Egypt. -Dr. Sarah Parcak. Modern Egypt is approximately 386,874 square miles (1,002,000 sq. km.). The capital city is Cairo.

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1 Egypt The Nile River is a huge river, a very powerful river. The ancient Egyptians feared it and revered it for a very specific reason. And that s because it was so unpredictable; that s because it was so powerful. -Dr. Sarah Parcak Visualization by Paul Morin of the National Center for Earth-Surface Dynamics and the Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Minnesota Modern Egypt is approximately 386,874 square miles (1,002,000 sq. km.). The capital city is Cairo. Located in northeast Africa, Egypt is a Middle Eastern country that includes part of the Sahara Desert, the Nile River, and the Suez Canal, which connects the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. To the north is the Mediterranean Sea; to the east is the Red Sea; to the south is Sudan; and to the west is Libya. The Nile River was the lifeblood of ancient Egypt. The longest river in the world, the Nile flows north from the higher altitudes of central Africa over waterfalls and through desert until it reaches the Mediterranean Sea. Ancient Egypt was divided into Upper Egypt in the south and Lower Egypt in the north. The ancient Egyptian civilization developed along this primary source of water, and even today, over 95% of the population still live in the Nile Valley or Delta. In the harsh desert environment, life depended on the yearly rise and fall of the Nile. Agriculture, transportation, commerce, and even the religion of the ancient Egyptians depended on the river. Today, archaeologists find most ancient sites near the Nile, or along the oases in the western desert. Source of map Central Intelligence Agency 22

2 Visualization by Paul Morin of the National Center for Earth-Surface Dynamics and the Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Minnesota In ancient times, Egypt was broken into two regions, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. Rivers flow from higher altitudes to lower. In Egypt, this causes the Nile River to flow from south to north. Therefore, Upper Egypt was in the southern part of the country while Lower Egypt was in the north. Settlements were located near the water, so archaeologists tend to find many ancient sites close to the Nile River. Lost Egypt covers a 3,000 year period of Egyptian history from approximately 3110 B.C. to 343 B.C.. This was the time of the pharaohs in Egypt, with dynasties of kings who ruled for decades or hundreds of years, connected to one another by blood, marriage, or because they came from the same home town or ruled from the same capital city. There are 31 known dynasties in ancient Egypt, grouped together in Kingdoms and Periods. For more information visit 23

3 Archaeology I think the one thing I ve learned about archaeology that I didn t really think about before I got involved with it, is just how team-oriented it is. I am never out there alone with my trowel in the middle of the desert pecking away at the hard earth, hoping to find something. -Dr. Sarah Parcak All we get is discarded objects, leftovers, rubbish, and that is perfect. Rubbish tells you a lot about the person, and not necessarily the official, glamorous, or polished version, but the real version. How many candy bars you really ate and how many versions of your text you had to throw away. -Dr. Ana Tavares Archaeology is the scientific study of historic people and their cultures by excavation and analysis of their material remains, such as artifacts, inscriptions, monuments, artwork, and human, floral and faunal remains. Archaeologists learn about past people and cultures by studying the things they left behind. These items may be buried in centuries of dirt and sand. Archaeologists dig, or excavate, artifacts to recover, document and analyze them. When many different artifacts are studied at a site, a story of the people and culture begins to emerge. An artifact is any object manufactured, used or modified by humans. These include everything from funerary objects such as coffins, canopic jars or an offering stone to items from daily life, such as pottery jars used to bake bread or hold beer, clothing, jewelry, and furniture. Artwork and writing is found as well, such as statues, amulets, papyrus scrolls and tomb paintings. The science of archaeology is nearly 130 years old. Prior to the late 1800 s, expeditions to find artifacts were religious crusades or treasure hunts. The treasure hunters were usually after gold and precious stones, and would dig into a site, shove everything out of the way, and then steal the valuable artifacts. Whole tombs were destroyed this way, and much information has been lost. 24 The goal of modern archaeology is much different. Today, archaeologists work together to develop a better understanding of the people and cultures of the past. Often, the most important information comes from studying the remains of common people, rather than just finding and analyzing impressive tombs of great pharaohs. DJOSER PYRAMID COMPLEX, UNDATED Photograph by Brooklyn Museum

4 Technology has changed the work of archaeologists. While simple tools such as the trowel (a hand tool for digging) are still vital, archaeologists also use high-tech equipment such as CT scans and satellite images. Modern tools help archaeologists search for artifacts more efficiently, and protect the environment from unnecessary digging. DR. MARK LEHNER TROWELING AT THE LOST CITY OF THE PYRAMID BUILDERS Photograph courtesy of AERA Photograph courtesy of Akhmim Mummy Studies Consortium Archaeology is a team effort. It takes a whole crew to document, protest and study a site. GIS specialists and surveyors locate the site; excavators do the actual digging; and photographers and illustrators document architecture and artifacts, along with many others. When a house is found, a ceramicist studies the pottery and dishes used by the people who lived there. A faunal analyst examines the animal bones from the food they ate. An archaeobotanist researches the plants that grew nearby that might have been used for food, medicine, or daily items. And an osteologist studies bones found in human burials. All of this information is combined to tell the story of the people who once lived in the house. ECAVATING BURIALS AT THE LOST CITY SITE - Photograph courtesy of AERA 25 AERA WORKERS STUDYING ARTIFACTS - Photograph courtesy of AERA AERA STOREROOM - Photograph courtesy of AERA

5 Specialists who may be involved in a project include: Anthropologist A person who studies what it is to be human in past and modern societies. beings and their ancestors, including the origin, behavior, and physical, social and cultural development of humans. Archaeobotanist A person who studies ancient plants found on archaeological sites. Archaeologist - A person who studies historic people and their cultures. by excavation and analysis of their material remains Ceramicist A person who studies the ceramics and pottery found on archaeological sites. Egyptologist - A person who specializes in the study of ancient Egypt. Egyptologists may be archaeologists, historians, linguists, or art historians, among others. Faunal Analyst A person who studies animal bones and other food refuse in order to determine diet. Forensic Anthropologist A person who studies human remains to help identify the individual and their cause of death. Geologist A person who studies the earth and land. Geomorphologists A person who studies landmasses and how they have changed over time. GIS (Geographic Information Systems) Specialist A person who specializes in computer mapping. Illustrator An artist responsible for drawing and excavation site and its related artifacts. Lithics Specialist A person who studies stone tools and artifacts. Osteologist - A person who studies the structure and function of human bones. Surveyor A person who determines the site s position on the earth s surface and studies sites for future excavation. Zooarchaeologist A person who studies animal remains found on archaeological sites. 26

6 Finding the Site Whenever you re doing survey work in Egypt, you have to think about how different things would have looked in antiquity. The Egypt you see today looked very different in antiquity. -Dr. Sarah Parcak Looking for buried remains from the past can be impossible if you do not know where to dig. Archaeologists use a variety of methods to find good dig sites. The best place to start is where artifacts were found in the past, or in locations that seem habitable. Common locations for sites include places that have easy access to water, food and shelter, such as caves, lakes, streams and shorelines. Archaeologists find these sites by using ancient and modern maps, tips from local people, aerial photography, and even satellite images from space. In Egypt, the majority of settlements are near the Nile River, which is the major source of water in the desert environment. Once scientists identify a potential archaeological site, they conduct visual scans and searches around the area. When searching in any unexcavated area, archaeologists use a technique called surveying. This involves walking around the site and looking at the ground for any artifacts, as well as digging test pits, which are small circular holes placed at consistent distances from one another. Test pits help to find sites and determine their size. LANDSTAT SATELLITE IMAGE OF EAST DELTA- courtesy of NASA and Sarah Parcak Technology is also used to locate potential sites. Remote sensing is the process of looking at things without touching them. It limits the intrusive nature of archaeological by helping to pin point locations for excavation. Remote sensing equipment also speeds the process of surveying and can provide a bird s eye perspective, allowing archaeologists to get a sense of the landscape. An aircraft taking photographs of the ground, Earth observation and weather satellites, and even x-rays of bones inside your body are all examples of remote sensing. MEDINET HABU- Image courtesy of Sarah Parcak 27

7 Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) lets archaeologists see structures and artifacts buried in the sand. A GPR unit shoots high-energy pulses into the ground. If the pulses strike something below the surface, they echo back at different rates. This tells researchers something is hidden underground. USING A GPR AT GIZA PLATEAU - Photograph courtesy of Geophysical Systems, Inc. Magnetometers measure the strength of a magnetic field. They are used to find anomalies buried underground. Magnetometer surveys track contrasts in the magnetic property of the feature of interest and its surroundings. In the 1990s, a German expedition used magnetometer to map an area in Qantir, Egypt, which they suspect was the location of the capital of Egypt under Pharaoh Ramses II. The area is mostly farmland and this process of surveying, while expensive, was deemed the most suitable for exploring the site. Their work has proven the site to be a vast complex belonging to that of Ramses II. USING A MAGNETOMETER AT THE LOST CITY SITE - Photograph courtesy of AERA 28

8 Excavation As in all things in life, the more you look, the more you see It s like a puzzle or detective work. -Dr. Mary Anne Murray EXCAVATION AT THE LOST CITY SITE - Photograph courtesy of AERA Once a site has been found, archaeologists begin the exciting process of excavation and recovery of ancient artifacts. Before archaeologists begin digging, they determine the size of each hole. Digging areas are sectioned off with rope, usually in one-by-one meter squares. In order to map the area and document findings, each side of the square is aligned with the cardinal directions (North, South, East, and West). Once the grid is finished, the excavation can begin. Holes are dug down in even levels, which can allow for a 3-dimensional reconstruction of the site. This helps archaeologists uncover artifacts, and see changes in soil color and texture, which may indicate a feature or the beginning of a new level.archaeologists sift all of the soil through a sieve, which is a screen they use to ensure they do not overlook any artifacts. SIFTING AT THE LOST CITY SITE - Photograph courtesy of AERA 29

9 Documentation Recording an archaeological site is like recording a crime scene. When a crime has been committed, immediately you record everything, because everything is telling you a story -Dr. Mark Lehner Recording and mapping all findings during excavation is one of the most important tasks an archaeologist performs. Once a site has been excavated, the archaeologists have no way to go back and re-check for any overlooked information. Therefore, archaeologists must record every detail about uncovered remains. They document the exact location and assign a number that represents the specific location the artifact was found. With this information, archaeologists can reconstruct the entire area even after removing the artifact from the site, maximizing the data learned from the site. Illustrations and photographs further document the excavation. MAPPING AT THE LOST CITY SITE All of the information gained from the precise process of excavation helps archaeologists answer who, what, where, when, why, and how an object came to rest in that location. Photograph courtesy of AERA 30 PHOTOGRAPHING ARCHAEOLOGICAL FEATTURES AT THE LOST CITY SITE - Photograph courtesy of AERA

10 Religion The ancient Egyptians worshipped the gods and goddesses of the Nile, of the air, of the Earth. I think the Egyptians were really some of the first ardent environmentalists on the planet. -Dr. Sarah Parcak Ancient Egyptian religion was complex, with many deities, or gods and goddesses. A deity could be shown in human form, as its animal counterpart, or as a human with an animal head. Interpreting hieroglyphs made it possible to identify them more accurately. Several hundred gods and goddesses comprise the ancient Egyptian religion. Some of the most well known include: Amun: primeval creator god of Thebes called the King of the Gods Anubis: god of embalming, and guardian of the dead Geb: god of the earth and father of Osiris Hathor: goddess of love and joy Horus: god of the sky, the living pharaoh 31 Aten: a form of the sun god Ra known as the solar disk Atum: father of all the gods primeval creator god of Heliopolis Bastet: goddess of fire, cats, the home, and pregnant women Isis: mother goddess Khepri: a solar god, god of creation, movement of the sun, and rebirth Khnum: creator god and bringer of the inundation (beneficial Nile flood)

11 Maat: goddess of truth and justice Min: primeval creator god and source of fertility Sekhmet: goddess of war Seth: god of chaos, and disharmony Nut: goddess of the sky, mother of Osiris Shu: god of the air Osiris: god of the dead and ruler of the underworld, represented the deceased pharaoh Sobek: god of crocodiles and a solar deity Ptah: god of craftsmen, primeval creator god of Memphis Tawaret: goddess who protected women during pregnancy and childbirth Ra: the Sun itself Thoth: scribe of the gods Priests helped connect the people to their gods. Priests and the pharaoh were the only people allowed to enter the inner rooms of the temples. Because the ancient Egyptians believed the gods lived in the temples, they needed the priests to intercede on their behalf. If the priests did not do their jobs well, the gods would be dissatisfied. In recognition of their important role, the priests were well paid and had their needs provided for. 32

12 Afterlife The ancient Egyptians thought that animals and people had souls, so everyone got to have an afterlife. And for the Egyptians the afterlife was a sort of deluxe version of this life. So no matter if you had been poor in this life and had a hard time, by doing certain things in your tomb and saying the right sort of prayer, your afterlife could be fabulous. -Dr. Salima Ikram Ancient Egyptians had strong beliefs about the afterlife, and they made elaborate preparations to help themselves reach the next world. They believed the afterlife was a continuation of this one, but without any disease, hunger or pain. You would still need shelter, clothing, tools, and food. In addition, ushabtis were included in many tombs. These small statues were the deceased s servants in the afterlife. Nature was important to the ancient Egyptians, and they used images of the sun, plants and animals in their religious lives. When the sun(ra) set in the west, the Egyptians believed he was vulnerable to attack from demonic forces. It was the duty and privilege of Egyptians upon their death to join Ra and be beside him during this nightly combat. Because the sun (Ra) began his journey in the west, the ancient Egyptians also buried their dead to the west of the Nile River whenever possible. Papyrus, a plant that grew throughout the country, was a symbol of life and health. Its symbol can be seen in their artwork. PAPYRUS PLANT - Photograph by Wikipedia The lotus flower symbolized rebirth. The lotus would sink below the surface of the water each night with the setting of the sun, but each morning when the sun rose, the plant would rise from the water and open. The ancient Egyptians also believed that people were made of several parts. Each part needed to 33 LOTUS FLOWER - Photograph by Wikipedia

13 survive death in order to have a happy afterlife. One of the most important parts of a person was their name. Without a name, a person would cease to exist, so names were carved or painted in several places around their tombs. Pharaohs had their names written throughout their tombs, temples and monuments. If someone destroyed the names by plastering over them or damaging the carvings, the ancient Egyptians believed that the person disappeared from history. Another important part of a person was the ka, vital force. The ancient Egyptians believed when a person died the ka left the body, though the ka lived on if provided for properly. The ka needed food and drink, which were left as offerings in the tomb. The ba represented the deceased s soul and personality. Depicted as a bird with the face of the deceased, the ba could travel the Earth. The ba, which had separated from the body, needed to be attracted back. BA BIRD - Photograph 2008 Brad Feinknopf The ancient Egyptians believed that not everyone could achieve the afterlife. During the dead person s journey through the underworld, they were subjected to the weighing of the heart ceremony Photograph by Jon Bodsworth), which measured their heart against Maat. Maat is defined as the order of the universe. If a person lived out of harmony with the universe, they were destroyed. If a person had lived in harmony with the universe, the spirit of the deceased would transform into the akh (or successful entity in the afterlife), thus achieving eternal life. SCENE FROM BOOK OF THE GOING FORTH BY DAY DEPICTING THE WEIGHING OF THE HEART CEREMONY - Photograph by Jon Bodsworth 34

14 Mummification In the old days when people studied mummies, they d just unwrap them, and then they d look at the body and poke around. Nowadays, we have much more respect for the dead -Dr. Salima Ikram [W]e ve seen that they [the embalmers] understood the person who they were working on, whose funeral they were arranging, as a member of their community and they were practicing ex-post facto medicine on the individual. They could not save her life, but they were able to treat what it was that caused her death magically so that when she resurrected she would be back together again, fully operative and as good as new. -Dr. Jonathan Elias Mummification is the process of preparing the physical body for the afterlife. The various parts of a person, including the ka, and ba, needed to return to the body for the person to achieve the afterlife. There was no one-way to make a mummy. Techniques and practices changed over time, and varied depending on whether you were rich or poor. According to the classical writer Herodotus, the mummification process took 70 days. He maintained that embalmers first washed the body with palm wine and then proceeded to remove the internal organs. Modern research shows that in most cases an incision was made in the left flank and all the major organs, except the heart, were removed. The heart was left inside the body because Egyptians believed it was responsible for a person s intelligence and emotions. The brain was removed through a hole created in the ethmoid bone, the bone separating the nasal cavity and brain, and discarded. ANUBIS ADMINISTERING TO MUMMY FROM TOMB OF TAWOSRET - Photograph 2008 Brad Feinknopf After the removal of the internal organs, the body drained of fluids. Embalmers washed the body with palm wine, packed it with small satchels of granular or powdered natron (a compound of sodium salts), and left it for 40 days and nights. The natron removed any remaining moisture 35 MUMMY PREPARATION FROM TOMB OF NEBAMUN AND IPUKI - Photograph 2008 Brad Feinknopf

15 within the body. Following this period, they used oils, perfumes, and resins to keep the skin supple and pleasant smelling. Depending on the period, material (e.g., sawdust; mud; butter-like fat mixed with bicarbonate of soda; lichen;and occasion linen pads) was sometimes inserted into the body cavities, or between the muscle and the skin. The outside of the body was wrapped in linen. Sometimes amulets were wrapped inside the linens to protect and provide for the deceased during its journey to the afterlife. How do we study mummies? The earliest known public unwrapping of a mummy took place in Cairo in Margaret Murray from The Manchester Museum in England arranged for a group of scientists to conduct unwrappings of The Two Brothers, two Middle Kingdom mummies in Scientists considered this the first interdisciplinary study of mummies. In 1895 the discovery of X-rays led to a new era of mummy studies. Sir Flinders Petrie conducted the first radiological study of an Egyptian mummy shortly after the discovery of X-rays around Since then, radiology has never stopped investigating these special patients. By the end of the 1970s, computed tomography (CT) scanning permitted more in-depth studies without removing a mummy s masks and coverings. A CT scanner shoots X-rays at the test subject from all angles, not just from the front as with typical X-rays. A computer compiles all the information into a 3-D image that provides scientists with important new information. CT data also allows scientists to reconstruct an image of the face of the mummified individual at the time of his or her death. The history of imaging allows us to appreciate why these studies have been, and still are, fundamental in the study of Egyptian mummies. ANNIE ENTERING A CT SCANNER Photograph courtesy of Akhmim Mummy Studies Consortium 36

16 Tombs and Tomb art Some ancient Egyptians buried their dead in tombs, which held the deceased s body and funerary goods. Pharaohs often began preparations for their tomb as soon as they ascended the throne. These practices were usually carried out for the wealthy. We are still learning about burial practices for the ordinary people of ancient Egypt. Goods brought into the tomb would provide the deceased with everything they needed in the afterlife, and provide for their ka. Food, clothing, furniture, amulets, statues of gods and the deceased, chariots and models of boats have all been found inside tombs. Statues were also very important. They represented the ka (vital force) in the accessible parts of the tomb and channeled nourishment to the mummified body protected deeper underground. Not everyone in ancient Egyptian society could afford lavish tombs and burials. A wide range of tombs have been discovered, from the elaborate tombs of the pharaohs, to the one-story mud brick structures of the nobility called mastabas, and the simple graves of the common people. TOMB OF RAMESSES VI - Photograph 2008 Brad Feinknopf Those who could afford it decorated their tombs with elaborate paintings and carvings. The ancient Egyptians believed these were magical. The pictures could provide things the deceased would need in the afterlife. The Egyptians artistic style, which relied on consistent and strict rules, is very recognizable. The style, called frontalism, shows people with their face in profile, body facing forward, and legs facing the same direction as the head with one foot in front of the other. The eye, even though the person is facing forward, is always fully drawn. A ROCK CUT TOMB ON THE GIZA PLATEAU - Photograph by Jon Bodsworth HORUS IN TOMB OF TAWOSRET - Photograph 2008 Brad Feinknopf Using this style, pharaohs and gods were very rigidly painted or carved, with very serene faces. It was a rule when painting or carving important people that the space in front of the head or body remained clear. They did not hold animals and other people to such strict standards and showed them in more relaxed positions. 37

17 Hieroglyphs To excavate in Egypt you don t have to understand a single hieroglyph. To be a good dirt archaeologist, you need to read dirt, not hieroglyphs. But in order to say anything accurately about the culture itself, you should have an understanding of ancient Egyptian language. -Dr. Jonathan Elias The ancient Egyptians created a form of picturewriting using signs known as hieroglyphs beginning around 3100 BC. Hieroglyph, literally sacred writing, is the Greek rendering of the Egyptian term medew-netjer, meaning divine words. As writing became more widespread among the Egyptian people, other written scripts developed for use in daily documents. However, hieroglyphs continued to be used in tombs, temples, and other sacred documents for over 3,000 years. OBELISK AT KARNAK TEMPLE - Photograph 2008 Brad Feinknopf Scribes carved and painted hieroglyphs on the walls of tombs and temples, on obelisks, and on sculptures. They were also written with pen and colored ink on sheets of papyrus. These written texts were thought to be necessary to ensure a good afterlife. Because the ancient Egyptians believed the deceased s afterlife journey to be perilous, they often recorded hymns, spells, and instructions to help them along their way. Commonly referred to as the Book of the Dead, the proper name for this collection of writings is the Book of Going Forth by Day. COLUMN AT KARNAK TEMPLE - Photograph 2008 Brad Feinknopf 38 Over time, the ancient Egyptians created a system where certain symbols represented certain sounds or consonants. Several symbols were written together to make a word. This is as close as the Egyptians ever came to creating an alphabet. Vowels, usually eh or ah, were not written, but were added by the reader. This is why we do not know exactly what the ancient Egyptian language sounded like. TOMB ART FROM TOMB OF RAMESSES VI - Photograph 2008 Brad Feinknopf

18 Tools and Technologies of Ancient Egypt [O]ne of the things that the site of Deir Al-Barsha is very well known for is one of the tomb paintings that we find in the tomb of the governor. And, in that scene, we see a depiction of how the early Egyptians moved very, very large pieces of stone. What s depicted is hundreds of Egyptians pulling an extremely large statue of a seated figure on a sled and these individuals are pulling it forward, with people standing on the statue in the sled, pouring water in front of the sled to reduce the friction. -Dr. Tosha Dupras The multitude of monuments and tombs found throughout Egypt provide evidence that the ancient Egyptians placed a high priority on constructing their tombs. Over 100 pyramids were built in Egypt. The biggest ones took more than 20 years to complete. This massive building effort required the use of many tools, a great deal of stone, and many workers including craftsmen, artists, architects and laborers. They did not use slaves to build the pyramids and other Egyptian monuments, but rather free people who dedicated their time to construction when the farm fields were flooded and unworkable. The large rocks used to build the pyramids weighed up to 20 tons each, which is equal to the weight of 27 refrigerators. The stones were quarried upstream and floated down the Nile on large ships. The blocks and obelisks had to be dragged across the desert floor, which was no easy feat. Archaeologists believe they moved this weight by creating roads made of limestone and gypsum with wooden slats (similar to railroad ties). The large rock or obelisk was placed on a wooden sled and dragged upon the road. Mud and water were used to lubricate the space between the sled and the slats. LUXOR TEMPLE - Photograph 2008 Brad Feinknopf Lifting stones to the top of a pyramid or temple was a very complicated task. Archaeologists have several ideas about how this may have happened. Ramps would have allowed the workers to move the stone up to a higher level without the strain of lifting. For a ramp to be useable, it needed to have a ratio of 10:1. This means that for every 1 foot it goes up, it must be 10 feet long. The exact shape the ancient Egyptians might have used is a mystery. Were they long ramps that stretched out ten times as far as the pyramids are tall? Did they spiral around the pyramid as it grew? Was it a combination of both? There is no clear evidence, since all useful materials were taken after the completion of the pyramids. 39

19 Archaeologists believe the ancient Egyptians also used levers to lift heavy objects. Levers give a mechanical advantage, allowing them to lift weight much heavier than what they could lift on their own. It is unknown exactly how they used levers to raise an obelisk. For more information on how an obelisk could have been raised, see Using only very simple tools, the ancient Egyptians built complex monuments. The Egyptians had to cut the large limestone blocks by hand, using only copper and bronze saws and drills, and other stones. The saws served as a guide, while a mixture of water, gypsum and quartz sand actually cut the rock. The straight lines and angles carved into the monuments were made with the assistance of a plumb bob. The plumb bob is essentially a weight at the end of a string, providing a straight line down. Using the information from the plumb bob, the ancient Egyptians carved numerous consistent angles and today construction projects still occasionally use the plumb bob. LUXOR TEMPLE - Photograph 2008 Brad Feinknopf The pyramids and monuments were smoothed by hand with very narrow blades of copper or bronze tapped with a wooden mallet. These blades needed to be sharpened again and again. Archaeologists estimate there would have been a full-time tool sharpener for every 100 workers. Archaeologists estimate it took a city of 20,000 25,000 people between 15 to 25 years to build the pyramid of Khufu. At least two teams of 2,000 people served as stone haulers, and two teams of 1,000 people served as stone setters and trimmers. Additional jobs included building ramps, making tools, working metal, making pottery, feeding the workers, and performing many other tasks. PYRAMIDS ON GIZA PLTEAU - Photograph 2008 Brad Feinknopf 40

20 Fun Facts King Tut never rode a camel. The animals came to Egypt at the end of the age of pharaohs. As of 2002, AERA had catalogued nearly 25,000 pieces of flint, 200,000 fragments of animal bone, and 500,000 pieces of pottery from the Lost City site. Those numbers continue to grow. According to Richard W. Bulliet s book The Camel and the Wheel, camels actually replaced pre-existing wheeled technologies in some parts of the Middle East because they didn t get stuck in the sand. The first recorded restoration of the Great Sphinx at Giza took place nearly 3500 years ago, when Pharaoh Thutmose IV removed the sand that had buried it up to its neck. At the time of Thutmose s restoration, the Sphinx was already 1000 years old. CAMEL ON THE GIZA PLATEAU In the film Raiders of the Lost Ark, Indiana Jones discovers the Ark of the Covenant in a hidden chamber in the ancient city of Tanis. Tanis was an actual city, and it served as the capital of Egypt from the Twenty-first to the Twenty-third dynasty (approximately 1078 BC 740 BC). The mummy in both the 1932 film The Mummy and in the 1999 remake of the same name is named Imhotep. In reality, Imhotep was the engineer who designed the Step Pyramid of Djoser, the first pyramid constructed in ancient Egypt. Thutmose III covered the texts of Hatshepsut s obelisks at Karnak Temple with stone in an attempt to remove any mention of her from the temple. Ironically, the stone coverings helped to keep these carvings in pristine condition almost 3500 years later. Using her work as a remote sensing expert, Dr. Sarah Parcak estimates that less than 0.01% of the archaeological sites in Egypt have been discovered. The words mummy, sphinx, and pyramid do not have Egyptian origins (mummy is derived from Latin and Persian, while sphinx and pyramid are derived from Greek). The popular myth of Napoleon s soldiers shooting off the 41