Differential Equations

Transcription

1 Chapter 7 Differential Equations 7. An Introduction to Differential Equations Motivating Questions In this section, we strive to understand the ideas generated by the following important questions: What is a differential equation and what kinds of information can it tell us? How do differential equations arise in the world around us? What do we mean by a solution to a differential equation? Introduction In previous chapters, we have seen that a function s derivative tells us the rate at which the function is changing. More recently, the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus helped us to determine the total change of a function over an interval when we know the function s rate of change. For instance, an object s velocity tells us the rate of change of that object s position. By integrating the velocity over a time interval, we may determine by how much the position changes over that time interval. In particular, if we know where the object is at the beginning of that interval, then we have enough information to accurately predict where it will be at the end of the interval. In this chapter, we will introduce the concept of differential equations and explore this idea in more depth. Simply said, a differential equation is an equation that provides a description of a function s derivative, which means that it tells us the function s rate of change. Using this information, we would like to learn as much as possible about the function itself. For instance, we would ideally like to have an algebraic description of the 387

2 AN INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS function. As we ll see, this may be too much to ask in some situations, but we will still be able to make accurate approximations. Preview Activity 7.. The position of a moving object is given by the function s(t), where s is measured in feet and t in seconds. We determine that the velocity is v(t) = 4t + feet per second. (a) How much does the position change over the time interval [0, 4]? (b) Does this give you enough information to determine s(4), the position at time t = 4? If so, what is s(4)? If not, what additional information would you need to know to determine s(4)? (c) Suppose you are told that the object s initial position s(0) = 7. Determine s(), the object s position seconds later. (d) If you are told instead that the object s initial position is s(0) = 3, what is s()? (e) If we only know the velocity v(t) = 4t +, is it possible that the object s position at all times is s(t) = t + t 4? Explain how you know. (f) Are there other possibilities for s(t)? If so, what are they? (g) If, in addition to knowing the velocity function is v(t) = 4t +, we know the initial position s(0), how many possibilities are there for s(t)? What is a differential equation? A differential equation is an equation that describes the derivative, or derivatives, of a function that is unknown to us. For instance, the equation dy dx = x sin x is a differential equation since it describes the derivative of a function y(x) that is unknown to us. As many important examples of differential equations involve quantities that change in time, the independent variable in our discussion will frequently be time t. For instance, in the preview activity, we considered the differential equation ds = 4t +. Knowing the velocity and the starting position of the object, we were able to find the position at any later time.

3 7.. AN INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 389 Because differential equations describe the derivative of a function, they give us information about how that function changes. Our goal will be to take this information and use it to predict the value of the function in the future; in this way, differential equations provide us with something like a crystal ball. Differential equations arise frequently in our every day world. For instance, you may hear a bank advertising: Your money will grow at a 3% annual interest rate with us. This innocuous statement is really a differential equation. Let s translate: A(t) will be amount of money you have in your account at time t. On one hand, the rate at which your money grows is the derivative da/. On the other hand, we are told that this rate is 0.03A. This leads to the differential equation da = 0.03A. This differential equation has a slightly different feel than the previous equation ds = 4t +. In the earlier example, the rate of change depends only on the independent variable t, and we may find s(t) by integrating the velocity 4t +. In the banking example, however, the rate of change depends on the dependent variable A, so we ll need some new techniques in order to find A(t). Activity 7.. Express the following statements as differential equations. In each case, you will need to introduce notation to describe the important quantities in the statement so be sure to clearly state what your notation means. (a) The population of a town grows continuously at an annual rate of.5%. (b) A radioactive sample loses 5.6% of its mass every day. (c) You have a bank account that continuously earns 4% interest every year. At the same time, you withdraw money continually from the account at the rate of $000 per year. (d) A cup of hot chocolate is sitting in a 70 room. The temperature of the hot chocolate cools continuously by 0% of the difference between the hot chocolate s temperature and the room temperature every minute. (e) A can of cold soda is sitting in a 70 room. The temperature of the soda warms continuously at the rate of 0% of the difference between the soda s temperature and the room s temperature every minute.

4 AN INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS Differential equations in the world around us As we have noted, differential equations give a natural way to describe phenomena we see in the real world. For instance, physical principles are frequently expressed as a description of how a quantity changes. A good example is Newton s Second Law, an important physcial principle that says: The product of an object s mass and acceleration equals the force applied to it. For instance, when gravity acts on an object near the earth s surface, it exerts a force equal to mg, the mass of the object times the gravitational constant g. We therefore have ma = mg, or dv = g, where v is the velocity of the object, and g = 9.8 meters per second squared. Notice that this physical principle does not tell us what the object s velocity is, but rather how the object s velocity changes. Activity 7.. Shown below are two graphs depicting the velocity of falling objects. On the left is the velocity of a skydiver, while on the right is the velocity of a meteorite entering the Earth s atmosphere. 6 v 6 v t 3 t Skydiver s velocity Meteorite s velocity

5 7.. AN INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 39 (a) Begin with the skydiver s velocity and use the given graph to measure the rate of change dv/ when the velocity is v = 0.5,.0,.5,.0, and.5. Plot your values on the graph below. You will want to think carefully about this: you are plotting the derivative dv/ as a function of velocity..5.0 dv 0.5 v (b) Now do the same thing with the meteorite s velocity: use the given graph to measure the rate of change dv/ when the velocity is v = 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, and 5.0. Plot your values on the graph above. (c) You should find that all your points lie on a line. Write the equation of this line being careful to use proper notation for the quantities on the horizontal and vertical axes. (d) The relationship you just found is a differential equation. Write a complete sentence that explains its meaning. (e) By looking at the differential equation, determine the values of the velocity for which the velocity increases. (f) By looking at the differential equation, determine the values of the velocity for which the velocity decreases. (g) By looking at the differential equation, determine the values of the velocity for which the velocity remains constant. The point of this activity is to demonstrate how differential equations model processes in the real world. In this example, two factors are influencing the velocities: gravity and wind resistance. The differential equation describes how these factors influence the rate of change of the objects velocities.

6 AN INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS Solving a differential equation We have said that a differential equation is an equation that describes the derivative, or derivatives, of a function that is unknown to us. By a solution to a differential equation, we mean simply a function that satisies this description. For instance, the first differential equation we looked at is ds = 4t +, which describes an unknown function s(t). We may check that s(t) = t + t is a solution because it satisfies this description. Notice that s(t) = t + t + 4 is also a solution. If we have a candidate for a solution, it is straightforward to check whether it is a solution or not. Before we demonstrate, however, let s consider the same issue in a simpler context. Suppose we are given the equation x x = x + 6 and asked whether x = 3 is a solution. To answer this question, we could rewrite the variable x in the equation with the symbol : = + 6. To determine whether x = 3 is a solution, we can investigate the value of each side of the equation separately when the value 3 is placed in and see if indeed the two resulting values are equal. Doing so, we observe that and Therefore, x = 3 is indeed a solution. = 3 3 =, + 6 = =. We will do the same thing with differential equations. Consider the differential equation dv d =.5 0.5v, or = Let s ask whether v(t) = 3 e 0.5t is a solution. Using this formula for v, observe first that dv = d = d [3 e 0.5t ] = e 0.5t ( 0.5) = e 0.5t and.5 0.5v = =.5 0.5(3 e 0.5t ) = e 0.5t = e 0.5t. At this time, don t worry about why we chose this function; we will learn techniques for finding solutions to differential equations soon enough.

7 7.. AN INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 393 Since dv and.5 0.5v agree for all values of t when v = 3 e 0.5t, we have indeed found a solution to the differential equation. Activity 7.3. Consider the differential equation dv =.5 0.5v. Which of the following functions are solutions of this differential equation? (a) v(t) =.5t 0.5t. (b) v(t) = 3 + e 0.5t. (c) v(t) = 3. (d) v(t) = 3 + Ce 0.5t where C is any constant. This activity shows us something interesting. Notice that the differential equation has infinitely many solutions, which are parametrized by the constant C in v(t) = 3 + Ce 0.5t. In Figure 7., we see the graphs of these solutions for a few values of C, as labeled v t Figure 7.: The family of solutions to the differential equation dv =.5 0.5v. Notice that the value of C is connected to the initial value of the velocity v(0), since v(0) = 3 + C. In other words, while the differential equation describes how the velocity changes as a function of the velocity itself, this is not enough information to determine the velocity uniquely: we also need to know the initial velocity. For this reason, differential equations will typically have infinitely many solutions, one corresponding to each initial value. We have seen this phenomenon before, such as when given the velocity of a moving object v(t), we were not able to uniquely determine the object s position unless we also know its initial position.

8 AN INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS If we are given a differential equation and an initial value for the unknown function, we say that we have an initial value problem. For instance, dv =.5 0.5v, v(0) = 0.5 is an initial value problem. In this situation, we know the value of v at one time and we know how v is changing. Consequently, there should be exactly one function v that satisfies the initial value problem. This demonstrates the following important general property of initial value problems. Initial value problems that are well behaved have exactly one solution, which exists in some interval around the initial point. We won t worry about what well behaved means it is a technical condition that will be satisfied by all the differential equations we consider. To close this section, we note that differential equations may be classified based on certain characteristics they may possess. Indeed, you may see many different types of differential equations in a later course in differential equations. For now, we would like to introduce a few terms that are used to describe differential equations. A first-order differential equation is one in which only the first derivative of the function occurs. For this reason, dv =.5 0.5v is a first-order equation while is a second-order equation. d y = 0y A differential equation is autonomous if the independent variable does not appear in the description of the derivative. For instance, dv =.5 0.5v is autonomous because the description of the derivative dv/ does not depend on time. The equation dy =.5t 0.5y, however, is not autonomous.

9 7.. AN INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 395 Summary In this section, we encountered the following important ideas: A differential equation is simply an equation that describes the derivative(s) of an unknown function. Physical principles, as well as some everyday situations, often describe how a quantity changes, which lead to differential equations. A solution to a differential equation is a function whose derivatives satisfy the equation s description. Differential equations typically have infinitely many solutions, parametrized by the initial values. Exercises. Suppose that T(t) represents the temperature of a cup of coffee set out in a room, where T is expressed in degrees Fahrenheit and t in minutes. A physical principle known as Newton s Law of Cooling tells us that dt = 5 T + 5. (a) Supposes that T(0) = 05. What does the differential equation give us for the value of dt T =05? Explain in a complete sentence the meaning of these two facts. (b) Is T increasing or decreasing at t = 0? (c) What is the approximate temperature at t =? (d) On the graph below, make a plot of dt/ as a function of T dt T (e) For which values of T does T increase? For which values of T does T decrease?

10 AN INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS (f) What do you think is the temperature of the room? Explain your thinking. (g) Verify that T(t) = e t/5 is the solution to the differential equation with initial value T(0) = 05. What happens to this solution after a long time?. Suppose that the population of a particular species is described by the function P(t), where P is expressed in millions. Suppose further that the population s rate of change is governed by the differential equation dp = f (P) where f (P) is the function graphed below. dp P 3 4 (a) For which values of the population P does the population increase? (b) For which values of the population P does the population decrease? (c) If P(0) = 3, how will the population change in time? (d) If the initial population satisfies 0 < P(0) <, what will happen to the population after a very long time? (e) If the initial population satisfies < P(0) < 3, what will happen to the population after a very long time? (f) If the initial population satisfies 3 < P(0), what will happen to the population after a very long time? (g) This model for a population s growth is sometimes called growth with a threshold. Explain why this is an appropriate name. 3. In this problem, we test further what it means for a function to be a solution to a given differential equation.

11 7.. AN INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 397 (a) Consider the differential equation dy = y t. Determine whether the following functions are solutions to the given differential equation. (i) y(t) = t + + e t (ii) y(t) = t + (iii) y(t) = t + (b) When you weigh bananas in a scale at the grocery store, the height h of the bananas is described by the differential equation d h = kh where k is the spring constant, a constant that depends on the properties of the spring in the scale. After you put the bananas in the scale, you (cleverly) observe that the height of the bananas is given by h(t) = 4 sin(3t). What is the value of the spring constant?

12 QUALITATIVE BEHAVIOR OF SOLUTIONS TO DES 7. Qualitative behavior of solutions to DEs Motivating Questions In this section, we strive to understand the ideas generated by the following important questions: What is a slope field? How can we use a slope field to obtain qualitative information about the solutions of a differential equation? What are stable and unstable equilibrium solutions of an autonomous differential equation? Introduction In earlier work, we have used the tangent line to the graph of a function f at a point a to approximate the values of f near a. The usefulness of this approximation is that we need to know very little about the function; armed with only the value f (a) and the derivative f (a), we may find the equation of the tangent line and the approximation f (x) f (a) + f (a)(x a). Remember that a first-order differential equation gives us information about the derivative of an unknown function. Since the derivative at a point tells us the slope of the tangent line at this point, a differential equation gives us crucial information about the tangent lines to the graph of a solution. We will use this information about the tangent lines to create a slope field for the differential equation, which enables us to sketch solutions to initial value problems. Our aim will be to understand the solutions qualitatively. That is, we would like to understand the basic nature of solutions, such as their long-range behavior, without precisely determining the value of a solution at a particular point. Preview Activity 7.. Let s consider the initial value problem dy = t, y(0) =. (a) Use the differential equation to find the slope of the tangent line to the solution y(t) at t = 0. Then use the initial value to find the equation of the tangent line at t = 0. Sketch this tangent line over the interval 0.5 t 0.5 on the axes provided.

13 7.. QUALITATIVE BEHAVIOR OF SOLUTIONS TO DES y t (b) Also shown in the given figure are the tangent lines to the solution y(t) at the points t =,, and 3 (we will see how to find these later). Use the graph to measure the slope of each tangent line and verify that each agrees with the value specified by the differential equation. (c) Using these tangent lines as a guide, sketch a graph of the solution y(t) over the interval 0 t 3 so that the lines are tangent to the graph of y(t). (d) Use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to find y(t), the solution to this initial value problem. (e) Graph the solution you found in (d) on the axes provided, and compare it to the sketch you made using the tangent lines. Slope fields Preview Activity 7. shows that we may sketch the solution to an initial value problem if we know an appropriate collection of tangent lines. Because we may use a given differential equation to determine the slope of the tangent line at any point of interest, by plotting a useful collection of these, we can get an accurate sense of how certain solution curves must behave. Let s continue looking at the differential equation dy = t. If t = 0, this equation says that dy/ = 0 =. Note that this value holds regardless of the value of y. We will therefore sketch tangent lines for several values of y and t = 0 with a slope of.

14 QUALITATIVE BEHAVIOR OF SOLUTIONS TO DES 3 y t Let s continue in the same way: if t =, the differential equation tells us that dy/ = =, and this holds regardless of the value of y. We now sketch tangent lines for several values of y and t = with a slope of. 3 y t Similarly, we see that when t =, dy/ = 0 and when t = 3, dy/ =. We may therefore add to our growing collection of tangent line plots to achieve the next figure. 3 y t In this figure, you may see the solutions to the differential equation emerge. However, for the sake of clarity, we will add more tangent lines to provide the more complete picture shown below.

15 7.. QUALITATIVE BEHAVIOR OF SOLUTIONS TO DES 40 3 y t This most recent figure, which is called a slope field for the differential equation, allows us to sketch solutions just as we did in the preview activity. Here, we will begin with the initial value y(0) = and start sketching the solution by following the tangent line, as shown in the next figure. 3 y t We then continue using this principle: whenever the solution passes through a point at which a tangent line is drawn, that line is tangent to the solution. Doing so leads us to the following sequence of images. 3 y 3 y - 3 t - 3 t - -

16 QUALITATIVE BEHAVIOR OF SOLUTIONS TO DES 3 y t In fact, we may draw solutions for any possible initial value, and doing this for several different initial values for y(0) results in the graphs shown next. 3 y t Just as we have done for the most recent example with dy = t, we can construct a slope field for any differential equation of interest. The slope field provides us with visual information about how we expect solutions to the differential equation to behave. Activity 7.4. Consider the autonomous differential equation dy = (y 4). (a) Make a plot of dy versus y on the axes provided. Looking at the graph, for what values of y does y increase and for what values of y does y decrease?

17 7.. QUALITATIVE BEHAVIOR OF SOLUTIONS TO DES dy y (b) Next, sketch the slope field for this differential equation on the axes provided y t (c) Use your work in (b) to sketch the solutions that satisfy y(0) = 0, y(0) =, y(0) = 4 and y(0) = 6. (d) Verify that y(t) = 4 + e t/ is a solution to the given differential equation with the initial value y(0) = 6. Compare its graph to the one you sketched in (c). (e) What is special about the solution where y(0) = 4? Equilibrium solutions and stability As our work in Activity 7.4 demonstrates, first-order autonomous solutions may have solutions that are constant. In fact, these are quite easy to detect by inspecting the differential equation dy/ = f (y): constant solutions necessarily have a zero derivative so dy/ = 0 = f (y). For example, in Activity 7.4, we considered the equation dy = f (y) = (y 4).

18 QUALITATIVE BEHAVIOR OF SOLUTIONS TO DES Constant solutions are found by setting f (y) = (y 4) = 0, which we immediately see implies that y = 4. Values of y for which f (y) = 0 in an autonomous differential equation dy = f (y) are usually called or equilibrium solutions of the differential equation. Activity 7.5. Consider the autonomous differential equation dy = y(y 4). (a) Make a plot of dy versus y. Looking at the graph, for what values of y does y increase and for what values of y does y decrease? dy y (b) Identify any equilibrium solutions of the given differential equation. (c) Now sketch the slope field for the given differential equation y (d) Sketch the solutions to the given differential equation that correspond to initial values y(0) =, 0,,..., 5. (e) An equilibrium solution y is called stable if nearby solutions converge to y. This means that if the initial condition varies slightly from y, then lim t y(t) = y. t

19 7.. QUALITATIVE BEHAVIOR OF SOLUTIONS TO DES 405 Conversely, an equilibrium solution y is called unstable if nearby solutions are pushed away from y. Using your work above, classify the equilibrium solutions you found in (b) as either stable or unstable. (f) Suppose that y(t) describes the population of a species of living organisms and that the initial value y(0) is positive. What can you say about the eventual fate of this population? (g) Remember that an equilibrium solution y satisfies f (y) = 0. If we graph dy/ = f (y) as a function of y, for which of the following differential equations is y a stable equilibrium and for which is y unstable? Why? dy = f (y) dy = f (y) y y y y Summary In this section, we encountered the following important ideas: A slope field is a plot created by graphing the tangent lines of many different solutions to a differential equation. Once we have a slope field, we may sketch the graph of solutions by drawing a curve that is always tangent to the lines in the slope field. Autonomous differential equations sometimes have constant solutions that we call equilibrium solutions. These may be classified as stable or unstable, depending on the behavior of nearby solutions. Exercises. Consider the differential equation dy = t y.

20 QUALITATIVE BEHAVIOR OF SOLUTIONS TO DES (a) Sketch a slope field on the plot below: (b) Sketch the solutions whose initial values are y(0) = 4, 3,..., (c) What do your sketches suggest is the solution whose initial value is y(0) =? Verify that this is indeed the solution to this initial value problem. (d) By considering the differential equation and the graphs you have sketched, what is the relationship between t and y at a point where a solution has a local minimum?. Consider the situation from problem of Section 7.: Suppose that the population of a particular species is described by the function P(t), where P is expressed in millions. Suppose further that the population s rate of change is governed by the differential equation dp = f (P) where f (P) is the function graphed below. y t dp P 3 4 (a) Sketch a slope field for this differential equation. You do not have enough information to determine the actual slopes, but you should have enough information to determine where slopes are positive, negative, zero, large, or small, and hence determine the qualitative behavior of solutions.

21 7.. QUALITATIVE BEHAVIOR OF SOLUTIONS TO DES 407 (b) Sketch some solutions to this differential equation when the initial population P(0) > 0. (c) Identify any equilibrium solutions to the differential equation and classify them as stable or unstable. (d) If P(0) >, what is the eventual fate of the species? (e) if P(0) <, what is the eventual fate of the species? (f) Remember that we referred to this model for population growth as growth with a threshold. Explain why this characterization makes sense by considering solutions whose inital value is close to. 3. The population of a species of fish in a lake is P(t) where P is measured in thousands of fish and t is measured in months. The growth of the population is described by the differential equation dp = f (P) = P(6 P). (a) Sketch a graph of f (P) = P(6 P) and use it to determine the equilibrium solutions and whether they are stable or unstable. Write a complete sentence that describes the long-term behavior of the fish population. (b) Suppose now that the owners of the lake allow fishers to remove 000 fish from the lake every month (remember that P(t) is measured in thousands of fish). Modify the differential equation to take this into account. Sketch the new graph of dp/ versus P. Determine the new equilibrium solutions and decide whether they are stable or unstable. (c) Given the situation in part (b), give a description of the long-term behavior of the fish population. (d) Suppose that fishermen remove h thousand fish per month. differential equation modified? How is the (e) What is the largest number of fish that can be removed per month without eliminating the fish population? If fish are removed at this maximum rate, what is the eventual population of fish? 4. Let y(t) be the number of thousands of mice that live on a farm; assume time t is measured in years. (a) The population of the mice grows at a yearly rate that is twenty times the number of mice. Express this as a differential equation. This problem is based on an ecological analysis presented in a research paper by C.S. Hollings: The Components of Predation as Revealed by a Study of Small Mammal Predation of the European Pine Sawfly, Canadian Entomology 9:

22 QUALITATIVE BEHAVIOR OF SOLUTIONS TO DES (b) At some point, the farmer brings C cats to the farm. The number of mice that the cats can eat in a year is M(y) = C y + y thousand mice per year. Explain how this modifies the differential equation that you found in part a). (c) Sketch a graph of the function M(y) for a single cat C = and explain its features by looking, for instance, at the behavior of M(y) when y is small and when y is large. (d) Suppose that C =. Find the equilibrium solutions and determine whether they are stable or unstable. Use this to explain the long-term behavior of the mice population depending on the initial population of the mice. (e) Suppose that C = 60. Find the equilibrium solutions and determine whether they are stable or unstable. Use this to explain the long-term behavior of the mice population depending on the initial population of the mice. (f) What is the smallest number of cats you would need to keep the mice population from growing arbitrarily large?

23 7.3. EULER S METHOD Euler s method Motivating Questions In this section, we strive to understand the ideas generated by the following important questions: What is Euler s method and how can we use it to approximate the solution to an initial value problem? How accurate is Euler s method? Introduction In Section 7., we saw how a slope field can be used to sketch solutions to a differential equation. In particular, the slope field is a plot of a large collection of tangent lines to a large number of solutions of the differential equation, and we sketch a single solution by simply following these tangent lines. With a little more thought, we may use this same idea to numerically approximate the solutions of a differential equation. Preview Activity 7.3. Consider the initial value problem dy = (y + ), y(0) = 0. (a) Use the differential equation to find the slope of the tangent line to the solution y(t) at t = 0. Then use the given initial value to find the equation of the tangent line at t = 0. (b) Sketch the tangent line on the axes below on the interval 0 t and use it to approximate y(), the value of the solution at t = y t

24 EULER S METHOD (c) Assuming that your approximation for y() is the actual value of y(), use the differential equation to find the slope of the tangent line to y(t) at t =. Then, write the equation of the tangent line at t =. (d) Add a sketch of this tangent line to your plot on the axes above on the interval t 4; use this new tangent line to approximate y(4), the value of the solution at t = 4. (e) Repeat the same step to find an approximation for y(6). Euler s Method Preview Activity 7.3 demonstrates the essence of an algorithm, which is known as Euler s Method, that generates a numerical approximation to the solution of an initial value problem. 3 In this algorithm, we will approximate the solution by taking horizontal steps of a fixed size that we denote by t. Before explaining the algorithm in detail, let s remember how we compute the slope of a line: the slope is the ratio of the vertical change to the horizontal change, as shown in the following figure. y t y t In other words, m = y t. Said differently, the vertical change is the product of the slope and the horizontal change: y = m t. Suppose that we would like to solve the initial value problem dy = t y, y(0) =. 3 Euler is pronounced Oy-ler. Among other things, Euler is the mathematician credited with the famous number e; if you incorrectly pronounce his name You-ler, you fail to appreciate his genius and legacy.

25 7.3. EULER S METHOD 4 While there is an algorithm by which we can find an algebraic formula for the solution to this initial value problem, and we can check that this solution is y(t) = t + e t, we are instead interested in generating an approximate solution by creating a sequence of points (t i, y i ), where y i y(t i ). For this first example, we choose t = 0.. Since we know that y(0) =, we will take the initial point to be (t 0, y 0 ) = (0, ) and move horizontally by t = 0. to the point (t, y ). Therefore, t = t 0 + t = 0.. The differential equation tells us that the slope of the tangent line at this point is m = dy (0,) = 0 =. Therefore, if we move along the tangent line by taking a horizontal step of size t = 0., we must also move vertically by y = m t = 0. = 0.. We then have the approximation y(0.) y = y 0 + y = 0. = 0.8. At this point, we have executed one step of Euler s method. Now we repeat this process: at (t, y ) = (0., 0.8), the differential equation tells us that the slope is m = dy (0.,0.8) = = 0.6. If we move horizontally by t to t = t + = 0.4, we must move vertically by y = = 0.. We consequently arrive at y = y + y = = 0.68, which gives y(0.) Now we have completed the second step of Euler s method y (t 0,y 0 ) y (t 0,y 0 ) (t,y ) (t,y ) (t,y ) t t If we continue in this way, we may generate the points (t i, y i ) shown at left in Figure 7.. In situations where we are able to find a formula for the actual solution y(t), we can graph y(t) to compare it to the points generated by Euler s method, as shown at right in Figure 7.. Because we need to generate a large number of points (t i, y i ), it is convenient to organize the implementation of Euler s method in a table as shown. We begin with the given initial data.

26 EULER S METHOD. y. y t t Figure 7.: At left, the points and piecewise linear approximate solution generated by Euler s method; at right, the approximate solution compared to the exact solution (shown in blue). t i y i dy/ y From here, we compute the slope of the tangent line m = dy/ using the formula for dy/ from the differential equation, and then we find y, the change in y, using the rule y = m t. t i y i dy/ y Next, we increase t i by t and y i by y to get t i y i dy/ y and then we simply continue the process for however many steps we decide, eventually generating a table like the one that follows. t i y i dy/ y

27 7.3. EULER S METHOD 43 Activity 7.6. Consider the initial value problem dy = t, y(0) = 0 (a) Use Euler s method with t = 0. to approximate the solution at t i = 0., 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and.0. Record your work in the following table, and sketch the points (t i, y i ) on the following axes provided. t i y i dy/ y y t (b) Find the exact solution to the original initial value problem and use this function to find the error in your approximation at each one of the points t i. (c) Explain why the value y 5 generated by Euler s method for this initial value problem produces the same value as a left Riemann sum for the definite integral (t ). 0 (d) How would your computations differ if the initial value was y(0) =? What does this mean about different solutions to this differential equation?

28 EULER S METHOD Activity 7.7. Consider the differential equation dy = 6y y. (a) Sketch the slope field for this differential equation on the axes provided at left below. 8 y y t t (b) Identify any equilibrium solutions and determine whether they are stable or unstable. (c) What is the long-term behavior of the solution that satisfies the initial value y(0) =? (d) Using the initial value y(0) =, use Euler s method with t = 0. to approximate the solution at t i = 0., 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and.0. Sketch the points (t i, y i ) on the axes provided at right in (a). (Note the different horizontal scale on the two sets of axes.) t i y i dy/ y (e) What happens if we apply Euler s method to approximate the solution with y(0) = 6?

29 7.3. EULER S METHOD 45 The error in Euler s method Since we are approximating the solutions to an initial value problem using tangent lines, we should expect that the error in the approximation will be less when the step size is smaller. To explore this observation quantitatively, let s consider the initial value problem whose solution we can easily find. dy = y, y(0) = Consider the question posed by this initial value problem: what function do we know that is the same as its own derivative and has value when t = 0? It is not hard to see that the solution is y(t) = e t. We now apply Euler s method to approximate y() = e using several values of t. These approximations will be denoted by E t, and these estimates provide us a way to see how accurate Euler s Method is. To begin, we apply Euler s method with a step size of t = 0.. In that case, we find that y() E 0. = The error is therefore y() E 0. = e Repeatedly halving t gives the following results, expressed in both tabular and graphical form. t E t Error Error t Notice, both numerically and graphically, that the error is roughly halved when t is halved. This example illustrates the following general principle. If Euler s method is to approximate the solution to an initial value problem at a point t, then the error is proportional to t. That is, for some constant of proportionality K. y(t) E t K t

30 EULER S METHOD Summary In this section, we encountered the following important ideas: Euler s method is an algorithm for approximating the solution to an initial value problem by following the tangent lines while we take horizontal steps across the t-axis. If we wish to approximate y(t) for some fixed t by taking horizontal steps of size t, then the error in our approximation is proportional to t. Exercises. Newton s Law of Cooling says that the rate at which an object, such as a cup of coffee, cools is proportional to the difference in the object s temperature and room temperature. If T(t) is the object s temperature and T r is room temperature, this law is expressed at dt = k(t T r ), where k is a constant of proportionality. In this problem, temperature is measured in degrees Fahrenheit and time in minutes. (a) Two calculus students, Alice and Bob, enter a 70 classroom at the same time. Each has a cup of coffee that is 00. The differential equation for Alice has a constant of proportionality k = 0.5, while the constant of proportionality for Bob is k = 0.. What is the initial rate of change for Alice s coffee? What is the initial rate of change for Bob s coffee? (b) What feature of Alice s and Bob s cups of coffee could explain this difference? (c) As the heating unit turns on and off in the room, the temperature in the room is T r = sin t. Implement Euler s method with a step size of t = 0. to approximate the temperature of Alice s coffee over the time interval 0 t 50. This will most easily be performed using a spreadsheet such as Excel. Graph the temperature of her coffee and room temperature over this interval. (d) In the same way, implement Euler s method to approximate the temperature of Bob s coffee over the same time interval. Graph the temperature of his coffee and room temperature over the interval. (e) Explain the similarities and differences that you see in the behavior of Alice s and Bob s cups of coffee.

31 7.3. EULER S METHOD 47. We have seen that the error in approximating the solution to an initial value problem is proportional to t. That is, if E t is the Euler s method approximation to the solution to an initial value problem at t, then for some constant of proportionality K. y(t) E t K t In this problem, we will see how to use this fact to improve our estimates, using an idea called accelerated convergence. (a) We will create a new approximation by assuming the error is exactly proportional to t, according to the formula y(t) E t = K t. Using our earlier results from the initial value problem dy/ = y and y(0) = with t = 0. and t = 0., we have y().4883 = 0.K y().5937 = 0.K. This is a system of two linear equations in the unknowns y() and K. Solve this system to find a new approximation for y(). (You may remember that the exact value is y() = e = ) (b) Use the other data, E 0.05 =.6533 and E 0.05 =.685 to do similar work as in (a) to obtain another approximation. Which gives the better approximation? Why do you think this is? (c) Let s now study the initial value problem dy = t y, y(0) = 0. Approximate y(0.3) by applying Euler s method to find approximations E 0. and E Now use the idea of accelerated convergence to obtain a better approximation. (For the sake of comparison, you want to note that the actual value is y(0.3) = ) 3. In this problem, we ll modify Euler s method to obtain better approximations to solutions of initial value problems. This method is called the Improved Euler s method. In Euler s method, we walk across an interval of wih t using the slope obtained from the differential equation at the left endpoint of the interval. Of course, the slope of the

32 EULER S METHOD solution will most likely change over this interval. We can improve our approximation by trying to incorporate the change in the slope over the interval. Let s again consider the initial value problem dy/ = y and y(0) =, which we will approximate using steps of wih t = 0.. Our first interval is therefore 0 t 0.. At t = 0, the differential equation tells us that the slope is, and the approximation we obtain from Euler s method is that y(0.) y = + (0.) =.. This gives us some idea for how the slope has changed over the interval 0 t 0.. We know the slope at t = 0 is, while the slope at t = 0. is., trusting in the Euler s method approximation. We will therefore refine our estimate of the initial slope to be the average of these two slopes; that is, we will estimate the slope to be (+.)/ =.. This gives the new approximation y() = y = +.(0.) =.. The first few steps look like this: t i y i Slope at (t i+, y i+ ) Average slope (a) Continue with this method to obtain an approximation for y() = e.. (b) Repeat this method with t = 0. to obtain a better approximation for y(). (c) We saw that the error in Euler s method is proportional to t. Using your results from parts (a) and (b), what power of t appears to be proportional to the error in the Improved Euler s Method?.

33 7.4. SEPARABLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS Separable differential equations Motivating Questions In this section, we strive to understand the ideas generated by the following important questions: What is a separable differential equation? How can we find solutions to a separable differential equation? Are some of the differential equations that arise in applications separable? Introduction In Sections 7. and 7.3, we have seen several ways to approximate the solution to an initial value problem. Given the frequency with which differential equations arise in the world around us, we would like to have some techniques for finding explicit algebraic solutions of certain initial value problems. In this section, we focus on a particular class of differential equations (called separable) and develop a method for finding algebraic formulas for solutions to these equations. A separable differential equation is a differential equation whose algebraic structure permits the variables present to be separated in a particular way. For instance, consider the equation dy = ty. We would like to separate the variables t and y so that all occurrences of t appear on the right-hand side, and all occurrences of y appears on the left and multiply dy/. We may do this in the preceding differential equation by dividing both sides by y: dy y = t. Note particularly that when we attempt to separate the variables in a differential equation, we require that the left-hand side be a product in which the derivative dy/ is one term. Not every differential equation is separable. For example, if we consider the equation it may seem natural to separate it by writing dy = t y, y + dy = t.

34 SEPARABLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS As we will see, this will not be helpful since the left-hand side is not a product of a function of y with dy. Preview Activity 7.4. In this preview activity, we explore whether certain differential equations are separable or not, and then revisit some key ideas from earlier work in integral calculus. (a) Which of the following differential equations are separable? If the equation is separable, write the equation in the revised form g(y) dy = h(t).. dy = 3y.. dy = ty y. 3. dy = t dy = t y. (b) Explain why any autonomous differential equation is guaranteed to be separable. (c) Why do we include the term +C in the expression x dx = x + C? (d) Suppose we know that a certain function f satisfies the equation f (x) dx = x dx. What can you conclude about f? Solving separable differential equations Before we discuss a general approach to solving a separable differential equation, it is instructive to consider an example. Example 7.. Find all functions y that are solutions to the differential equation dy = t y.

35 7.4. SEPARABLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 4 Solution. We begin by separating the variables and writing y dy = t. Integrating both sides of the equation with respect to the independent variable t shows that y dy = t. Next, we notice that the left-hand side allows us to change the variable of antidifferentiation 4 from t to y. In particular, dy = dy, so we now have y dy = t. This most recent equation says that two families of antiderivatives are equal to one another. Therefore, when we find representative antiderivatives of both sides, we know they must differ by arbitrary constant C. Antidifferentiating and including the integration constant C on the right, we find that y 3 3 = t + C. Again, note that it is not necessary to include an arbitrary constant on both sides of the equation; we know that y 3 /3 and t / are in the same family of antiderivatives and must therefore differ by a single constant. Finally, we may now solve the last equation above for y as a function of t, which gives y(t) = 3 3 t + 3C. Of course, the term 3C on the right-hand side represents 3 times an unknown constant. It is, therefore, still an unknown constant, which we will rewrite as C. We thus conclude that the funtion y(t) = 3 3 t + C is a solution to the original differential equation for any value of C. Notice that because this solution depends on the arbitrary constant C, we have found an infinite family of solutions. This makes sense because we expect to find a unique solution that corresponds to any given initial value. For example, if we want to solve the initial value problem dy = t y, y(0) =, 4 This is why we required that the left-hand side be written as a product in which dy/ is one of the terms.

36 SEPARABLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS we know that the solution has the form y(t) = 3 3 t + C for some constant C. We therefore must find the appropriate value for C that gives the initial value y(0) =. Hence, = y(0) = C = 3 C, which shows that C = 3 = 8. The solution to the initial value problem is then y(t) = 3 3 t + 8. The strategy of Example 7. may be applied to any differential equation of the form dy = g(y) h(t), and any differential equation of this form is said to be separable. We work to solve a separable differential equation by writing dy g(y) = h(t), and then integrating both sides with respect to t. After integrating, we strive to solve algebraically for y in order to write y as a function of t. We consider one more example before doing further exploration in some activities. Example 7.. Solve the differential equation dy = 3y. Solution. Following the same strategy as in Example 7., we have dy y = 3. Integrating both sides with respect to t, dy = y 3, and thus y dy = 3. Antidifferentiating and including the integration constant, we find that ln y = 3t + C.

37 7.4. SEPARABLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 43 Finally, we need to solve for y. Here, one point deserves careful attention. By the definition of the natural logarithm function, it follows that y = e 3t+C = e 3t e C. Since C is an unknown constant, e C is as well, though we do know that it is positive (because e x is positive for any x). When we remove the absolute value in order to solve for y, however, this constant may be either positive or negative. We will denote this updated constant (that accounts for a possible + or ) by C to obtain y(t) = Ce 3t. There is one more slightly technical point to make. Notice that y = 0 is an equilibrium solution to this differential equation. In solving the equation above, we begin by dividing both sides by y, which is not allowed if y = 0. To be perfectly careful, therefore, we will typically consider the equilibrium solutions separably. In this case, notice that the final form of our solution captures the equilibrium solution by allowing C = 0. Activity 7.8. Suppose that the population of a town is growing continuously at an annual rate of 3% per year. Activity 7.9. (a) Let P(t) be the population of the town in year t. Write a differential equation that describes the annual growth rate. (b) Find the solutions of this differential equation. (c) If you know that the town s population in year 0 is 0,000, find the population P(t). (d) How long does it take for the population to double? This time is called the doubling time. (e) Working more generally, find the doubling time if the annual growth rate is k times the population. Suppose that a cup of coffee is initially at a temperature of 05 F and is placed in a 75 F room. Newton s law of cooling says that dt = k(t 75),

38 SEPARABLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS where k is a constant of proportionality. (a) Suppose you measure that the coffee is cooling at one degree per minute at the time the coffee is brought into the room. Use the differential equation to determine the value of the constant k. (b) Find all the solutions of this differential equation. (c) What happens to all the solutions as t? Explain how this agrees with your intuition. (d) What is the temperature of the cup of coffee after 0 minutes? Activity 7.0. (e) How long does it take for the coffee to cool to 80? Solve each of the following differential equations or initial value problems. (a) dy ( t)y = t (b) dy t = y et (c) y = y +, y(0) = (d) y = y, y( ) = (e) Summary dy = ty t +, y(0) = 4 In this section, we encountered the following important ideas: A separable differential equation is one that may be rewritten with all occurrences of the dependent variable multiplying the derivative and all occurrences of the independent variable on the other side of the equation. We may find the solutions to certain separable differential equations by separating variables, integrating with respect to t, and ultimately solving the resulting algebraic equation for y. This technique allows us to solve many important differential equations that arise in the world around us. For instance, questions of growth and decay and Newton s Law of Cooling give rise to separable differential equations. Later, we will learn in Section 7.6 that the important logistic differential equation is also separable.