With Modern Physics For Scientists and Engineers Third Edition Richard Wolfson Middlebury College Jay M. Pasachoff Williams College ^ADDISON-WESLEY An imprint of Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. Reading, Massachusetts Menlo Park, California New York Harlow, England Don Mills, Ontario Sydney Mexico City Madrid Amsterdam
Preface A Visual Guide to the Book The Authors Color Key for Figures Credits xiv xix xxiii xxiv xxv Chapter 1 Doing Physics 1 1-1 Fields of Physics 2 1-2 The Simplicity of Physics 4 1-3 Measurement Systems 4 1-4 Changing Units 8 1-5 Dimensional Analysis 8 1-6 Scientific Notation 10 1-7 Accuracy and Significant Figures 12 1-8 Estimation 13 1-9 Analytic and Numerical Analysis 14 1-10 Problem Solving 15 Part 1 Mechanics Chapter 2 Motion in a Straight Line 2-1 Average Motion 2-2 Instantaneous Velocity 2-3 Acceleration 2-4 Constant Acceleration 2-5 Using the Equations of Motion 2-6 The Constant Acceleration of Gravity Chapter I The Vector Description of Motion 3-1 Vectors and Scalars 3-2 Vector Arithmetic 21 22 23 25 28 31 33 35 46 47 47 3-3 Coordinate Systems, Vector Components, and Unit Vectors 49 3-4 Velocity and Acceleration Vectors 53 3-5 Relative Motion 57 Chapter Motion in More Than One Dimension 67 4-1 Velocity and Acceleration 68 4-2 Constant Acceleration 70 4-3 Projectile Motion 72 4-4 Uniform Circular Motion 79 4-5 Nonuniform Circular Motion 82 Force and Motion 92 5-1 The Wrong Question 93 5-2 Newton's First and Second Laws 94 5-3 Forces 98 5-4 Applying Newton's Second Law 101 5-5 Mass and Weight: The Force of Gravity 104 5-6 Adding Forces 107 5-7 Newton's Third Law 109 5-8 Measuring Force 112 Chapter 6 Using Newton's Laws 122 6-1 Using Newton's Second Law 123 6-2 Multiple Objects 131 6-3 Circular Motion 135 6-4 Friction 139 6-5 Drag Forces 150 Chapter I Work, Energy, and Power 163 7-1 Work 164 7-2 Work and the Scalar Product 167 7-3 A Varying Force 168
Contents ix 7-4 Force and Work in Three Dimensions 172 7-5 Kinetic Energy 174 7-6 Power 176 Chapter 8 Conservation of Energy 187 8-1 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces 188 8-2 Potential Energy 190 8-3 Conservation of Mechanical Energy 194 8-4 Potential Energy Curves 197 8-5 Force and Potential Energy 199 8-6 Nonconservative Forces 201 8-7 Conservation of Energy and Mass-Energy 202 Chapter 9 Gravitation 213 9-1 Toward a Law of Gravity 214 9-2 Universal Gravitation 215 9-3 Orbital Motion 218 9-4 Gravitational Energy 223 9-5 The Gravitational Field 229 9-6 Tidal Forces 229 9-7 Gravity and the General Theory of Relativity 230 Chapter 10 Systems of Particles 238 10-1 Center of Mass 239 10-2 Momentum 246 10-3 Kinetic Energy in Many-Particle Systems 253 Chapter 11 Collisions 262 11-1 Impulse and Collisions 263 11-2 Collisions and the Conservation Laws 265 11-3 Inelastic Collisions 266 11-4 Elastic Collisions 268 Chapter 12 Rotational Motion 283 12-1 Angular Velocity and Acceleration 284 12-2 Torque 288 12-3 Rotational Inertia and the Analog of Newton's Law 291 12-4 Rotational Energy 300 12-5 Rolling Motion 302 Rotational Vectors and Angular Momentum 313 13-1 Angular Velocity and Acceleration Vectors 314 13-2 Torque and the Vector Cross Product 315 13-3 Angular Momentum 318 13-4 Conservation of Angular Momentum 320 13-5 Rotational Dynamics in Three Dimensions 324 Chapter 14 Static Equilibrium 336 14-1 Conditions for Equilibrium 337 14-2 Center of Gravity 339 14-3 Examples of Static Equilibrium 341 14-4 Stability of Equilibria 346 Oscillations, Waves, and Fluids 361 Oscillatory Motion 362 15-1 Properties of Oscillatory Motion 363 15-2 Simple Harmonic Motion 364 15-3 Applications of Simple Harmonic Motion 370 15-4 Circular Motion and Simple Harmonic Motion: An Intimate Relation 376 15-5 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion 378 15-6 Damped Harmonic Motion 380 15-7 Driven Oscillations and Resonance 382 Chapter 16 Wave Motion 391 16-1 Kinds of Waves 392 16-2 Wave Properties 393 16-3 Mathematical Description of Wave Motion 395 16-4 Waves on a String 397 16-5 Wave Power and Intensity 399 16-6 The Superposition Principle and Wave Interference 403 16-7 The Wave Equation 407
x Contents Chapter 17 Sound and Other Wave Phenomena 415 17-1 Sound Waves in Gases 416 17-2 The Speed of Sound in Gases 418 17-3 Sound Intensity 419 17-4 Sound Waves in Liquids and Solids 423 17-5 Wave Reflection and Refraction 424 17-6 Standing Waves 427 17-7 The Doppler Effect 431 17-8 Shockwaves 434 Chapter 18 Fluid Motion 441 18-1 Describing Fluids: Density and Pressure 442 18-2 Fluids at Rest: Hydrostatic Equilibrium 443 18-3 Archimedes' Principle and Buoyancy 448 18-4 Fluid Dynamics 451 18-5 Applications of Fluid Dynamics 456 18-6 Viscosity and Turbulence 460 Part 3 Thermodynamics 471 Chapter 19 Temperature and Heat 472 19-1 Macroscopic and Microscopic Descriptions 473 19-2 Temperature and Thermodynamic Equilibrium 473 19-3 Measuring Temperature 474 19-4 Temperature and Heat 477 19-5 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat 478 19-6 Heat Transfer 480 19-7 Thermal Energy Balance 486 Chapter 21 Heat, Work, and the First Law of Thermodynamics 517 21-1 The First Law of Thermodynamics 518 21-2 Thermodynamic Processes 520 21-3 Specific Heats of an Ideal Gas 532 Chapter 22 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 543 22-1 Reversibility and Irreversibility 544 22-2 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 544 22-3 Applications of the Second Law of Thermodynamics 550 22-4 The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale 554 22-5 Entropy and the Quality of Energy 554 Part 4 Electromagnetism 569 Chapter 23 Electric Charge, Force, and Field 570 23-1 Electromagnetism 571 23-2 Electric Charge 572 23-3 Coulomb's Law. 573 23-4 The Electric Field 578 23-5 Electric Fields of Charge Distributions 581 23-6 Matter in Electric Fields 587 Chapter 24 Gauss's Law 600 24-1 Electric Field Lines 601 24-2 Electric Flux 603 24-3 Gauss's Law 606 24-4 Using Gauss's Law 609 24-5 Fields of Arbitrary Charge Distributions 615 24-6 Gauss's Law and Conductors 617 Chapter 20 The Thermal Behavior of Matter 496 20-1 Gases 497 20-2 Phase Changes 503 20-3 Thermal Expansion 508 Chapter 2S Electric Potential 25-1 Potential Energy, Work, and the Electric Field 25-2 Potential Difference 25-3 Calculating Potential Difference 630 631 631 636
Contents xi 25-4 Potential Difference and the Electric Field 25-5 Potentials of Charged Conductors 643 646 30-3 Ampere's Law 30-4 Using Ampere's Law 30-5 Solenoids and Toroids 778 780 785 Chapter 26 Electrostatic Energy and Capacitors 658 30-6 Magnetic Matter 30-7 Magnetic Monopoles and Gauss's Law 788 793 26-1 Energy of a Charge Distribution 26-2 Two Isolated Conductors 26-3 Energy and the Electric Field 26-4 Capacitors 26-5 Energy Storage in Capacitors 26-6 Connecting Capacitors 26-7 Capacitors and Dielectrics 659 Chapter 31 Electromagnetic Induction 660 31-1 Induced Currents 662 31-2 Faraday's Law 665 31-3 Induction and the Conservation 669 of Energy 671 31-4 Induced Electric Fields 675 31-5 Diamagnetism 803 804 805 809 819 823 Chapter 27 Electric Current 27-1 Electric Current 684 685 Chapter 32 Inductance and Magnetic Energy 833 27-2 Conduction Mechanisms 688 32-1 Mutual Inductance 834 27-3 Resistance and Ohm's Law 698 32-2 Self-Inductance 836 27-4 Electric Power 701 32-3 Inductors in Circuits 838 Chapter 28 Electric Circuits 709 32-4 Magnetic Energy 843 28-1 Circuits and Symbols 28-2 Electromotive Force 709 710 Chapter 33 Alternating-Current Circuits 852 28-3 Simple Circuits: Series and Parallel Resistors 28-4 Kirchhoff's Laws and Multiloop Circuits 28-5 Electrical Measuring Instruments 28-6 Circuits with Capacitors 28-7 Electrical Safety 711 718 722 726 732 33-1 Alternating Current 33-2 Circuit Elements in AC Circuits 33-3 LC Circuits 33-4 Driven RLC Circuits and Resonance 33-5 Power in AC Circuits 33-6 Transformers and Power Supplies 853 854 860 865 870 872 Chapter 29 The Magnetic Field 29-1 What is Magnetism? 742 743 Chapter 34 Maxwell's Equations and Electromagnetic Waves 882 29-2 The Magnetic Force on a Moving Charge 29-3 The Motion of Charged Particles in Magnetic Fields 29-4 The Magnetic Force on a Current 29-5 A Current Loop in a Magnetic Field 744 747 754 759 34-1 The Four Laws of Electromagnetism 34-2 Ambiguity in Ampere's Law 34-3 Maxwell's Equations 34-4 Electromagnetic Waves 34-5 The Speed of Electromagnetic Waves 34-6 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves 883 884 886 887 893 894 Chapter 30 Sources of the Magnetic Field 770 34-7 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 34-8 Polarization 895 897 30-1 The Biot-Savart Law 30-2 The Magnetic Force between Two Conductors 771 777 34-9 Producing Electromagnetic Waves 34-10 Energy in Electromagnetic Waves 34-11 Wave Momentum and Radiation Pressure 901 903 906
xii Contents vt 5 Optics Chapter 35 Reflection and Refraction 35-1 Reflection and Transmission 35-2 Reflection 35-3 Refraction 35-4 Total Internal Reflection 35-5 Dispersion 35-6 Reflection and Polarization Chapter 3S Image Formation and Optical Instruments 36-1 Plane Mirrors 36-2 Curved Mirrors 36-3 Lenses 36-4 Refraction in Lenses: The Details 36-5 Optical Instruments Chapter 31 Interference and Diffraction 37-1 Coherence and Interference 37-2 Double-Slit Interference 37-3 Multiple-Slit Interference and Diffraction Gratings 37-4 Thin Films and Interferometers 37-5 Huygens' Principle and Diffraction 37-6 Single-Slit Diffraction 37-7 The Diffraction Limit Part 6 915 916 917 918 919 924 927 929 938 939 941 948 952 958 971 972 974 978 983 989 990 995 Modern Physics 1007 Chapter 38 Relativity 1008 38-1 Speed с Relative to What? 1009 38-2 Matter, Motion, and the Ether 1010 38-3 Special Relativity 1013 38-4 Space and Time in Relativity 1013 38-5 Energy and Momentum in Relativity 1029 38-6 What Is Not Relative 1033 38-7 Electromagnetism and Relativity 1035 38-8 General Relativity 1037 Chapter 3 Light and Matter: Waves or Particles? 1044 39-1 Toward the Quantum Theory 1045 39-2 Blackbody Radiation 1046 39-3 Photons 1050 39-4 Atomic Spectra and the Bohr Atom 1056 39-5 Matter Waves 1061 39-6 The Uncertainty Principle 1064 39-7 The Wave-Particle Duality, Complementarity, and the Correspondence Principle 1068 Chapter 4 Quantum Mechanics 1074 40-1 Particles, Waves, and Probability 1075 40-2 The Schrödinger Equation 1077 40-3 The Infinite Square Well 1079 40-4 The Harmonic Oscillator 1084 40-5 Quantum Tunneling 1087 40-6 Finite Potential Wells 1091 40-7 Quantum Mechanics in Three Dimensions 1092 40-8 Relativistic Quantum Mechanics 1093 Chapter 41 Atomic Physics 1100 41-1 The Hydrogen Atom 1101 41-2 Electron Spin 1108 41-3 The Pauli Exclusion Principle 1113 41-4 Multielectron Atoms and the Periodic Table 1115 41-5 Transitions and Atomic Spectra 1120 Chapter 42 Molecular and Solid-State Physics 1133 42-1 Molecular Bonding 1134 42-2 Molecular Energy Levels 1138 42-3 Solids 1142 42-4 Superconductivity 1151 Chapter 43 Nuclear Physics 1161 43-1 Discovery of the Nucleus 1162
Contents xiii 43-2 Binding Nuclei: Elements, Isotopes, and Stability 1163 43-3 Properties of the Nucleus 1165 43-4 Binding Energy 1170 43-5 Radioactivity 1173 43-6 Models of Nuclear Structure 1184 Chapter 44 Nuclear Energy: Fission and Fusion 1192 44-1 Energy from the Nucleus 1193 44-2 Nuclear Fission 1193 44-3 Applications of Nuclear Fission 1200 44-4 Nuclear Fusion 1209 Chapter 4S From Quarks to the Cosmos 1225 45-1 Particles and Forces 1226 45-2 Particles and More Particles 1227 45-3 Quarks and the Standard Model 1233 45-4 Unification 45-5 The Evolving Universe Appendixes 1237 1242 Appendix. Ä Mathematics A-1 Appendix В The International System of Units (SI) A-12 ettdix С Conversion Factors A-14 Appendix В The Elements A-17 Appendix E Astrophysical Data A-20 Got It! Answers A-21 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems A-23 Index 1-1