Kristina Niemeyer NRS 509 Final Paper 08 December 2016 GIS Applications in Military Operations Introduction Geographic Information Systems (GIS) play a pivotal role in military operations. The concept of Command, Control, Communication and Coordination in military operations is largely dependent on the availability of accurate, spatial information to arrive at quick decisions for operational orders. In the present digital era, GIS is an excellent tool for military commanders in the operations. The use of GIS applications in military forces has revolutionized the way in which these forces operate and function. Military forces use GIS in a variety of applications including cartography, intelligence, battle field management, terrain analysis, remote sensing, military installation management and monitoring of possible terrorist activity (Satyanarayana & Yogendran, 2002). Since the beginning of civilization, military forces have played a dominant role. The focus on military efforts continues to be a major force with a heavy reliance on technology. Technology has not only changed the way wars are fought but its employment has become a key factor in attaining dominance in military power. The battle victory is complete only after ground forces occupy the enemy land and take control of the area. To hold and maintain the control of the occupied land, armed forces need to know the spatial extent upon which they have the control (Satyanarayana & Yogendran, 2002). Spatial data is as of crucial importance to the Military Commander in the battle as it is for a decision-maker in the planning and development of a state s growth. Visualizing raw tabular data within a spatial framework has many benefits. Therefore digital mapping and GIS occupy center stage in activities as diverse as battlefield simulation, mission briefing and communications planning, logistics management and command control (Satyanarayana & Yogendran, 2002). History The use of remote sensing in the military can be traced back to 1858 when Gaspar Felix Tournachon took the first aerial photo by a balloon. In the beginning of the 20th century, pigeons with a camera attached to their breast, were used for military aerial photography. In 1909, Wilbur Wright carried a passenger who took the first aerial photography taken from a plane. In World War 1, aerial photograph was used for reconnaissance and surveillance missions, replacing sketching and drawing. Later on, the first applications of photography using infrared and microwave radiation were used during World War II (Ouasti, 2011). In 1960, when space based
remote sensing started, except TIROS-1 (Television and Infrared Observation Satellite), all the space programs were classified military (Ouasti, 2011). During the Cold War, a large amount of secret imagery was been captured by spy satellites. Over the last decade, geospatial surveillance systems are used in the war against terror. In 2001 the U.S. Department of Defense acquired exclusive rights to Space Imaging s Ikonos for the war in Afghanistan in order to influence the public policy debate. With Gulf War II, imagery was used to provide visual proofs to support decision making for taking action towards war against Iraq. Also, another application involves locating eventual nuclear sites in Iran and North Korea, seen as a threat by, mainly, the USA and Europe (Ouasti, 2011). Specific Usages Intelligence Gathering Commonly, satellites are used to gather data and spy on other countries. Other systems rely on images taken from aircraft or simply the human eye. Once the data is collected, GIS systems can be used to make the raw data more useable. The unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) to the right can take streaming video and uses synthetic aperture radar to produce still frame radar images. This system is being currently used for reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition (Watts, Ambrosia, & Hinkley, 2012). Intelligence Gathering Past Projects/Studies CORONA Project CORONA was created by a small group of CIA, Air Force and private industry experts who were tasked with finding a way to provide broad imagery coverage of the USSR to identify missile launch sites and production facilities. Known to the public as the U.S. Air Force s Discoverer program, the classified CORONA project operated during the height of the Cold War to collect pictures over the denied areas of Eastern Europe and Asia. During its operational life, CORONA collected over 800,000 images between 1960-1972 in response to the national security requirements of the time. On average, individual images covered a geographic area on the Earth's surface of approximately 10x120 miles (CIA History Staff Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1995).
BuckEye Mission The BuckEye mission is to rapidly collect, process and distribute Unclassified high resolution and high accuracy color imagery and elevation data. BuckEye collected over 85,000 square kilometers in Iraq, and has collected over 160,000 square kilometers in Afghanistan. There are several fixed winged and unmanned systems currently operating in Afghanistan. BuckEye's requirements and tasking are controlled at the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) level. A majority of the imagery and LIDAR is processed in-theater to provide rapid tactical response (Army Corp of Engineers Geospatial Center, 2016). Specialized Map Production Newer systems in use since the beginning of the second Iraq war are able to view a National Imagery and Mapping Agency reference map overlaid on MODIS Terra imagery. GIS can allow users to map many different kinds of data together. This makes for graphic representations of specific, specialized data that is up to date. Future GIS/RS Future prospects of GIS/RS are abundant and unpredictable due to the secret nature of military application it is almost impossible to follow, but it offers a wide range of possibilities. Alternatives for military GIS could be softwares and supplements, which are based on civil demands, but which also consider military characteristics. Military characteristics are recognizable from data traffic security, the increased protection from penetration, the more effective hardware and the special data input/output ports. A wide range of displays is used for displaying, from large, collective displays to the personal, glasses-size ones. Laptops and
notebooks are soon going to be downsized to palmtops, or even small, credit card-sized wonders (Nagy, 2004). Annotated Bib Satyanarayana, P., & Yogendran, S. (2013). Military Applications of GIS. ENC QC Department, IIC Technologies Private Limited, Hyderabad. In this paper, the authors discuss how GIS plays a pivotal role in military operations, due to military operations being spatial in nature. GIS has changed the way the military operates and functions. It provides Commanders an excellent tool that supports the concepts of Command, Control, Communication and Coordination. Having accurate information in the fastest times allows commanders can take in real-time information and provide the best decision-making. Military uses GIS in a multitude of ways including cartography, intelligence, battlefield management, terrain analysis, remote sensing, installation management, and monitoring of possible terrorist activity. The paper was an easy read and a great starter article for introducing the topic and applications of GIS in the military. Warren, S. D., & Bagley, C. F. (1992). SPOT imagery and GIS in Support of Military Land Management. Geocarto International, 7(1), 35-43. This article by Warren and Bagley discussed the challenges in managing military training areas due to the nature and intensity of activities that occur on military bases. The Army specifically uses GIS and satellite imagery to adopt a standardized approach to land management that focuses on land condition and trend analysis. GIS and the satellite imagery are important tools in field data collection sites, land cover classification, soil erosion, and estimation of carrying capacity. Fleming, S., Jordan, T., Madden, M., Usery, E. L., & Welch, R. (2009). GIS Applications for Military Operations in Coastal Zones. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 64(2), 213-222. In this article it talks about coastal zones being a complex planning factor that the military must account for. Coastal zones are diverse regions that include sea, land and air features that need a large database of with specific detailed data. Commercial GIS software has been developed to provided custom maps with variable scales for military application and use. The Center for Remote Sensing and Mapping Science at the University of Georgia has done research that demonstrated the utility of GIS-based analysis and digital map creation when developing largescale (1:10,000) products from littoral warfare databases. Additionally in this article, it was discussed the methodology employed; selection of data sources, establishment of analysis/modeling parameters, conduct of vehicle mobility analysis, and the development of models and generation of products to support military operations. Swann, D. (1999). Military Applications of GIS. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems, 2(2), 889-899. This talks about military applications of GIS and compares the differences between military and civilian uses. It focuses on highlighting key areas of usage; specifically on base management,
barracks, and battlefield applications. Statements explain the need of large (fine) scale data. And lastly the future applications, as technology continue to improve. Watts, A. C., Ambrosia, V. G., & Hinkley, E. A. (2012). Unmanned Aircraft Systems in Remote Sensing and Scientific Research: Classification and Considerations of Use. Remote Sensing, 4(6), 1671-1692. This article discusses how Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) have been primarily used by the military but now have found purpose among civilian users for remote sensing reconnaissance and data collection. The UAS, positive characteristics compared to manned flights include long flight, improved safety, flight repeatability due to autopilot, and reduced operational costs. Although the with the potential positives there they are still in the developmental stages of UAS regulatory requirements for operations especially for scientific users. Additionally in the article it describes multiple platforms and sensors, capabilities and advantages for scientific usage. It compares it to the advancement of GPS to the scientific community. Nagy, P. (2004). GIS in the Army of the 21th Century. AARMS, 3(3), 58-600. This study gives an overview of the current state of the Hungarian Defense Forces army and its development of application of GIS in the 21th century. The implementation the Hungarian Topographic Program provides modern and compatible grounds for the running of new GIS systems. Discussing how important the role of GIS and remote sensing will have in the future of their force. The new systems guarantee conformity with GIS of the 21th century and for the information system of the modern army. This development is the power of future, which will provide unlimited possibilities for military experts. Works Cited Warren, S. D., & Bagley, C. F. (1992). SPOT imagery and GIS in Support of Military Land Management. Geocarto International, 7 (1), 35-43. Watts, A. C., Ambrosia, V. G., & Hinkley, E. A. (2012). Unmanned Aircraft Systems in Remote Sensing and Scientific Research: Classification and Considerations of Use. Remote Sensing, 4 (6), 1671-1692. Army Corp of Engineers Geospatial Center. (2016). Missiona. Retrieved December 06, 2016, from Imagery: http://www.agc.army.mil/missions/imagery/ Barnes, S. (2003). Spatial Intelligence and Iraqi Freedom. Geospatial Solutions, 13 (5), 28. CIA History Staff Center for the Study of Intelligence. (1995). CORONA: America's First Satellite Program. (J. K. McDonald, Ed.) Retrieved December 5, 2016, from CIA Cold War Records: https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-andmonographs/corona.pdf Fleming, S., Jordan, T., Madden, M., Usery, E. L., & Welch, R. GIS Applications for Military Operations in Coastal Zones. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 64 (2), 213-222. Nagy, P. (2004). GIS in the Army of the 21th Century. AARMS, 3 (3), 58-60.
Ouasti, M. (2011, August). Sky to Earth. Retrieved December 06, 2016, from Remote Sensing and the Military: http://skytoearth.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/remote-sensing-and-the- Military.pdf Swann, D. (1999). Military Applications of GIS. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems, 2 (2), 889-899. Satyanarayana, P., & Yogendran, S. (2002, August 27). GIS Lounge. Retrieved December 6, 2016, from Military Applications of GIS: https://www.gislounge.com/author/satyanarayana-andyogendran/