Mesopotamians believed in powerful gods that were cruel. The Mesopotamians built the

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1 Sophia Ashiqueali AP World History/ Period 3 Packet: B [Cultural]: (Early Belief Systems) Many early belief systems practiced polytheism, or the belief in many gods. The Mesopotamians believed in powerful gods that were cruel. The Mesopotamians built the Ziggurat, a temple showing stone human figures praying, to worship their deities. Mesopotamians had a pessimistic view of the world and saw death as a negative event. The Egyptians believed in many gods and saw their pharaoh as a powerful god. The Egyptians had a strong belief in the afterlife and looked forward to death. They built gargantuan structures called pyramids that held the preserved bodies of rulers who waited for their Ka, or their soul, to transition into the afterlife. In the Indus Valley, priests held the highest status out of all of the social classes. The Harappans in the Indus Valley worshipped a female goddess who was the goddess of fertility. The people of the Indus Valley civilization also cremated the dead. In Shang China, there was a strong belief in ancestor worship and priests were not important. Oracle bones were used as tools to communicate with dead ancestors and shrines were created to worship the souls of the deceased. In Mesoamerica, the Olmecs studied astronomy to study agricultural cycles and gratify gods. Religious rituals were important in this civilization and religious figures known as Shamans were seen as healers. The Chavin in the Andes, worshipped statues in the shape of jaguar men. All of the early civilizations and belief systems showed the worship of multiple gods and and association of the gods with nature.

2 Mikhal Ben Joseph AP World History Period 3 Packet B Culture: Early Belief Systems Throughout the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic eras, belief systems and traditions varied greatly in different places. However, some recurrently appearing systems of belief include polydaemonism, animism, belief in an afterlife, and ancestral worship. Polydaemonism, or the belief in many spirits, was the guiding force in many early belief systems and was related to animism, as inanimate objects and parts of nature were believed to have spirits. These spirits interacted with humans and could be found in almost any natural phenomenon, including bodies of water and living beings. Certain places were also thought to be sacred and holy. Belief in an afterlife and burial rituals are architecturally evidenced by cave art, cultural objects, and tombs/gravesites. Additionally, ancestral worship was connected to land fertility in some early belief systems. As the agricultural revolution occurred, polytheism, or the belief in many gods, became prominent. Typically, each god was responsible for some aspect of nature upon which farming was reliant, including rain, sun, and soil.

3 Vincent Brando 9/29/16 AP World History Portfolio Project Packet B: Cultural - Pyramids: Art and Architecture Architecture was one of the defining characteristics of Egyptian culture. From their early sewage systems all the way to their mysterious Sphinx, their buildings continue to serve as some of the most innovative examples of construction. However, one such structure stands out among the rest, the Pyramids. They were used to house the mummified bodies of various rulers, Pharaohs, and kings of Egypt. This is important because of Egyptian societies place a heavy belief in the afterlife and prepare extensively before burying someone. This consists of the mummification process, by embalming through dehydration and removal of organs. The structures were filled with dead ends and false burial chambers to deter grave robbers. Originally built and designed in 2630 B.C. by the architect Imhotep for the Egyptian king Djoser, the original Pyramid was supposed to have flat sides, however construction was cut short so the sides were rectangular, resembling stairs. The second pyramid, built for and designed by king Khufu in 2540 B.C., accomplished the flat side design attempted by the original pyramid, being much more triangular in shape as a process. Khufu and Djoser weren t the only people who got their own pyramids. Khufu s three wives were also each made a much smaller pyramid resembling Djoser s, and were placed directly next to Khufu s. Khufu s son also has a pyramid nearby. It is the second tallest pyramid, right after his father, Khufu s.

4 Gabi Coutinho AP World History Period III Packet B Cultural: Ancient Egyptian Belief Systems and Mummification A polytheistic religiously driven early civilization, Ancient Egyptian culture emphasized the importance of an afterlife and the preparation for one. Initially, only pharaohs received a glorious afterlife, but in the New Kingdom, other nobles did as well. Great edifices were built for tombs, and the first pyramid was constructed for the pharaoh Djoser. The preparation for death involved an extensive process of mummification and began in about 2600 BCE during the fourth and fifth dynasties. This idea may have evolved from natural body preservation from burials in the hot, dry sand on the edge of the desert. Egyptians believed that the body would not be recognized by its Ka if a proper burial was not given, and mummification required seventy days. Priests served as embalmers to remove four vital internal organs except for the heart (as it would weighed in the Final Judgement), store them in canopic jars, remove moisture with natron, fill the body with linen, add false eyes, wrap the body with linen and amulets, coat the finished product with resin, place the mummy into a decorated casket in its tomb filled with possessions, recite passages from The Book of the Dead, and perform rituals. Mummification continued into the Roman period, lasting for about two thousand years.

5 Mummification Abraham Garcia: Cultural Mummification is the process of preserving humans that was practiced by early Egyptians. Mummification was primarily used for the preservation of pharaohs, the Egyptian rulers, but less costly methods of embalming were also used for those of lower social classes. The Egyptians used mummification because they believed that in the afterlife a person would repossess their body, and in order for this to happen the body must be recognizable. Original mummification was unintentional, but rather the effect of leaving dead bodies in the desert and letting it become dehydrated. As the Egyptian burial process evolved, they began to attempt to replicate the effects of this preservation of bodies. This eventually lead to the process we know as mummification. The most expensive and elaborate form of mummification that was reserved for elites was as follows. First, the brain was removed through the nose. Second, the internal organs were dried and then placed in canopic jars. The heart was not placed in a canopic jar, but rather placed back in the body. Then, the interior of the body was rinsed with wine and rubbed with spices. The body was then covered in salt for 70 days. At the 40 day mark, the body was filled with sand. Once the 70 days were over, the body was wrapped in cloth and then placed in a coffin. Mummification was such an advanced and effective process, the bodies are still able to be recognized, even though it is hundreds of years later.

6 Luis Garcia AP World History Period 3 Packet B Cultural: Megaliths A prime example of remnants of cultures of ancient civilizations can be seen in megaliths. Megaliths, a form of monumental architecture, are colossal stones erected by early humans, likely with some connection to religious beliefs. A common theory is that megaliths were used for ceremonial purposes, primarily in Neolithic times. Examples of megaliths include the famous Stonehenge in Wiltshire, England, and Gobekli Tepe in southern Turkey. Gobekli Tepe is regarded as the world s oldest temple. Although they may have served different purposes in different early civilizations, megaliths are a clear manifestation of cultural expression in ancient times.

7 Theme 2: Book of Songs The Book of Songs is the oldest existing collection of Chinese poetry, dating back from the 7th to the 11th century BC, also known as the Western Zhou Dynasty (the 11th century BCE) to the Spring and Autumn Period (the 7th century BCE). The poetry, said to be compiled by Confucius, was popular during these times from the north of the Yellow River basin to the Jianghan Drainage Area. The poetry in the Book of Songs is classified into three sections: Feng ( ballads), Ya ( poems from intellectuals or aristocrats ), and Song ( songs for praying). Feng, also called Guofeng, is mostly the collection of folk songs. Feng is split into 15 groups, totalling to 160 poems, which mainly describe the love between men and women and the dissatisfaction of people toward the emperor. Ya contains 105 poems, which were mainly written by officials and aristocrats. Song contains 40 poems, which are songs for offering sacrifice and for praising emperors and aristocrats. The Book of Songs greatly affected ancient China s politics, culture, language, and even thinking. During the Spring and Autumn Period, diplomats often expressed words that they didn t want to say by themselves or that were difficult to say by quoting sentences from the Book of Songs. Confucius claimed that people s cultures, observation abilities and interpersonal skills could be highly improved through the study of the Book of Songs.

8 Rishab Jain AP World History/P.3 Packet B [Culture]: Mandate of Heaven The Mandate of Heaven is a philosophy that originated in China during the Zhou dynasty. The mandate of heaven was an idea that either legitimizes or denies an emperor the right to rule over the multiple city states. If for any reason the emperor doesn t fulfill his duty and right as emperor he forever loses the mandate thus no longer making him the emperor of China. There four key principles of the mandate that all emperors must follow: one dynasty cannot rule permanently, since there is only one heaven there can only be one emperor ruling at any giving time, heaven grants the emperor the right to rule, and the emperor s deeds and virtues determines his rule. The mandate of heaven was a political maneuver used by the Zhou dynasty to overthrow the Shang dynasty because they stated that the Shang Dynasty wasn t following the mandate and was corrupt. As each dynasty fell in Chinese history it was considered that the dynasty has lost the mandate. Mandate of Heaven was a cultural philosophy which gave the emperor the right to rule based of Heaven and it played a big role in the political realm of China.

9 Paridhi Kapadia AP World History, Pd. 3 Packet B Cultural Ma at was the Ancient Egyptian concept of divinely created and upheld order in the universe. The ancient Egyptians believed that this divine order and balance was ever present in the universe and someone needed to uphold it. They believed the god sent to uphold the ma at, at least on Earth, was their pharaoh, or leader, whom they believed to be divine himself or herself. The pharaoh ruled over the lands, leading the people, making sure the order was kept and the good outweighed the bad. This order consisted of an upkeep of truth, harmony, law, justice, and morality, and without it, the Egyptians believed the Earth would plunge into chaos. This concept is a distinctive belief the ancient Egyptians held. It was a part of their religion, that the gods were there to maintain ma at and the pharaohs were there to carry it out on Earth. As a part of their religion, it is then automatically a part of their comprehensive culture. The culture was created with the founding of the Egyptian civilization, and evolved with them.

10 Leah Kapela AP World/ Period 3 Packet B Cultural: Mummification Mummification is the process of preserving a body. It usually includes embalming and drying the body out. The ancient Egyptians started to mummify bodies because they believed in the afterlife and thought the body needed to be preserved so it could be used. Mummification was a long process that lasted up to seventy days and included the removal of organs and the preservation of the skin. The body was first cleaned and exfoliated. All of the organs, excluding the heart, were removed from the body and placed in special jars called Canopic jars. Each lid to the jar had one of the sons of Horus. The brain was removed and thrown away because the Egyptians did not know its use. The corpse was then stuffed and wrapped in special salts to remove all moisture from the body. After many days, the body was wrapped in linens and placed in a special coffin called a sarcophagus. Pharaohs were placed in tombs that contained many objects that the king would need in his afterlife. The sarcophagus was placed in a special chamber with the corresponding Canopic jars and sealed off. However, many mummies have been raided and destroyed over the many years. Mummifying bodies was a religious and vital cultural aspect in the Egyptian Civilization.

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12 Abhitya Krishnaraj AP World History Period 3 Packet B Cultural: Pyramid The Pyramid is structure with triangular outer faces that converges from a square base to a point. The pyramid is a geometric figure but has also been used to build for many years. For many years the largest structures that existed were pyramids. The first civilizations that built pyramids were the Mesopotamian. Their structures, called ziggurats were painted in gold or bronze. They were also constructed of mud- brick so over time little evidence of these pyramids still exists. The earliest ziggurats were seen near the end of the Early Dynastic Period. The pyramid that was built was like a step-- pyramid. With each layer built in receding tiers, each tier smaller that the previous one. These ziggurats are considered the first temples and had shrines at the top of the steps. The most famous pyramids are found in Egypt. The Egyptians began building pyramids around 2700 BCE, as the Pharaoh's tomb, but had to stop in 1700 BCE because of the expensive cost for the materials and the labor.the first pyramid was build by the Pharaoh Djoser by his architect Imhotep. Imhotep created the first steppyramid by stacking mastabas on top of one another. The building of pyramids reached its greatest height in 2575 BCE BCE when pyramids were built in Giza. In around 2560 BCE the Great Pyramid of Giza or the Pyramid of Khufu was built.

13 Sam Marx AP World History Period 3 Packet B Theme 2: Cultural Pyramid Of the different social divisions in ancient Egypt, the king or pharaoh was the focus and highest ranked. The pharaoh was believed to be a god sent to Earth to maintain ma at, or order. So much depended on the kings that their deaths incorporated elaborate efforts to ensure the wellbeing of their spirits on their quest to rejoin the gods. Great resources were poured into the construction of tombs, the celebration of rituals, and the sustenance of the kings spirits in the afterlife by offerings in funerary chapels attached to the royal tombs. Djoser, an Egyptian king, constructed a stepped pyramid, or a large, triangular stone monument, used in Egypt and Nubia as a burial place for the king. Rulers later filled in the steps to create the smooth sided, limestone pyramids that hold the tombs of Egyptian rulers. The pharaohs Khufu and Khafre later erected huge pyramids at Giza, several miles north of Saqqara. Egyptians accomplished this with stone tools and little machinery. Large numbers of people must have been pressed into service for part of each year. The Egyptian masses probably regarded it as a kind of religious service that helped ensure prosperity. The age of the great pyramids lasted only about a century, although they continued to be built for two millennia.

14 Jacob Mass AP World History/Period 3 Packet B Culture: Shawabtis Shawabtis, also known by shabtis, ushabtis, and a variety of other spellings, are small human figures meant to be servants to provide for wealthy nobles and royalty in their afterlives in Ancient Egypt. Egyptians believed that these people lived on in their afterlives, and needed their tombs to be equipped with whatever they might need in their afterlives, including food, games, and servants. Evidence suggests that, at first, actual servants were buried with the nobles to be utilized in the afterlife, but this was soon seen to be wasteful and unnecessary. The solution was the development of shawabtis. With shawabtis, deceased nobles could have as many servants as they needed in their afterlives, and they often did have multiple, each with different purposes. At first, shawabtis were crafted with miniature tools with which they could accomplish their unique job in the afterlife. However, later versions of shawabtis had hieroglyphic writing inscribed onto them, explaining their purpose. Shawabtis were made out of a variety of materials, including wax, clay, wood, and stone, though the most common was faience, a glazed ceramic ware. These figures were important to Egyptian culture, as they allowed Egyptians the rest assured with the knowledge that their loved ones would be safe in the underworld.

15 Nicolas Menendez AP World History Period 3 23 September 2016 Cultural The earliest human that we have proof of is Lucy. She marked the start of our species that would later develop in incredible ways. Lucy was the first Australopithecus Afarensis hominin, the earliest kind of the modern day human, and has been dated by scientists to have lived a little over three million years ago. Even though only about forty percent of Lucy s skeleton has been discovered, scientists have been able to piece together by how her hands and arms were fractured that she died by falling out of a tree and braced herself with her arms. She was found in 1974 in Ethiopia which developed the claim that all humans originated from east Africa and then migrated to different parts of the world after the Holocene, or the global warming period, began because they could now venture into greater lands without freezing to death. The scientists which made the discovery gave the early hominin the name Lucy because they were played the song Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds by the Beatles throughout the journey. This ancestor to all humans is what later developed over millions of years into the brilliant human species that we are today.

16 Isabel Mitre AP World History/Period 3 Packet B Culture: Religions The Egyptians strongly believed in the afterlife. One of their gods, Osiris, lived after death, so their belief stems from this. Osiris was the first son of Geb and Nut, so when Geb abdicated his throne, Osiris inherited. When he ascended to the throne, Egyptians were a barbaric, uncivilized people. He was distressed by this, and civilized the Egyptian people by teaching them how to farm, how to worship the gods, and by introducing laws. For this he was known as the god of the earth and agriculture. But Set, his jealous brother, killed him in an attempt to steal the throne. Set and his minions put his body in a casket and set it adrift on the Nile. Isis, with help from other gods/goddesses, found his body, but then Set came and dismembered it into 14 pieces, casting them to the far reaches of the earth. Again, Isis found his body and revived him long enough to become impregnated with Horus, who would later avenge Osiris. Osiris then becomes the king of the Afterlife, and leads souls into the Duat, the gentle land where the righteous souls go. For this he became the god of the afterlife, of transition, and of resurrection. Egyptians use this myth as a basis for their own preparations for the afterlife. The body is embalmed, mummified, and kept whole. Then, if the proper rituals are performed, such as those that Isis performed over Osiris, then the person will live again in the afterlife.

17 Emily Moon Period 3 Due: 9/30/16 Culture Portfolio Project Packet B Material culture is only a small part of the many aspects of life that make up the culture of a group. Material culture consists of the physical evidence of a group, including the artifacts that they may have left behind (like pottery or architecture). For example, the great pyramids of Egypt are a part of the rich material culture that existed in the Nile River Valley. Non-material culture, however, had to do with the aspects of culture that is not tangible, like religion, traditions, and more. For example, part of Egypt s non-material culture was the fact that they believed in multiple gods, which is known as polytheism.

18 Ephraim Oyetunji AP World History/ Period 3 Packet: B Culture: Stone Age The Stone Age refers to a broad period in history beginning roughly 2.6 million years ago and ending about 4,000 years ago. It is called the Stone Age because it is characterised by the use of tools made primarily of stone. However, tools were also fashioned from bone, wood, and skin. During this time period, early humans practiced polydaemonism, the belief of many spirits.they believed that the forces of nature were controlled by invisible spirits throughout the world. Humans also expressed themselves through different types of art like cave art. Depictions of hunting and assembly can be seen in caves all over the world. Early societies in the Stone Age believed in egalitarianism. This is the philosophy that believed everyone was equal and deserved the same rights. Therefore, men and women were treated equally but still did different tasks. Archaic architecture also flourished in the late Stone Age which can be seen in megaliths and the ancient cities of Jericho and Göbekli Tepe.

19 Emily Pallack AP World History Period 3 Packet B Cultural:Shaft Graves Shaft graves are a form of cemetery that consist of deep, rectangular graves arranged usually in a circle. These are traditionally associated with three time periods: Mycenaean Greece, the Bronze Age of China, and Mesoamerican Western Mexico. The two main grave sites from the Greek period include Grave Circle A and Grave Circle B. Grave Circle A was located outside of the Lion s Gate. Six shaft graves were found with a total of 19 bodies. It is thought that the entire structure was covered with an acropolis around 13th century BC. This was discovered in 1876 by archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann, who found The Death Mask of Agamemnon, who was a ruler of Mycenae. Grave Circle B is also located outside of Lion s Gate, and 26 graves with a total of 24 bodies recovered. This grave circle also included more bodies of women over men. Grave Circle B was found in 1951 by accident by workers digging nearby. The bones found in these graves were in good condition, and therefore have been very thoroughly researched. Many males show injury, probably from battle. Also, DNA analysis was performed and found that many of the bodies were related to each other, and pointed to the idea that all the graves were family graves.

20 Austin Park AP World History 25 September 2016 Theme 2: Mummification/Mummies The ancient Egyptian believed in the afterlife. The reason behind this is because the Egyptians believed that by preserving the king s body, he would continue to rule in the Underworld. They wanted to keep his body recognizable so that when he is in the process of becoming Osiris, the gods could recognize him. They were able to achieve this by mummifying them. Also, it was thought that part of their spirit remained in their body. To store their bodies, they built pyramids. When they were put into the pyramids, all of the king s necessities would be stored with them for use in the afterlife. Some items include gold vessels and food. Since everyone in the Egyptian society believed in the afterlife, this shows how they were unified in the sense that they agreed with the same idea. The Egyptians were not the only people to have mummies. Other cultures such as in the African and Asian culture had mummies. Although they did not have the same reasons for mummification like the Egyptians, they still believed in preserving people.

21 Matthew Robbins Tavernia AP World History - Period 3 September 29, 2016 Cultural - Shawabtis Shawabtis, also known as usabti, were ancient Egyptian funerary figures placed in the tombs of the deceased. These shawabtis were intended to accompany the Egyptian Ka (vital essence, similar to the soul) into the afterlife and act as the person's servant or minion. With their first usage being dated back to the Old Kingdom, at which time they were only placed in the graves of the noble class, shawabtis continued to play a role in the funerary ceremony through both the Middle and New Kingdoms, with their usage becoming increasingly more common. Often inscribed on the shawabtis were quotes from the 6th chapter of the Book of the Dead, telling Osiris the roles these figures will play in the afterlife of the deceased. Playing off of the Egyptian's belief that the afterlife was a continuation of the real world, shawabtis were sent with the noble citizens' Ka to complete any manual work or labor assigned to them. This helped maintain the real world systems that were in place. As the shawabtis became more ubiquitous, they helped provide the lower class citizens of Egyptian society with hope in a better afterlife.

22 Snigdha Sama Michael Tavernia AP World History, Period 3 Packet: B Theme 2: Development and Interaction of Cultures- Paleolithic Age Paleolithic Age The Paleolithic Age is the period of the Stone Age associated with the evolution of humans. It lasted from 2.5 million to 10,000 years ago. It is a prehistoric period, meaning before recorded history. This period is characterized by the use of stone and bone tools by humans. Humans primarily found food through hunting and gathering during this time. It had a gender division of labor with the men mostly hunting animals and the women generally gathering food. People traveled and found food in small nomadic groups in which there were no wealth-based social classes. This was a primarily egalitarian time. Some say the development of an agrarian society with the Neolithic Revolution was detrimental to society and Paleolithic societies functioned better as the people in a Paleolithic Society had a lot of protein from eating meat and variety, as they were not restricted to one or two high carb crops that were grown.

23 Chey Sirota Period 3 Packet: B [Interaction Between Humans and the Environment] Among the influences of human migration, the environment has been the most influential. Geographical barriers such as harsh winters, oceans, mountain ranges and many more barriers forced human migration. It wouldn t be until the technological advancements such as boats and fire that these geographical barriers could be crossed. As human s technologically advanced, mankind was able to adapt to different environments. A few technological advantages include fire, and the invention of stone and metal tools. Fire, along with clothing, allowed humans to keep warm and migrate to colder climates, as well as provide defense against predators and the weather. The invention of stone and metal tools provided the upgrades of chopping, cutting and digging, which ultimately led to the establishment of communities and the advancements in weaponry. Humans also have had their effects on the environment, such as overgrazing, resulting from pastoralism, and deforestation, resulting from agriculture, such as shifting cultivation.

24 Aaron Thaler Period 3 9/28/16 Culture - Pyramids Pyramids were large triangular stone monuments, and their first known use was by the Egyptians as burial sites for their kings. The largest and by far most well known pyramids were erected during the Old Kingdom of Egypt, near its capital of Memphis. The short film Pyramid discusses the rich history and culture of Egypt with respect to the pyramids, especially those erected at Giza by King Khufu. The exact location of the pyramids was at Saqqara, northwest of Memphis. As of November 2008, there have been between 118 and 138 pyramids discovered. However, the ones that are by far the most well known were the pyramids erected at Giza for Kings Menkaure, Khafre, and Khufu. The Great Pyramid of Khufu is considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and is the only one of these still intact today. In general, the pyramids were the epitome of the innovations created by this relatively advanced society.

25 Coco Zheng AP World History pd. 3 Packet B Development and Interaction of Cultures: Shawabtis Shawabti has many alternate spellings: shawabty, shawbti, shabti and ushabti. Since ancient Egyptians believe that materials from this life are carried into the afterlife, shawabtis were buried with the dead to be servants in the afterlife. The word originated from wsb, meaning "answerer". Therefore, shawabtis answer to their masters' commands. They are usually around 10 cm tall. They are mummy-shaped figures made of wood, stone, or faience. They typically have tools in their hands or a sack on their backs to store tools to use in afterlife. Each shawabti has a shawabti formula (or shabti spell) that dictates what work they are to perform in the afterlife. This was important because everyone still had to work in the afterlife to serve Osiris, god of the underworld. If you have shawabtis, you can make them do your dirty work instead, giving you more free time. Almost everyone had a shawabti from the poor farmers to the rich kings.