e r e were a number of problems with the importing country's i n s p e c t o r s. About t h e time we learned how t o s h i p beef overseas, t h e p r i c e r e l a t i o n s h i p between Europe and t h e United S t a t e s changed and t h e p o t e n t i a l exporters backed o f f. So far, we have few firms w i l l i n g t o supply t h e market on a r e g u l a r b a s i s when t h e foreign p r i c e drops below t h e U.S. market plus export charges.

Research Needs I n looking back over t h e last s e v e r a l p r o c e e d h g s of t h e Reciprocal Meat Conference, I think I s e e a favorable t r e n d i n your a t t e n t i o n t o marketing and d i s t r i b u t i o n. C e r t a i n l y t h e work of Texas A M, t h e University of Georgia, and o t h e r s in t r a n s p o r t a t i o n, packaging, and determination of m i c r o b i a l conditions i n packinghouses and d i s t r i b u t i o n i s encouraging. The U.S. l i v e s t o c k and meat i n d u s t r y i s i n t h e m i d s t of a major "revolution" and most of t h e s e changes a r e occurring due t o demands of t h e market. Whether we l i k e it o r not, consumerism i s bringing about changes from "wholesome" meat t o microbial-free meat, from h i s t o r i c a l l a b e l i n g methods t o more d e s c r i p t i v e terms w i t h n u t r i t i o n a l information, from marketing grades t o grades more meaningful t o t h e consumer, from less v i s i b l e t o more v i s i b l e packaging, from t r a d i t i o n a l trimming t o a l e a n meat t r i m, and t o a meat t h a t i s f r e e of a l l r e s i d u e s o r t o x i n s, n a t u r a l or unnatural. The meat i n d u s t r y needs a l l t h e r e s e a r c h h e l p it can g e t i n o r d e r t o meet t h e s e demands, requirements, r e g u l a t i o n s, o r l a w s and s t i l l be a b l e t o d e l i v e r good meats a t reasonable c o s t s. Also t h e meat i n d u s t r y needs r e s e a r c h t h a t documents conditions i n t h e "real world'' of d i s t r i b u t i o n and seeks t o solve some of t h e o p e r a t i o n a l problems within the c o n s t r a i n t s of d a i l y commercial p r e s s u r e s and a v a i l a b l e f a c i l i t i e s and equipment. I n p a r t i c u l a r, I b e l i e v e we have t o pay more a t t e n t i o n t o t h e t o t a l system of d i s t r i b u t i o n and t o understand t h e impact of t h e d i f f e r e n t p h y s i c a l s t a g e s of d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e product. Sometimes t h e r e a l problems m y r e q u i r e r e s e a r c h s o l u t i o n s that seem a b i t mundane t o some s c i e n t i s t s. For example, r e c e n t l y c h l o r i n e i n various forms added t o a water wash has been r e c e i v i n g increased a t t e n t i o n f o r use on meat s u r f a c e s t o reduce microbial counts. When w e began i n q u i r i e s t o our meat r e s e a r c h e r s, it appeared t h a t t h e y were aware of c h l o r i n e as a p o t e n t i a l germicide and t h a t some work had been done a number of years ago, b u t r e c e n t reseazch had been concentrated on newer o r more s o p h i s t i c a t e d approaches. We got t h e impression c h l o r i n e was j u s t a l i t t l e "old fashioned" o r perhaps t o o o r d i n a r y. As another example, the r e s e a r c h approaches used t o seek s o l u t i o n s t o l i v e s t o k k l o s s e s r e l a t e d t o t r a n s p o r t a t i o n have been l a r g e l y under t h e t i t l e "shipping f e v e r. " The A g r i c u l t u r a l Research Service i s now gearing up f o r some s e r i o u s studies of l i v e animal t r a n s p o r t, and we w i l l be looking a t a wide range of animal management p r a c t i c e s, n o t It j u s t seeking a vaccine" t o cure shipping f e v e r. We w i l l be t r y i n g t o s o l v e such problems as f a i l u r e t o supply adequate p r o t e c t i o n f r o m t h e weather, feed, water, o r even oxygen f o r t h e animals t o breathe and looking a t t h e p r a c t i c e s and procedures t y p i c a l l y used in assembly of young c a l v e s.

Since 1967, the scientific effort in support of meat animal production and mrketing has been declining; yet today our research needs are greater than they have ever been, and the visible problems seem to have multiplied. A major export need is increased production capability. We need research which allows us to increase the supply of beef, especially reproduction research to increase the number of available young animals. Another way to increase capability is to optimize slaughter weights. We need production efficiency research to increase yield of meat per animal fed and increase feed efficiency. We need research to reduce loss to the available cattle either through death or morbidity. This may involve substantial animal disease or animal management research. We need research to increase our animal capacity through improved pasture, range, and forage. We need research to increase protein supply for animal feed. This may involve increased feed grain yields, byproduct utilization, or feed mixing. Effective animal waste management is going to be essential if we are to continue to produce beef in quantity and at a competitive price. Most of these problems deal with supply. Marketing and physical distribution are going to need even greater attention if we hdpe to increase exports. Slaughter operations must becane even more efficient. Meat physical distribution is characterized by high packaging, and transport and handling costs; and large losses occur in the system from physical damage and spoilage. Refrigeration costs are high and refrigeration is a heavy user of energy. Typically we have been trading off higher energy costs for less expensive facilities and equipment and limited maintenance. Transportation of meats has been a major neglected area of research attention, and is critical for overseas shipments. High packaging and shipping container costs are a major deterrent to modernization of the distribution system, and typical shipping containers provide poor product protection and mterials handling Meat retailing offers a significant potential for savings due to high costs and relatively small. size operating units. The Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional trade also has major distribution problems and is receiving very little research attention. In particular, sanitation and product protection throughout the marketing system need research. Also, let's not forget consumer acceptr ability and the consumer's needs and desires. This will be especially important in foreign markets.

1-95 Above all else, hawever, we need to better understand the total marketing system, how it operates, the effects of changes at one stage on the other elements of the system, and on ways to reduce the overall costs of the system and streamline its operations. This requires an interdiscipline research team approach to problems of the industry and may require some reorganization of our traditional research programs. Kind of a System Needed to Export Livestock and Beef on a Major Scale First, the United States must be able to produce substantially more livestock and meat. We need livestock marketing firms and meat packers who are export minded, willing to dedicate a substantial por-bion of their output to foreign markets and maintain those markets through price fluctuation periods, not just when prices are favorable for exporting. We need marketing firms willing to service those markets with promotional material and with staffs permanently located in the market to expedite shipments, solve problems, and promote the U.S. products. We need marketing firms that are willing to give both livestock and meat the extra attention needed for lengthy export shipments. We need the proper preconditioning of livestock for transport. We need meat slaughter and distribution that will provide and deliver microbially cleaner meat which will not discolor or sour. This is not only a health problem but an economic one. If the microbial load can be reduced to a minimum at the slaughter plant, the chances of delivering a good product are greatly increased. We need to take a serious look at high packaging costs for boxed meats. We need a transport system that can supply adequate quantities of specialized equipment for either livestock or meat to the heartland of the United States and deliver the goods on schedule to ports. This means improvements in livestock transport equipment and facilities and adequately cleaned and maintained refrigerated containers for meat. Foreign supermarket chains are as modern as their U.S. counterparts and merchandise the same way. Shipnents must be delivered on time to meet the promotional or advertising programs, which means that suppliers must deliver what they promise on time. Both overland and ocean carriers must meet delivery schedules. I would say our prospects for developing such a delivery system look good. First, for livestock, a number of airport and ocean port facilities have been established. Containers for ocean carriage and air carriage of smaller lots of livestock are being made available and research on transporting live animals is being undertaken.

Second, for fresh meat, we are developing some export minded slaughter operators such as Colorado's Ken Montfort. Boxed, vacuumpacked wholesale beef cuts can be shipped considerable distances. Some slaughter plant operators are reducing microbial counts on the surface of beef carcasses and cuts which extends their shelf life. Some plants have established refrigerated vehicle, pre-trip inspections to insure that the vehicle is clean and the refrigeration unit is working properly. Air carriers are developing insulated and refrigerated air cargo containers so that small-lot perishable shipments can be protected on the ground as well as in the air. Consumers in the developed countries now have the incame to purchase U.S. meat products and are developing a taste for good meat products--products which only the United States is prepared to supply in any quantity at this time. Foreign hotels and supermarket chains have the facilities to distribute and market the product efficiently, and the price relationship between these potential markets and the U.S. market appears favorable. Furthermore, most of the mre difficult barriers to foreign entry have been overcome. The potential to export appears greater than at any time in the past, if only we had the product. Unit trains for perishables are being established from the West to the East coast which we hope will provide more reliable fast schedules, Meat shippers may be able to utilize them also. Ocean shipping lines are also establishing unit trains in other areas and they are moving their van containers inland more than ever before. Refrigerated van containers have been improved over the years and ARS research is developing even better refrigerated equipment which should be made available shortly to shipping firms. Trans-Atlantic container service was cut to 4 1/2 days from New York to Rotterdam and about 6 days to cross the Pacific although present schedules are slower, due to shortages of bunker fuel. Some problem areas still of concern include our traditional methods of assembling calves and feeders, the demise of the railroads as live animals and meat carriers, temporary shortages of air carrier equipment, and similar problems. The Northeast railroads are still considered a bottleneck in perishable operations. We have not overcome all of the import barriers and restrictions placed on beef. Some of our meat packers will have to become mre marketing oriented, especially to the export market. Significant changes in slaughter and processing operations and procedures and in packaging may be necessary. Also, our own consumers may look with disfavor on any substantial beef export program. But in spite of this, the prospects for increased livestock and beef exports look good and the delivery system appears adequate to handle them.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.,., Study by A. T, Kearney & Co Inc " F e a s i b i l i t y of a P h y s i c a l D i s t r i b u t i o n System Model f o r Evaluating Improvements i n t h e C a t t l e and Fresh Beef Industry," ARS No. 52-36, November 1969. Transportation and F a c i l i t i e s Research Division, ARS, USDA. "Centralized Processing of Fresh Meat f o r R e t a i l Stores." Marketing Research Report No. 628, October 1963.. A g r i c u l t u r a l Experiment S t a t i o n, Kansas S t a t e University, Manhattan, Kansas "Frozen Meat--Its D i s t r i b u t i o n Costs, Acceptance, and Cooking and Eating Q u a l i t i e s. " Research P u b l i c a t i o n 166. Septeriber 1973. S t a f f o r d, Thomas H. "Methods and Costs of D i s t r i b u t i n g Beef t o t h e Food-Service Industry." New York's Food and L i f e Sciences B u l l e t i n No. 36, Cornell U n i v e r s i t y A g r i c u l t u r a l Experiment S t a t i o n. Cornell University, I t h a c a, New York, March 1974. 0. E. Kolari: Thank you, M r. Anderson, f9r your i n i m i t a b l e, i n t e r e s t i n g d i s c u s s i o n of "Problems i n Transportation. I 1 It i s high noon and time f o r lunch. Thank you.

M. D. Judge, Purdue University: The committee 3n research methods has been a very energetic and cooperative one. Rather than tzke time to read their names I would like to just refer to the back of the program in which their names are listed. Fred Parrish has been our coordinator for this area and he too has been very helpful. Meat scientists have been very resourceful in developing and adopting new methds to answer many research needs. We may recall the recent past to find examples. In the histological area the use of the cryostat has aided in developing a new view of muscle tissue with very minimal kinds of disruption. Out of this has come such valuable contributions as the characterization of fibers by metabolic capability and their ability to differentiate. The gas chromatograph is another example of an item that has been used in a major way. Lipid research and flavor research has been implemented by utilization of this instrument. Automated analysis is another example of a technique which has enabled us to multiply output many times, particularly of those people working with enzymes and amino acids. We shouldn't forget the electron microsc3pe and the contributions it has made in solving practical problems in meat science. The identification of the Z line structure as a site of degradation during aging is a good example; the involvement of the myofibrillar proteins in the development of the pale, soft, exudative muscle condition is another. We could mention many additional areas that scientists have addpted new methds and new equipment as they have become available to make significant achievement in meat technology. In some instances the individuals have shown ingenuity and developed their own equipment. Examples here go back some years to the Warner-Bratzler shear, then, more recently, the tenderometer, the rigorometer and the myotron. The point in these comments is that the research methods we will be hearing about today may be the ones that investigators in the future will look back upon and cite as real innovations. I'm confident that the speakers we have with us today have the insight and experience to do just that and show the manner in which some of the future work is going to be carried out.