INDEX Unit Page SKILLS 17 SKILLS FOR PRACTICAL INVESTIGATIONS 17 1.1 Development of sciences 17 1.2 Scientific research 18 1.2.1 Types of research 20 1.2.2 Variables 20 1.2.3 Relationship between variables 21 1.2.4 Table 22 1.2.5 Other information to analyse the data 22 1.2.6 Conclusion and evaluation 23 Exercise 1 26 1.3 Lab equipment 27 1.3.1 Thermometers 27 1.3.2 Scales 28 1.3.3 Meterstick 29 1.3.4 Graduated cylinder 29 1.3.5 Pipette 30 1.3.6 Burette 31 Activity 1 31 Exercise 2 32 KNOWLEDGE AREA MATTER AND MATERIALS 35 Unit 1 ORGANIC MOLECULES 35 1.1 Organic compounds 36 1.2 Structure of organic molecules 37 Experiment 1 43 Experiment 2 44 1.3 Isomers 47 Exercise 3 48 1.4 Naming organic structures 50 1.4.1 Alkanes 52 1.4.2 Cycloalkanes 53 Exercise 4 54 1.4.3 Alkenes 57 1.4.4 Cycloalkenes 58 1.4.5 Dienes 58 Exercise 5 60 1.4.6 Alkynes 62 1.4.7 Alkyl halides (haloalkanes) 62 Exercise 6 64 1.4.8 Alcohols 66 1.4.9 Aldehydes 68 1.4.10 Ketones 69 Exercise 7 70 1.4.11 Carboxylic acids 72 1.4.12 Esters 73 Activity 2 74 Exercise 8 74
1.5 Structural relationships and physical properties 75 1.5.1 Boiling points 78 1.5.2 Melting points 82 1.5.3 Vapour pressure 85 1.5.4 Physical state (gases (g), liquids (l) and solids (s)) 88 1.5.5 Density 91 1.5.6 Flammability 94 1.5.7 Odour 94 1.5.8 Molecular shape 95 Exercise 9 97 1.6 Application of organic chemistry 101 1.6.1 Combustion 101 1.6.2 Preparation of esters 102 Experiment 3 103 Exercise 10 104 1.7 Reactions 107 1.7.1 Substitution reactions 107 1.7.1.1 Substitution in alkanes 107 1.7.1.2 Substitution in alcohols 108 1.7.1.3 Substitution in haloalkanes (alkyl halides) 109 1.7.2 Addition reactions 110 1.7.2.1 Hydrohalogenation 111 1.7.2.2 Halogenation 112 1.7.2.3 Hydration 112 1.7.2.4 Hydrogenation 113 Experiment 4 (demonstration) 114 1.7.3 Applications of addition reactions 117 1.7.4 Elimination 117 1.7.4.1 Dehydrohalogenation 118 1.7.4.2 Dehydration 119 1.7.4.3 Cracking 120 Exercise 11 122 Summary of Unit 1 128 Unit 2 PLASTICS AND FIBRES 137 2.1 What is a polymer? 138 2.2 Plastics 139 2.2.1 Addition reactions 139 Experiment 5 140 2.2.2 Properties and uses 142 Activity 3 145 Activity 4 146 2.3 Fibres 146 2.3.1 Condensation polymerisation 146 2.3.1.1 Nylon 147 2.3.1.2 Polyesters 147 2.3.1.3 Polylactic acid (PLA) 149 Experiment 6 150 Experiment 7 151 Experiment 8 152 Experiment 9 153
2.4 Identify 155 2.4.1 Monomer 155 2.4.2 Reaction 155 2.5 Recycling 157 Activity 5 159 Exercise 12 159 Summary of Unit 2 164 Question paper: Matter and materials 168 KNOWLEDE AREA MECHANICS 177 Unit 1 MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE 177 1.1 Momentum 177 1.2 Change in momentum 178 Exercise 13 181 1.3 Newton s second law in terms of momentum 182 1.4 Impulse 185 Exercise 14 190 1.5 The law of conservation of momentum 192 Experiment 10 196 1.6 Elastic collisions 197 Experiment 11 (demonstration) 198 Exercise 15 200 Summary of Unit 1 204 KNOWLEDE AREA WAVES, SOUND AND LIGHT 207 1 Introduction 207 2 The Doppler effect 207 2.1 Sound and ultrasound 207 2.1.1 Stationary sound source and listener 208 2.1.2 Moving sound source and stationary listener 208 Experiment 12 (demonstration) 209 2.1.3 Calculations 210 2.1.4 Application 212 2.1.4.1 Nature 213 2.1.4.2 Other applications 214 2.1.4.3 Medical field 214 2.2 Light 215 Exercise 16 216 Summary 217 Question paper: Waves, sound and light 219 KNOWLEDE AREA MATTER AND MATERIALS 223 Unit 1 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT 223 1.1 Transmission and scattering of light 223 1.2 What is the photoelectric effect? 224 Experiment 13 (demonstration) 225 1.3 Work function and threshold frequency 227 1.4 Intensity and frequency of light 231 1.5 The quantum theory 233 Exercise 17 234 Summary of Unit 1 237
Unit 2 EMISSION AND ABSORPTION SPECTRA 239 2.1 Emission spectra 239 2.1.1 Continuous emission spectrum 239 2.1.2 Line emission spectrum 239 2.2 Absorption spectra 240 2.2.1 Infrared spectra 241 2.3 Differences between the different spectra 241 Exercise 18 242 Summary of Unit 2 243 Question paper: Matter and materials (physics) 244 KNOWLEDGE AREA CHEMICAL SYSTEMS 249 THE FERTILISER INDUSTRY 249 1. Nutrients required by plants 250 2 NPK fertiliser 252 2.1 NPK ratio 253 2.2 Calculations 253 3 Preparation of fertiliser 255 3.1 Synthesis gas Sasol 255 3.2 Ammonia 255 3.3 Urea 257 3.4 Ammonium nitrate 257 3.5 Ammonium sulphate 258 3.6 Ammonium phosphate 259 3.7 Superphosphate and triple superphosphate 259 4. Sources 260 5. Influence of fertiliser on people and the environment 260 Activity 6 260 6. Sasol s role in fertiliser manufacturing 260 7 Eutrophication 261 7.1 Causes 261 Activity 7 262 7.2 Consequences 263 7.3 Reduction and prevention 263 Activity 8 264 8. Alternatives to inorganic fertiliser 264 Activity 9 264 Exercise 19 264 Summary 267 Question paper: Chemical systems 270 KNOWLEDE AREA ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 277 Unit 2 ELECTRODYNAMICS 277 2.1 Electromagnetic induction and electric generators 278 2.1.1 Direct current generator 280 2.1.2 Alternating current generator (alternator) 282 2.1.3 Comparison of DC and AC generators 283 Project 283 Exercise 20 284 2.2 The motor effect and electric motors 286 2.2.1 Direct current motors (DC motors) 288
2.2.2 Alternating current motors (AC motors) 289 2.2.3 Comparison of DC and AC motors 290 Project 291 Exercise 21 291 2.3 Alternating current 292 2.3.1 Change in potential difference and current for AC 293 2.3.2 Root mean square current and potential difference 294 Exercise 22 296 Summary of Unit 2 300 KNOWLEDE AREA MECHANICS 305 Unit 2 PROJECTILE MOTION 305 2.1 What is a projectile? 305 2.2 Gravitational acceleration 305 Experiment 14 307 2.3 Terminal velocity 308 2.4 Equations of motion 309 2.5 Problem solving 310 Exercise 23 325 Summary of Unit 2 330 Unit 3 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 333 3.1 Work and energy 333 3.1.1 Work (W) 334 3.1.2 Resistance forces (friction) 337 Exercise 24 338 3.1.3 Potential energy (E P ) 340 3.1.4 Kinetic energy (E K ) 341 3.1.5 Mechanical energy 342 3.1.6 The work-energy principle 343 3.1.7 Forces 348 Exercise 25 353 3.2 Power or rate of work (P) 358 Experiment 15 359 Exercise 26 360 Summary of Unit 3 362 Question paper: Mechancis 365 KNOWLEDGE AREA CHEMICAL CHANGE 371 Unit 1 RATE OF REACTIONS 372 1.1 What is reaction rate? 372 1.2 What is required for reactions to occur? 273 1.3 Factors that influence reaction rate 374 1.3.1 Nature of reactants 375 1.3.2 Concentration 375 Experiment 16 376 1.3.3 State of division (reaction surface) 378 Experiment 17 379 1.3.4 Temperature 380 Experiment 18 380 1.3.5 Catalyst 381 Experiment 19 382
Exercise 27 384 1.4 Graphic presentation 385 1.5 Experimental determination 387 1.5.1 Colour change 387 1.5.2 Volume and mass changes 387 1.5.3 Temperature change 388 1.5.4 Change in ph 388 1.5.5 Turbidity 388 Experiment 20 388 Experiment 21 391 Experiment 22 392 Experiment 23 394 Exercise 28 395 1.6 Reaction mechanisms 397 1.6.1 Activation energy 397 1.6.2 Activated complex 398 1.6.3 Energy changes during chemical reactions 399 Exercise 29 401 1.7 Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution 402 1.7.1 Effect of temperature change 403 1.7.2 Effect of concentration 403 1.7.3 Effect of a catalyst 404 Exercise 30 406 Summary of Unit 1 407 Unit 2 EQUILIBRIUM AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS 411 2.1 Open, closed and isolated systems 412 2.2 Reversible changes 413 2.2.1 Physical changes 413 2.2.2 Chemical reactions 414 2.3 Conditions of equilibrium 417 2.4 Catalyst 417 2.5 The equilibrium constant 418 Exercise 31 420 2.6 Irreversible chemical reactions 421 2.7 Calculation of equilibrium concentrations 422 Exercise 32 425 2.8 Dynamic chemical equilibrium system 429 2.8.1 Le Chatelier s principle 429 2.8.2 Dynamic chemical equilibrium in solutions 432 Experiment 24 434 Experiment 25 436 Exercise 33 438 2.9 Equilibrium and reaction rate graphs 441 2.9.1 Equilibrium in an isolated system 441 2.9.2 Reactants change 441 2.9.3 Products change 442 2.9.4 Temperature change 443 2.9.5 Pressure change 444 2.9.6 Catalyst 446 Exercise 34 447
2.10 Equilibrium in industrial chemical processes 450 2.10.1 Haber process 450 2.10.2 Contact process 451 Exercise 35 452 Summary of Unit 2 453 Unit 3 ACIDS AND BASES 457 3.1 Properties 458 3.1.1 Acids 458 3.1.2 Bases 459 Activity 10 460 3.2 Acid-base theory 460 3.2.1 Arrhenius 460 3.2.2 Brønsted-Lowry 461 3.3 Monoprotic and polyprotic acids 462 Experiment 26 462 3.4 Acid-base reactions 463 3.4.1 Conjugate bases 464 3.4.2 Conjugate acids 464 3.4.3 Conjugate acid-base pairs 464 Exercise 36 467 3.4.4 Ampholytes 468 3.5 Strong and weak acids and bases 469 3.5.1 Acids 469 3.5.2 Bases 470 3.6 Hydrolysis 470 Exercise 37 474 3.7 Reactions of acids 475 3.7.1 Acid-metal reactions 475 3.7.2 Acid-metal oxide reactions 475 3.7.3 Acid-metal hydroxide reactions 475 3.7.4 Acid-metal carbonate reactions 475 3.8 Neutralisation reaction between acids and bases 476 Experiment 27 477 Experiment 28 478 Experiment 29 480 Experiment 30 481 3.9 Indikators 482 Exercise 38 484 3.10 Solutions 485 3.10.1 Calculations 485 3.10.2 Preparation of a standard solution 488 Experiment 31 488 3.10.3 Dilution 490 Exercise 39 491 3.11 Titrations 492 3.11.1 What is a titration? 492 3.11.2 How is a titration conducted? 492 3.11.3 Calculations 493 Experiment 32 494 Experiment 33 496
Exercise 40 498 3.12 Equilibrium constant 499 3.12.1 K a values 499 3.12.2 K b values 500 3.12.3 Relationship between K a and K b values 501 3.13 Distinction between strong and weak acids 501 3.13.1 ph 501 3.13.2 Conductivity 502 3.13.3 Reaction rate 502 3.14 Concentrated and dilute acids and bases 502 Exercise 41 503 3.15 Water 504 3.15.1 Autoionisation 504 3.15.2 Ion product, K w 504 3.16 ph scale 505 3.16.1 Calculation of ph strong acid 507 3.16.2 Calculation of ph strong base 507 3.17 Applications 508 3.17.1 Chloro-alkali industry 508 3.17.2 Hair salons 509 Exercise 42 210 Summary of Unit 3 511 KNOWLEDE AREA ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 515 Unit 1 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 515 1.1 Introduction 515 1.1.1 Potential difference 515 1.1.2 Current 516 1.1.3 Resistance 516 1.1.4 Series and parallel connections 517 1.2 Internal resistance 518 Experiment 34 521 Experiment 35 523 Exercise 43 527 Summary of Unit 1 531 Question paper: Electricity and magnetism 533 KNOWLEDGE AREA CHEMICAL CHANGE 539 Unit 4 ELECTROCHEMISTRY 539 4.1 Oxidation and reduction 540 4.1.1 Oxidation numbers 540 4.1.2 Direct electron transfer 542 4.1.3 Indirect electron transfer 543 4.1.4 Oxidation and reduction half reactions 543 Experiment 36 548 Experiment 37 549 Exercise 44 551 4.2 Electrochemical cells 553 4.2.1 Electrolytic cell 554 4.2.1.1 Electrolysis of a melted ionic substance 554 4.2.1.2 Electrolysis of an ionic solution 555 Experiment 38 557
Exercise 45 558 4.2.1.3 Applications 559 Exercise 46 565 4.2.2 Galvanic or voltaic cells 567 4.2.2.1 Salt bridge 568 4.2.2.2 Cell notation 570 4.2.2.3 Standard conditions 570 Exercise 47 571 4.3 The standard hydrogen electrode 573 Experiment 39 575 4.4 Prediction of cell potential 577 Exercise 48 577 4.5 Equilibrium, current and emf 580 4.5.1 Current and reaction rate 580 4.5.2 Potential difference and equilibrium 581 Exercise 49 581 Summary of Unit4 583 Question paper: Chemical change 586 Information pages 592 Work cited 598