Atomic Structure. Atomic Structure. Atomic Structure. Atomic Structure. Electron Configuration. Electron Configuration
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1 Atomic Electron onfiguration Atomic Electron onfiguration z z z E 3rd SELL 3d 3p 3s y 2p x x y 2p y x y 2p z x 2nd SELL t SELL 2p x y z 2nd SELL 2p x y z y z x Atomic Ground State onfiguration Lowest energy orbitals fill first (Aufbau principle) Each orbital can contain up to two electrons electrons have opposite spins (Pauli exclusion principle) rbitals of equal energy fill evenly (unds rule) Atomic Ground State onfiguration Eg. Sodium. 11 electrons E Na: 2 2 2p 6 3s 1 3s 2p x,y,z 1
2 ovalent Bonding Sharing of electrons Eg. arbon is 2 2 2p 2 (half full) Li Na Mg K Ti x 2 x r Mn s Pd u Zn g B N F Al Si P S Sn l Se Br I ovalent Bonding Remember: A pair of bonding electrons is represented as a straight line Lewis structure Kekule structure rganic hemists Shorthand Alkynes ydrogens are ignored and carbons are corners and terminals Quick and convenient 2
3 Polar ovalent Bonds continuum of possibilities between ionic and covalent based on degree of sharing δ+ δ- + _ X X X Y X Y covalent polar covalent ionic Polar ovalent Bonds Electronegativity Li Na Mg K Ti r Mn s Pd u Zn g B N F Al Si P S Sn l Se Br I δ = just a little bit partial charge, not a full charge Eg. K=0.8, =2.1, =2.5, =3.5, F=4.0 Examples Polar ovalent Bonds δ- δ+ l δ+ δ- MgBr Polar ovalent Bonds Dipole Moment overall polarity of a molecule sum of all individual polarities Example N l l l l 3
4 Intermolecular Bonding Dipole-dipole Molecules with dipole moment Attraction of permanent partial charges MEDIUM strength Eg Propanone (acetone) Intermolecular Bonding ydrogen Bonding Strong form of dipole-dipole interaction Require bonded to highly electronegative atom (N, or alogen) Eg. Ethanol LIQUID LIQUID Intermolecular Bonding Van der Waals forces Non polar molecules Instantaneous dipole arises due to electrons random movements in atoms WEAK Eg. Methane one split second GAS next split second s in 3D!!! Alkynes as Pharmaceuticals anti-cancer compounds N 3 Dynemicin A 4
5 V.S.E.P.R. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Useful for predicting structure Electron pairs repel Shape reflects this. eg METANE V.S.E.P.R. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion E eg AMMNIA 3s lone pair tetrahedral 109.5º 2p x,y,z N 107 o Nitrogen VSEPR predicts 109.5º V.S.E.P.R. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion E eg WATER 3s lone pairs V.S.E.P.R. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Multiple bonds 121 o 180 o 118 o 2p x,y,z 105 o xygen VSEPR predicts 109.5º VSEPR predicts 120 o 5
6 ovalent Bonding ombining Atomic orbitals Sharing of electrons requires orbital overlap singly occupied atomic orbitals of individual atoms overlap ybrid rbitals ybridisation arbon re-organises its orbitals for covalent bonding New orbitals derived from a mathematic combination of s and p atomic orbitals Why does it bother? 2p ybridisation Electron configuration of carbon: ybridisation carbon promotes a electron to the 2p z orbital 2p x y z 2p x y z Remember: nly SINGLY occupied orbitals can overlap happy appy Not quite this simple! 6
7 ybridisation one s and three p orbitals hybridise to give four sp 3 orbitals ybridisation one s and three p orbitals hybridise to give four sp 3 orbitals + Why? ydridisation sp 3 orbitals allow better overlap and form stronger bonds (stronger bonds = more stable compounds) the concept of hybridisation also explains the structure of carbon based molecules sp 3 hybridised carbon based molecules are TETRAEDRAL. New single bonds are called sigma bonds Bond angles 109.5º sp 3 hybridised Solid wedge (towards you) Dashed wedge (away from you) 7
8 Ethane sp 3 hybridised four sigma bonds for each carbon Ethane sp 3 hybridised sp 2 hybridisation ne s orbital and two p orbitals hybridise to give three sp 2 orbitals ybridisation s p x,y 3 sp 2 hybridised p z sp 2 hybridisation Bonding Each carbon has three sigma (σ) bonds And one pi (π) bond Trigonal planar 8
9 sp 2 hybridisation Ethene 5 sigma (σ) bonds one pi (π) bond Flat ybridisation The double bond itself = one σ and one π bond Introduction Alkenes ydrocarbons containing one or more - double bond General formula: n 2n Propene yclopentene Alkenes Degree of Unsaturation Alkenes are said to be unsaturated double bonds = unsaturation rings also = unsaturation "Saturated" n 2n+2 "Unsaturated" n 2n 9
10 Alkenes Degree of Unsaturation Degree of unsaturation gives the number of double bonds and rings Refered to as the number of double bond equivalents (or DBEs) Stereoisomers Alkenes Rotation about - double bond would require breaking the π bond Does not occur under normal conditions rotate Myrcen (oil of bay) α -Pinene (Turpentine) arvone (spermint oil) is-trans Isomerism Restricted rotation gives rise to cis/trans isomerism same side = cis (Z) opposide sides = trans (E) Stability Trans (E) form has steric strain minimized more stable cis trans cis trans 10
11 sp hybridisation ne s orbital and one p orbital hybridise to give two sp orbitals ybridisation s p x 2 sp hybridised p y,z sp hybridisation Bonding Each has two sigma (σ) bonds two pi (π) bonds sp hybridisation Ethyne two pi (π) bonds Linear ybridisation and structure ybridisation reshapes atomic orbitals for better bonding sp 3 (4σ bonds) Tetrahedral Eg methane, ethane sp 3 sp 2 (3σ +1π bond) sp 3 sp Flat, planar sp 3 2 sp sp Eg. Ethene 2 l sp (2σ +2π bond) Linear Eg. ethyne sp 11
12 Reactions and Mechanisms Acid Base Formal charges Lowry Bronsted theory K a and pk a Lewis theory Reaction Types Addition, substitution, elimination and rearrangement Reaction Mechanisms Formal harges ompounds with an unusual number of e- (a covalent bond is two shared electrons, each atom owns one electron) Example N N "owns" 5e- N has 5 valence e- no charge N + N "owns' 4e- N has 5 valence e- 1+ charge Acids and Bases The Lowry-Bronsted Definition an acid is a substance which donates a proton ( + ) a base is a substance which accepts a proton ( + ) Example -A + - :B A: - + B- acid base conjugate conjugate base acid l + l + Acids and Bases Acidity onstant (K a ) acids differ in their + donating ability measured based on their ability to donate + to water -A + 2 A position of the eq. relates to acid strength equilibrium favors the rhs strong acid equilibrium favors the lhs weak acid 12
13 Acids and Bases quantified by measuring the eq. constant -A + 2 A K eq = K a = [ 3 + ] [A - ] [A] [ 2 ] [ 3 + ] [A - ] [A] often expressed as pk a (= -log K a ) Acids and Bases Relative Acid Strengths Acid N 3 l pk a K a = increasing acid strength [ 3 + ][A - ] [A] K a Acids and Bases The Lewis Definition a lewis acid is an electron pair acceptor. a lewis base is an electron pair donor. Example + + N 3 N 3 lewis acid lewis base Acids and Bases Lewis acids require a unfilled low energy orbital + No electrons, empty s orbital Lewis bases require a lone pair of electrons 3 F S B F F nly six electrons, empty 2p orbital 3 N 13
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