Child Healt h The Wor ld Healt h Or ganisat ion (WHO) def ines healt h as a st at e of complet e physical, ment al and social well-being and not mer ely t he absence of disease or inf ir mit y. A mor e usef ul def init ion of healt h includes t hr ee ot her ver y impor t ant aspect s of healt h: emot ional, envir onment al and spir it ual. Childr en have r ight s t o healt h as well, and ar e ent it led t o basic r ight s such as f ood, healt h car e, a saf e home and pr ot ect ion f r om abuse. Fr om t he moment t hey ar e bor n, all childr en depend complet ely on an adult t o meet all t heir needs, but t he way in which t hese needs ar e met will var y consider ably accor ding t o f amily cir cumst ances, cult ur e and t he per sonalit ies of t he child and t he car ing adult. All t hose who car e f or young childr en need a t hor ough knowledge of child development, so t hat pr ovision of car e can be planned t o mat ch each child s needs at each st age of development. This ar t icle does not at t empt t o cover all aspect s of child healt h but will discuss issues some par ent s and car er s may be concer ned about. Some Condit ions Af f ect ing Childr en 1-8 Year s Old Emotional and behavioural problems Childr en of t en show emot ional and behaviour al pr oblems at cer t ain t imes. Usually t hese pr oblems disappear quit e quickly wit hout t r eat ment and may be t he r esult of t empor ar y st r ess or upset. Ot her specif ic condit ions cause long-t er m dif f icult ies f or childr en and t heir f amilies. The condit ions st at ed below ar e t he ones you ar e most likely t o encount er wit hin an ear ly year s educat ion set t ing. This ar t icle will discuss ADHD and ASD in mor e det ail. At t ent ion def icit hyper act ivit y disor der (ADHD) Aut ism or aut ist ic spect r um disor der (ASD) Development al dyspr axia Eat ing disor der s: Anor exia ner vosa Obesit y Food r ef usal Enur esis (Bedwet t ing) Soiling or encopr esis Attention def icit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
What is it? Cause: What t o do: ADHD is a condit ion which af f ect s bet ween 1 and 2 per cent of childr en in t he UK. I n gener al, childr en wit h ADHD ar e impulsive and r est less, and have dif f icult y in maint aining at t ent ion and concent r at ing on t he t ask in hand. The cause of ADHD is not known, but some believe it is caused by insuf f icient levels of dopamine in t he br ain. This hor mone causes t he elect r ical impulses which cont r ol all t hat we do t o misf ir e, and r esult s in uncont r olled, impulsive behaviour and of t en poor coor dinat ion (dyspr axia) and ot her lear ning dif f icult ies (which may include dyslexia). I t is t hought t hat t he condit ion is her edit ar y, and many f amilies can look back and r ecall t hat a f amily member showed t he f eat ur es of ADHD bef or e t he condit ion was discover ed. Somet imes t hese sympt oms go unnot iced unt il t he child st ar t s school and is compar ed wit h ot her childr en. Consult a doct or if you suspect t he child has ADHD. He or she may r ef er you t o a consult ant paediat r ician, a psychologist or psychot her apist f or advice and t r eat ment. Depending upon t he needs of t he individual child and t he sever it y of t he condit ion, a combinat ion of medical, t eaching and behaviour al help can be given: Rit alin is a dr ug which, alt hough a st imulant, seems t o have a calming ef f ect on t wo-t hir ds of childr en wit h ADHD; it enables t he child t o concent r at e bet t er and t o behave in a calmer way. Ef f ect ive t eaching t echniques include est ablishing clear boundar ies and cr eat ing pr edict able r out ines; a child wit h ADHD benef it s f r om having t he school day or ganised int o a r ecognisable st r uct ur e. Dealing wit h t he child s unwant ed behaviour at once; choose one or t wo par t icular ly dif f icult behaviour t r ait s t o wor k on f ir st and r emember t o pr aise t he child when impr ovement s occur. Possible Childr en wit h ADHD ar e mor e likely t o: complicat ions: Be depr essed or anxious. To behave in a conf r ont at ional and ant isocial way f or example ar guing wit h and def ying adult s. Have speech and language pr oblems. Have co-or dinat ion pr oblems. Have poor self -est eem and dif f icult y wit h developing social skills. Suppor t f or t he child wit h ADHD and t he f amily 1) Behaviour management appr oaches of t en st ar t by t eaching par ent s and car er s t he A-B-C appr oach. A = Ant ecedent s. I dent if y t he event s or cir cumst ances which seem t o lead t o dif f icult behaviour or t r igger specif ic pr oblems. These ar e known as ant ecedent s. B = Behaviour. Descr ibe t he act ual behaviour in det ail (what does t he child do, f or how long, what don t t hey do). C = Consequences. Obser ve t he consequences of t his behaviour (what happens t o t he child, how ot her people r eact, what sor t of at t ent ion is given). Car er s ar e t hen shown how t o gr adually change t he child s behaviour, concent r at ing on small changes at a t ime and giving pr aise f or any
small st ep in t he r ight dir ect ion. 2) Childr en t aking st imulant medicat ion need t o t ake t heir t ablet s r egular ly, as t he ef f ect s of medicat ion only last f or f our t o f ive hour s. As a par ent or car er you need t o ensur e t hat anyone looking af t er t he child is awar e of t his. Childr en should also be seen r egular ly by a specialist t o monit or t heir pr ogr ess and check f or any sideef f ect s. For example, some childr en develop sleep pr oblems, lose weight, or may even become depr essed. Fur t her Most childr en wit h ADHD impr ove wit h t r eat ment as t hey get older. inf or mat ion: A f ew go on t o display mor e ant i-social behaviour lat er in childhood. Signs and sympt oms A child wit h ADHD may show some or most of t he f ollowing signs and sympt oms: Fidget ing wit h hands and f eet and squir ming in t heir seat ; t he child act s as if dr iven by a mot or and seem t o be on t he go t he whole t ime. Dif f icult y in playing quiet ly. I nabilit y t o f inish t asks. Dif f icult y f ollowing inst r uct ions. Of t en shif t s f r om one incomplet e act ivit y t o anot her. Of t en does not seem t o list en. Of t en engages in physically danger ous act ivit ies wit hout consider ing t he consequences, e.g. r unning int o t he r oad wit hout looking f or t r af f ic. Dif f icult y in await ing t heir t ur n in games or gr oup sit uat ions; t he child f inds it har d t o socialise f r om an ear ly age. Talking incessant ly and unable t o list en wit hout int er r upt ion; t he child might appear t o want t o t ake over and be t he cent r e of at t ent ion. Of t en blur t s out answer s t o quest ions. Dif f icult y sust aining at t ent ion. Of t en int er r upt s or int r udes on ot her s. Of t en has dif f icult y or ganising t hings; t he child may lose t hings or be oblivious t o mess. Somet imes t hese sympt oms go unnot iced unt il t he child st ar t s school and is compar ed wit h ot her childr en. Autism or autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) What is it? Aut ism is a lif e-long development al disabilit y af f ect ing social and communicat ion skills. Childr en wit h aut ism of t en have accompanying lear ning disabilit ies but, what ever t heir gener al level of int elligence, t hey will shar e a common dif f icult y in making sense of t he wor ld in t he
way most people do. I n most childr en wit h aut ism some t ypes of skills will be bet t er t han ot her s so t hat t heir development will not only be slower t han usual but will also be uneven and dif f er ent f r om most childr en wit h ot her lear ning disabilit ies. Causes of aut ism: Ther e is no known cause but because about one-quar t er of childr en wit h aut ism have neur ological sympt oms, many specialist s now believe t her e may be a physical and/ or genet ic f act or. One t heor y is t hat aut ism may be r elat ed t o abnor mal levels of essent ial f at t y acids in t he blood, or t o an abnor mal blood f low t hr ough t he br ain. I t is not due t o emot ional pr oblems or emot ional depr ivat ion. Onset of aut ism is almost always bef or e t he age of t hr ee year s. I t af f ect s f our t imes as many boys as gir ls, and has no class or r acial bar r ier s. Feat ur es of aut ism: The degr ee t o which childr en wit h an aut ist ic spect r um disor der ar e af f ect ed var ies, all t hose af f ect ed have what is known as a t r iad of impair ment s. This t r iad af f ect s: Social int er act ion (dif f icult y wit h social r elat ionships). Social communicat ion (dif f icult y wit h ver bal and non-ver bal communicat ion). I maginat ion (dif f icult y in t he development of play and imaginat ion). I n addit ion t o t his t r iad, r epet it ive behaviour pat t er ns ar e a not able f eat ur e and a r esist ance t o change in r out ine. A child wit h aut ism may show some or many of t he f ollowing char act er ist ics: Lack awar eness of ot her people. Avoid eye-t o eye cont act. Pr ef er t o play alone. Over -sensit ive t o cer t ain sounds. Ext r emely r esist ant t o change and become obsessed wit h one par t icular t opic or idea. Have dif f icult y in under st anding and using nor mal speech pat t er ns. Echolalia an aut omat ic r epet it ion of what is said t o him or her is common. Develop obsessions, wit h at t achment t o or collect ions of one par t icular t ype of t hing. Have delay in speaking, which may be r obot -like when it does happen. Show r epet it ive behaviour, r ocking, walking on t ip t oe, et c. Show abnor mal body movement s, f or example ar m f lapping, f licking f inger s f or hour s on end, gr imacing, r ocking and char ging in dif f er ent dir ect ions at gr eat speed. Have sudden scr eaming f it s; may inj ur e t hemself. Show an isolat ed special skill, f or example dr awing, music or an out st anding r ot e memor y. Ext r eme examples of such skills include an 18-mont h-old who could sing a whole oper a, and a t wo-year -old who can r ead. Such individuals ar e known as idiot s-savant s. Diagnosis: A diagnosis of aut ism is not usually made unt il t he child is t wo year s old, alt hough par ent s may have not iced a gener al lack of cur iosit y in t heir child wit h poor sleeping and f eeding pat t er ns and gener al unr esponsiveness in t he f ir st year.
Suppor t and educat ion f or t he child wit h aut ism: Educat ion: Asper ger syndr ome: Ther e is no known ef f ect ive t r eat ment apar t f r om medicat ion t o cont r ol t he associat ed pr oblems of epilepsy and hyper act ivit y. Many t her apies ar e being t r ied, f or example: Holding t her apy, in which par ent s gr oup t oget her f or long per iods of t ime and t r y t o f ost er emot ional r esponsiveness by f ir m holding t echniques. Behaviour t her apy, wit h r ewar d and discour agement f or accept able and unaccept able behaviour. Daily Lif e Ther apy developed by Dr Kit ahar a in t he Bost on Higashi school in t he USA of f er s a pr ogr amme of physical educat ion and ageappr opr iat e lessons in a r esident ial set t ing. Lovaas met hod developed by Pr of essor Lovaas in Calif or nia, USA of f er s an int ensive pr ogr amme of t her apy using behaviour modif icat ion t echniques. The child wit h sever e aut ism will need const ant one-t o-one car e, r equir ing consider able pat ience and skill on t he par t of all f amily member s. Any changes t o t he per son s r out ine must be car ef ully planned. Ear ly childhood educat ion, f or example at a nur ser y or playgr oup, will help t he f amily int egr at e int o t he communit y. Most childr en wit h sever e aut ism at t end local schools f or childr en wit h sever e lear ning dif f icult ies. The t eaching of self -help skills is an essent ial aspect of educat ion f or any child wit h aut ism, as t hese can help t hem t o achieve maximum independence and make lif e easier f or ever yone. Because t he child wit h aut ism looks nor mal, par ent s of t en have dif f icult y aler t ing ot her s t o t he f act t hat he or she has special needs. To an ext ent, par ent s may of t en have t o t ake on t he r ole of educat or, somet imes even wit h pr of essionals, f or example GPs, t eacher s and healt h visit or s. Ther e ar e ot her ways in which par ent s may choose t o help t heir pr e- school child, such as: using pict ur e symbols t o develop communicat ion t r ying a glut en and/ or casein-f r ee diet, or using educat ional sof t war e on a home comput er. Most childr en wit h Asper ger syndr ome r epr esent t he ot her end of t he aut ist ic spect r um. Language delay is not as common as in aut ism, but t her e ar e of t en pr oblems wit h communicat ion and t he child wit h Asper ger syndr ome is usually awar e of his disabilit y. Feat ur es of t he syndr ome ar e: Social naivet é or simplicit y. Good gr ammat ical language, using language only f or own int er est s. Ver y specialised int er est s, of t en highly academic, f or example movement of t he planet s, r ailway t imet ables. Lack of common sense ar ising f r om unawar eness of t heir envir onment. Food ref usal What is it? Food r ef usal is a consist ent and r epeat ed r ef usal t o at t empt t o eat, chew or swallow f ood. Cause: Food r ef usal is f air ly common amongst t oddler s of t en because t hey ar e t oo busy playing and explor ing t heir wor ld t o make t ime f or meals.
Fr equent r ef usal t o eat can r esult in mealt imes becoming a bat t legr ound, wit h par ent and child t est ing each ot her s pat ience t o t he limit. Signs and sympt oms: The child r ef uses t o eat at f amily mealt imes. The child my eat snacks and j unk f ood at ot her t imes. What t o do: Fir st, check t he child s weight against t he gr owt h char t s t o exclude any cause f or concer n; consult t he doct or t o exclude any medical disor der. I f t he child is obviously well and gr owing nor mally, of f er r egular meals in small, at t r act ively pr esent ed por t ions. Gener al car e: Allow t he child t o eat accor ding t o appet it e. Of f er small snacks (or mini-meals) of nut r it ious f ood, such as f r uit, cheese cubes or milk dr inks; act ive t oddler s need t o eat bet ween t he nor mal t hr ee meals a day t o keep up t heir ener gy levels. Tr y not t o let f amily mealt imes become a bat t legr ound. Encour age t he child t o t ake cont r ol and t o lear n t hat eat ing is an act ive, r at her t han a passive pr ocess. Allow t he child t o eat by any met hod or combinat ion of met hods f inger s and f ist s as well as wit h spoons. Toler at e any mess! Don t scoop t he f ood int o t he child s mout h; if t he child asks f or help, load t he spoon wit h f ood and encour age t hem t o t ake t he spoon t o f eed t hemself. Let him or her eat in any or der or combinat ion f or example, don t insist t hat t hey eat all t heir main cour se bef or e having any desser t. Keep t he meals simple and of f er f ood you know t hey ar e likely t o eat ; any lef t over s should be r emoved wit hout f uss. Tr y t o keep mealt imes enj oyable and a sociable exper ience; ser ve t r eat s as par t of mealt imes r at her t han as snacks bet ween. Don t ever use f ood as a r ewar d, punishment, br ibe or t hr eat. Keep t he child s eat ing separ at e f r om issues of discipline. Possible complicat ions: Ser ious eat ing disor der s may develop in lat er childhood if t he pr oblem of f ood r ef usal is not successf ully managed. Enuresis (Bedwetting) What is it? Cause: Enur esis t he medical name f or bedwet t ing is t he involunt ar y passing of ur ine and t he most common f or m of bedwet t ing among childr en is noct ur nal enur esis (wet t ing t he bed at night ). Most childr en who wet t he bed have done it all t heir lif e, and in many cases no r eason can be f ound. Of t en it is passed on t hr ough t he f amily. Bedwet t ing also happens, or has happened, t o a close r elat ive in up t o 85 per cent of cases. Fif t y-seven per cent of childr en who wet t heir beds eit her have a br ot her, sist er or a par ent who has exper ienced t he same pr oblem. One explanat ion could be t hat t hese childr en ar e heavy sleeper s who do not wake up when t heir bladder is f ull. Also, some childr en develop bladder cont r ol lat er t han ot her s.
At night, some childr en pr oduce t oo lit t le of t he ant i-diur et ic hor mone (ADH) which cont r ols t he pr oduct ion of ur ine. Enur esis may also have a medical or psychological cause such as cyst it is, diabet es, pr oblems at school, at home, t he ar r ival of a new baby in t he home or t he divor ce of t he child s par ent s. Signs and sympt oms: A child younger t han six year s old r egular ly wet s t he bed. NOTE: Fr equent bedwet t ing is common in childr en up t o t he age of six. Appr oximat ely 15 20 per cent of all f ive-year -olds and six-year - olds wet t he bed and most of t hose ar e boys. What t o do: Consult t he doct or if : t he child st ill wet s t he bed af t er t he age of six t he child suddenly st ar t s wet t ing t he bed wit hout having done so ear lier t he child s ur ine has a st r ong smell, or if t he child says t hat it hur t s dur ing or af t er ur inat ion t he child st ar t s t o wet her or himself dur ing t he day t he child ur inat es mor e t han usual, day or night t he child has const ipat ion or def ecat es in his or her pant s. The doct or will st ar t by asking quest ions about t he child, such as when t hey lear nt t o go t o t he t oilet in t he dayt ime. They will pr obably also ask if someone else in t he f amily has had t he same pr oblem. Af t er t his, t he doct or will examine t he child, f eeling t heir st omach and abdomen. Of t en, t he doct or will ask f or a ur ine sample in or der t o r ule out a bact er ial inf ect ion or cyst it is. The doct or may also t ake a blood sample. Gener al car e: Pr ot ect t he bed by using a wat er pr oof mat t r ess, or a f it t ed wat er pr oof mat t r ess cover under t he bot t om sheet. This must be f ast ened secur ely t o pr event any danger of suf f ocat ion. Place clean night clot hes and sheet s next t o t he bed so t he child can change if she or he wakes up. Don t make t he bedwet t ing a big issue in t he f amily. Most childr en ar e embar r assed about wet t ing t he bed, so it will help if t he f amily suppor t t he child and show a posit ive at t it ude. Don t get angr y wit h t he child or punish t hem if t hey wet t heir bed. This could only make mat t er s wor se. Let t he child know t hat many ot her childr en do it t oo. I f someone in t he f amily has had t he same pr oblem, t ell t he child about it. Knowing t hat ot her s have been af f ect ed in t he same way will help a child deal wit h t he pr oblem. I f t he child is in agr eement, keep a calendar or diar y and mar k Dr y Night s wit h a st ar. Pr aise t he child when he or she wakes up in t he mor ning wit hout having wet t he bed. Encour agement is of t en t he most helpf ul way of dealing wit h t he pr oblem. Don t put a nappy on t he child at night as t his will make t he child less awar e of t he pr oblem and not t each t hem t o not ice when t hey need t o ur inat e. I f met hods using pr aise and encour agement don t wor k: Tr y using a bedwet t ing alar m t hat makes a r inging or buzzing sound or vibr at es if t he child wet s t he bed. (These ar e successf ul in cur ing t he condit ion in 70 per cent of cases.)
The alar m is of t en ver y ef f ect ive because it makes t he child wake up as soon as t he f ir st dr op of ur ine hit s t he under wear or t he sheet. The child is t hus made awar e t hat he or she is ur inat ing and what it f eels like when t heir bladder is f ull. (NOTE: Don t use a bedwet t ing alar m if t he child obj ect s t o it.) Don t be embar r assed t o discuss f ur t her opt ions wit h t he GP or healt h visit or if none of t he above suggest ions appear t o be ef f ect ive. Fur t her inf or mat ion: Many par ent s have been t old t o wake t he child in t he middle of t he night and make t hem go t o t he bat hr oom. St udies show t hat t he posit ive ef f ect of t his is almost non-exist ent, since t he child does not wake up by him or her self because of t he need t o ur inat e. I t may t ake weeks or mont hs bef or e t her e is any change. Tr aining a child will t ake t ime, so pat ience is r equir ed f r om all involved. Most childr en nat ur ally st op wet t ing t he bed event ually. This ar t icle is an excer pt f r om t he book Baby and Child Healt h By Car olyn Meggit t I SBN: 0-435-40151-3 This ar t icle discusses sever al issues r elat ed t o child healt h. I t is t aken f r om t he book, which cover s all aspect s of t he healt h of babies and young childr en and how t o car e f or t hem. Alt hough t he book s f ocus is on physical healt h, it also r ecognises t he needs of childr en t o be healt hy in ot her equally impor t ant ways: emot ionally, ment ally and socially. The book includes a syst emat ic and up-t o-dat e summar y of t he main condit ions af f ect ing babies and childr en, how t o r ecognise sympt oms and what act ion t o t ake. I t also pr ovides guidance f or ear ly year s car er s on how t o inf luence t he healt h of childr en in t heir car e by pr oviding a saf e and hygienic envir onment, and good nut r it ion.