Chemistry of Life Cells & Bioprocesses CRT Review Chapter 2: The Chemistry of Life macromolecules - The four types of macromolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins Types of Macromolecules 1. Carbohydrates function as an quick source of and are also used as building materials plants store carbohydrates in the form of starch in structures called 2. Lipids The most common categories of lipids are fats, oils, and waxes lipids are stored as a future source of and can also function as for organisms 3. Nucleic Acids nucleic acids store and transmit information the two kinds of nucleic acids are & 4. Proteins proteins are used for structural support, transport of other substances, movement, defense against foreign substances, and enzyme activity all living things need a source of to produce proteins Chemical Reactions 1. homeostasis - most of the reactions that occur in a cell due so because the cell is trying to maintain homeostasis 2. metabolism - cells constantly metabolize chemicals to provide cells with all of the materials that they need Some chemical reactions that make life possible are too slow to make them practical for living cells. These chemical reactions occur because of, which speed up the rate of a reaction 1
enzyme - enzymes not only speed up reactions but they may also be used over and over for the same reaction enzymes can be affected by changes in ph, temperature, or salt concentration o different enzymes work most effectively at different temperatures Chapter 7: Cells cell The Cell Theory 1. 2. 3. 2 Different Types of Cells 1. prokaryotic cell - 2. eukaryotic cell - o eukaryotic cells include plants, animals, protists, and fungi o plant cells differ from animal cells because the plant cell has a and the animal cell does not Parts of a Cell 1. - jell- like fluid inside the cell which provides support for organelles and helps maintain cell shape 2. - structure that contains the cell s genetic material (DNA) and controls the activities of the cell the nucleus contains information that controls all cell activities the strands of genetic material (or DNA) inside the nucleus are called 3. - large sac- like structure that often stores excess water 4. - small organelles that contain enzymes, which digest waste that builds up in a cell 2
5. - a group of protein fibers that give the cell its shape and is also involved in movement - long hair- like structure that helps the cell move on its own 6. - a system of membranes where proteins and lipids (fats) are made 7. - flattened sacs that modify, sort, and package proteins, which are then sent to other destinations salivary gland cells have more Golgi apparatuses than muscle cells because they package to help in digestion 8. - cell part that captures light energy and converts it into chemical energy through the process of photosynthesis electrons within the chloroplast are excited by radiant energy from the plastids organelle in a plant that stores (carbohydrates) 9. - converts energy stored in food into a form of energy that cells can use (ATP) through the process of cellular respiration mitochondria have a folded inside of them muscles cells have a large number of mitochondria because they need to move the muscle example: a cell that is undergoing transport might have a lot of mitochondria because it needs energy 10. - surround, protect, and maintain the shape of a cell found in prokaryotes (bacteria), protists, fungi, and plants 11. outer boundary of the cell that protects and supports the cell and controls how easily things pass in and out of the cell Label the parts of the cell membrane - the proteins allow larges waste products and nutrients to enter and leave the cell 3
Movement of Substances Across the Cell Membrane passive transport - NO energy is required for substances to move across the membrane Types of Passive Transport 1. - the tendency for molecules to spread out evenly diffusion allows for the equilibrium of particles from a concentration to a concentration oxygen will diffuse into the capillaries of the lungs because the oxygen in the air is in a concentration outside the capillaries than the amount of oxygen held by the blood inside the capillaries 2. diffusion - the passage of larger molecules across a membrane with the help of carrier proteins 3. - diffusion of water through a membrane water moves from a hypotonic solution to a hypertonic solution Will water flow from the beaker into the cell OR from the cell into the beaker? 85% water 15% starch 90% water, 10% starch ** A person wants to avoid drinking sea water because the salt water would cause the body to ** Types of Transport active transport energy IS required to move substances across the membrane Types of Active Transport 1. process in which the cell takes in outside fluid and other large particles 2. - used to release substances from the cell 4
Ch 8: Photosynthesis photosynthesis - As a source of energy, plants use glucose that comes from using energy to rearrange CO2 pigments examples of pigments include: chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotene, and xanthophyll stems and leaves have their green color because of the pigment Photosynthesis equation: water, light, and CO2 are used by the plant and glucose and are produced Steps of Photosynthesis 1. Light Reactions called the light reactions because they require the light reactions take place inside the the light reactions require to occur and give off the main purpose of the light reactions is to create and 2. Light Independent Reaction (Dark Reactions or also called the Calvin Cycle) the Calvin cycle takes place in the of the chloroplast Steps of the Calvin cycle 1. starts the cycle by attaching itself to a molecule called rubisco 2. and (made in the light reactions) are used to make (or sugar) 5
Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration cellular respiration - Equation: uses glucose and oxygen and produces ATP and CO2 Steps of Cellular Respiration 1. glycolysis - glycolysis takes place in the of the cell glycolysis starts with 1 molecule of glycolysis produces: 1. 2 molecules of 2. 2 molecules of 3. 2 molecules of 2. The pyruvic acid that was made during enters the mitochondria and produces and In eukaryotic cells aerobic respiration takes place in the 3. The Krebs Cycle The is then used to start the Krebs Cycle. The Krebs Cycle is a biochemical pathway that makes two revolutions because there are 2 acetyl CoA s. When two revolutions of the Krebs Cycle occur,, and are made. 4. Electron Transport Chain for each molecule of NADH (made during the other processes): ATP s are made by the electron transport chain for each molecule of FADH2: ATP s are made by the electron transport chain 6
Chemistry of Life Cells & Bioprocesses CRT Review Chapter 2: The Chemistry of Life macromolecules - a giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules The four types of macromolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins Types of Macromolecules 1. Carbohydrates function as an quick source of energy and are also used as building materials plants store carbohydrates in the form of starch in structures called plastids 2. Lipids The most common categories of lipids are fats, oils, and waxes lipids are stored as a future source of energy and can also function as insulation for organisms 3. Nucleic Acids nucleic acids store and transmit genetic information the two kinds of nucleic acids are DNA & RNA 4. Proteins proteins are used for structural support, transport of other substances, movement, defense against foreign substances, and enzyme activity all living things need a source of energy to produce proteins Chemical Reactions 1. homeostasis the ability of an organism to maintain its internal environment most of the reactions that occur in a cell due so because the cell is trying to maintain homeostasis 2. metabolism describes the breakdown of chemicals in living organisms cells constantly metabolize chemicals to provide cells with all of the materials that they need Some chemical reactions that make life possible are too slow to make them practical for living cells. These chemical reactions occur because of enzymes, which speed up the rate of a reaction 7
enzyme - a protein that speeds up the chemical reactions that take place in a cell enzymes not only speed up reactions but they may also be used over and over for the same reaction enzymes can be affected by changes in ph, temperature, or salt concentration o different enzymes work most effectively at different temperatures Chapter 7: Cells cell the smallest unit that can carry on all of the processes of life The Cell Theory 1. All living things are made up of cells 2. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things 3. New cells are produced from existing cells 2 Different Types of Cells 1. prokaryotic cell - simple organisms whose cells lack a nucleus 2. eukaryotic cell - more complex cells, which contain a nucleus o eukaryotic cells include plants, animals, protists, and fungi o plant cells differ from animal cells because the plant cell has a cell wall and the animal cell does not Parts of a Cell 1. cytoplasm - jell- like fluid inside the cell which provides support for organelles and helps maintain cell shape 2. nucleus - structure that contains the cell s genetic material (DNA) and controls the activities of the cell o the nucleus contains information that controls all cell activities o the strands of genetic material (or DNA) inside the nucleus are called chromatin 3. vacuole - large sac- like structure that often stores excess water 4. lysosome - small organelles that contain enzymes, which digest waste that builds up in a cell 8
5. cytoskeleton - a group of protein fibers that give the cell its shape and is also involved in movement o flagella - long hair- like structure that helps the cell move on its own 6. endoplasmic reticulum (E.R.) - a system of membranes where proteins and lipids (fats) are made 7. Golgi apparatus - flattened sacs that modify, sort, and package proteins, which are then sent to other destinations o salivary gland cells have more Golgi apparatuses than muscle cells because they package enzymes to help in digestion 8. chloroplast - cell part that captures light energy and converts it into chemical energy through the process of photosynthesis o electrons within the chloroplast are excited by radiant energy from the sun o plastids organelle in a plant that stores starch (carbohydrates) 9. mitochondria - converts energy stored in food into a form of energy that cells can use (ATP) through the process of cellular respiration o mitochondria have a folded membrane inside of them o muscles cells have a large number of mitochondria because they need energy to move the muscle o example: a cell that is undergoing active transport might have a lot of mitochondria because it needs energy 10. cell wall- surround, protect, and maintain the shape of a cell o found in prokaryotes (bacteria), protists, fungi, and plants 11. cell membrane outer boundary of the cell that protects and supports the cell and controls how easily things pass in and out of the cell carbohydrate phospholipid protein - the proteins allow larges waste products and nutrients to enter and leave the cell 9
Movement of Substances Across the Cell Membrane passive transport - NO energy is required for substances to move across the membrane Types of Passive Transport 1. diffusion - the tendency for molecules to spread out evenly diffusion allows for the equilibrium of particles from a high concentration to a low concentration oxygen will diffuse into the capillaries of the lungs because the oxygen in the air is in a greater concentration outside the capillaries than the amount of oxygen held by the blood inside the capillaries 2. facilitated diffusion - the passage of larger molecules across a membrane with the help of carrier proteins 3. osmosis - diffusion of water through a membrane water moves from a hypotonic solution to a hypertonic solution Will water flow from the beaker into the cell OR from the cell into the beaker? OUT OF THE CELL 85% water 15% starch 90% water, 10% starch ** A person wants to avoid drinking sea water because the salt water would cause the body to dehydrate** Types of Transport active transport energy IS required to move substances across the membrane Types of Active Transport 1. endocytosis process in which the cell takes in outside fluid and other large particles 2. exocytosis - used to release substances from the cell 10
Ch 8: Photosynthesis photosynthesis process that converts light energy into stored chemical energy (carbohydrates) As a source of energy, plants use glucose that comes from using light energy to rearrange CO2 pigments molecules found in plants that absorb light examples of pigments include: chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotene, and xanthophyll stems and leaves have their green color because of the pigment chlorophyll Photosynthesis equation: 6CO2 + 6H2O + Light C6H12O6 + 6O2 water, light, and CO2 are used by the plant and glucose and oxygen are produced Steps of Photosynthesis 1. Light Reactions called the light reactions because they require light the light reactions take place inside the thylakoid the light reactions require H2O to occur and give off O2 the main purpose of the light reactions is to create ATP and NADPH 2. Light Independent Reaction (Dark Reactions or also called the Calvin Cycle) the Calvin cycle takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast Steps of the Calvin cycle 1. CO2 starts the cycle by attaching itself to a molecule called rubisco 2. ATP and NADH (made in the light reactions) are used to make glucose (or sugar) 11
Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration cellular respiration - the process by which cells make ATP by breaking down glucose or other food molecules Equation: C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy uses glucose and oxygen and produces ATP and CO2 Steps of Cellular Respiration 1. glycolysis - glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell glycolysis starts with 1 molecule of glucose glycolysis produces: 1. 2 molecules of ATP 2. 2 molecules of NADH 3. 2 molecules of pyruvic acid 2. The pyruvic acid that was made during glycolysis enters the mitochondria and produces 2 acetyl CoA and 2 NADH In eukaryotic cells aerobic respiration takes place in the mitochondria 3. The Krebs Cycle The acetyl CoA is then used to start the Krebs Cycle. The Krebs Cycle is a biochemical pathway that makes two revolutions because there are 2 acetyl CoA s. When two revolutions of the Krebs Cycle occur 2ATP, 6 NADH, and 2 FADH2 are made. 4. Electron Transport Chain for each molecule of NADH (made during the other processes): 3 ATP s are made by the electron transport chain for each molecule of FADH2: 2 ATP s are made by the electron transport chain 12