PART I Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Energy: History and Potential of the Newest and Largest Renewable Energy Resource

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1 Contents PART I Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Energy: History and Potential of the Newest and Largest Renewable Energy Resource Chapter 1 Serendipity A Brief History of Events Leading to the Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Energy Program at Los Alamos...3 Developments at Los Alamos...4 Hot Dry Rock in Its Infancy...8 The First Experiments in Hydraulic Fracturing...12 Chapter 2 The Enormous Potential for Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Energy...17 The Magnitude of the HDR Resource...19 Properties of the Deep Crystalline Basement as They Relate to HDR Reservoirs...21 The Permeability of the Rock Mass...21 Sealed Joints in the Deep Basement: Potential HDR Reservoir Flow Paths...22 The Geological and Hydrological Setting of Fenton Hill:...23 A True Hot Dry Rock Reservoir is...25 A True Hot Dry Rock Geothermal System is...27 Development of an HDR System...28 Selection of a Site...28 Drilling of an Injection Borehole...29 Initial Pressurization Testing...29 Creation of the Reservoir...30 Drilling of the Production Wells...31 Flow Testing...31 Seismic Risks Associated with HDR Geothermal Energy...32 The Economics of HDR Geothermal Energy...33 Using an HDR Reservoir for Load-Following...35 The Challenges of HDR Technology...38 A Major Observation and a Practical Lesson...39 PART II First Demonstration of the Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Energy Concept: Development of the Phase I Reservoir at Fenton Hill Chapter 3 Phase I Drilling and Initial Attempts to Establish Hydraulic Communication...43 Planning, Drilling, and Testing of the GT-2 Borehole...46 The Drilling Plan...46 Stage 1 Drilling...49 Drilling in the Surface Volcanic Rocks...49 Drilling Through the Paleozoic Sedimentary Formations and into the Granitic Rocks...49 Drilling in the Precambrian Crystalline Complex...52 Stage 1 Coring...60 Stage 1 Hydrology Experiments...62 xi

2 xii Contents Stage 1 Fracturing (Pressure-Stimulation) Tests...64 Stage 2 Drilling...69 Stage 2 Pressure-Stimulation Tests...69 Another Revision to the Plan...78 Stage 3 Drilling...79 Physical Properties of the Rock Matrix (as Derived from GT-2 Cores)...86 In Situ Permeability (Inferred from Laboratory Measurements)...86 Microcrack Porosity...87 Thermal Conductivity...88 Other Physical Properties...89 Stage 3 Hydrology Experiments...90 Stage 3 Pressure-Stimulation Tests...91 Planning, Drilling, and Testing of the EE-1 Borehole...95 The Drilling Plan...95 Stage 1 Drilling...97 Drilling in the Surface Volcanic Rocks and Sedimentary Formations...97 Cementing of the Intermediate Casing String Drilling in the Precambrian Basement Stage 1 Pressure-Stimulation Tests Stage 2 Drilling to 9168 ft Stage 2 Final Drilling: Attempt to Connect EE-1 with the Joint at the Bottom of GT First Series of Seismic Ranging Experiments Second Series of Seismic Ranging Experiments Third Series of Seismic Ranging Experiments EE-1 Inadvertently Turned Away from the GT-2 Target Seismic Interrogation of the GT-2 Target Joint Final Attempts to Stimulate the Deeper Part of EE Completion of the EE-1 Borehole Studies of the Deep Joints Stimulated from EE-1 and GT-2 and Attempts to Improve the Hydraulic Connection (November 1975 November 1976) Temperature Logging to Detect Fluid Entry/Exit Points Joint Mapping Experiments Quartz-Leaching Experiments to Reduce Flow Impedance The Awakening: Early Additional Ranging Experiments Gyroscopic Borehole Surveys Additional Tracer and Cement-Bond Surveys Shear-Shadowing Experiments Induced-Potential Survey of the EE-1 Joint Summary: The Situation Leading up to Redrilling of GT The GT-2 Principal Joint The EE-1 Principal Joints EE-1 to GT-2 Flow Impedance Chapter 4 Phase I Reservoir Development Redrilling and Flow Testing Redrilling of the GT-2 Borehole Sidetracking and Directional Drilling of GT-2A Pressurization of the Joint Intersection...156

3 Contents xiii Sidetracking, Directional Drilling, and Flow Testing of GT-2B Completion of GT-2B A Conceptual Model of the Phase I Reservoir The Phase I Surface Facility Water Storage Injection Pumps Surface Flow Loop On-site Water Well Controls and Data Acquisition Trailer Chemistry Trailer Seismic Instrumentation and Recording Flow Testing of the Phase I Reservoir, Run Segment 1: September Run Segment 2: January April Run Segment 3: September October Run Segments 1 3: General Observations EE-1: Re-cementing of the Casing and Reactivation of the Deep Joint (9650 ft) Re-cementing of the EE-1 Casing January Experiments 203 and 195, Seismicity, and Inferred Reservoir Volume State of Stress within the Phase I Reservoir Flow Testing of the Enlarged Phase I Reservoir, Run Segment 4: October November Run Segment 4: Observations Through-Flow Fluid Volume of the Reservoir Reservoir Temperatures Reservoir Flow Behavior Reservoir Flow Impedance Seismicity: What Does it Say About the Reservoir? Run Segment 5: March December Comparison of Reservoir Through-Flow Fluid Volumes: Run Segments Temperature Conditions in the Reservoir at the Beginning of Run Segment Hydraulic and Related Data Modeling of the Heat-Transfer Surface Heat-Transfer Volume of the Reservoir Geothermometer Measurements Geochemistry Results Stress-Unlocking Experiment PART III Engineering the HDR System: Development and Testing of the Phase II Reservoir at Fenton Hill Chapter 5 Planning and Drilling of the Phase II Boreholes The Phase II Development Plan Planning and Drilling of the EE-2 Borehole Drilling in the Volcanic Rocks Drilling in the Paleozoic Rocks Drilling in the Precambrian Crystalline (Plutonic and Metamorphic) Complex Vertical Drilling Directional Drilling...251

4 xiv Contents Borehole-Reduction Drilling, Coring Runs, and Attempt to Repair the 13 3/8-in. Casing Running and Cementing of the 9 5/8-in. Casing Final Drilling Equipment and Materials: Performance in the EE-2 Borehole Drilling Fluids Volcanic and Paleozoic Sedimentary Rocks Precambrian Crystalline (Plutonic and Metamorphic) Rocks Bits Used in the Crystalline Basement Rocks Directional Drilling Equipment Motor-Driven Equipment Rotary Angle-Building and Angle-Maintaining Assemblies Directional Surveying Equipment Drill String Logging Instrumentation Three Observations from the Drilling of the EE-2 Borehole Attempts to Seal the Sandia Formation Loss Zone Attempts to Repair the Intermediate Casing Testing of a New Core Bit Planning and Drilling of the EE-3 Borehole Drilling Plan Drilling Through the Volcanic and Sedimentary Rocks and into the Granitic Basement Drilling in the Precambrian Crystalline (Plutonic and Metamorphic) Complex Vertical Drilling Directional Drilling Sidetracking of the EE-3 Borehole Orienting the Sidetracked EE-3 Borehole with Respect to EE Drilling of the 8 3/4-in. Section of the EE-3 Borehole The Final Position of EE-3 Relative to EE Completion of the EE-3 Borehole Pre-Casing Operations Running of the 9 5/8-in. Production Casing Stage Cementing Equipment and Materials: Performance in the EE-3 Borehole Rotary Drilling Assemblies Used in the Crystalline Basement Downhole Motors Drilling Fluids System Drill Pipe and Drill Collars Elastomer Seals Corrosion Control Additives Observations from the Drilling of the EE-3 Borehole Sidetracking in Basement Rock Drilling Through Severe Lost-Circulation Zones Time Spent in Drilling-Related vs Remedial Operations Phase II Drilling: Summary and Conclusions Directional Drilling Program Drilling Supervision Drilling Fluids Program The "Incomplete" Completion of EE

5 Contents xv Chapter 6 Attempts to Create a Deeper Reservoir, Redrilling of EE-3, and Completion of the Phase II Reservoir Hydraulic Fracturing Tests Near the Bottom of EE Preliminary Operations Fracturing Attempts with a Cemented-in Scab Liner Hydraulic Fracturing Tests Below the Casing Shoe in EE Initial Testing: Expt Experiment 2020: Larger Injection Below the EE-2 Casing Shoe The Connection Conundrum Hydraulic Fracturing in EE Experiment 2025: High-Pressure Injection into EE Another Drill Pipe Failure Fiscal Year 1983 A Frustrating Year for the Project Temporary Suspension of Operations First "Sideshow" Experiment in EE-3 Expt More Fishing in EE Second "Sideshow" Experiment in EE-3 Expt Measurements in EE-2: The Shut-in Behavior of the Expt Reservoir The Massive Hydraulic Fracturing Test: Expt Preparations Five-Million-Gallon Pond and Supporting Equipment Slimline Downhole Instrumentation Preparation of the EE-2 Site and Borehole Installation of the Otis Casing Packer Installation of the Frac String Pre-Pump Test Pumping Equipment Pulsation-Induced Fatigue of High-Pressure Lines Last-Minute Preparations The MHF Test: The Largest Injection Ever A Blow-out at the Frac Head Still No Connection to EE Pressure Spallation of Joint Surfaces from Rapid Venting Collapse of the Casing Multiple-Path Venting of the Reservoir Analysis of Seismic Data The Volumetric Nature of HDR Reservoirs Fault-Plane Solutions Intuition vs Geophysics: A Critical Reassessment of the MHF Test Seismic Analyses MHF Test "Post-Mortem" The Condition of EE-2: Preliminary Investigations The Condition of EE-2: Further Investigations (Expt. 2036) Project Assessment and a Return to EE Further Repairs at EE Experiment Attempting a Connection Investigating the Seismic Characteristics of the Expt Joint System...391

6 xvi Contents First Attempt to Repair the EE-2 Borehole (October 15 December 18, 1984) The Status of the EE-2 Borehole at the End of 1984: Summary Redrilling and Pressure-Stimulation of EE Sidetracking of EE-3 (EE-3A) First Lynes Packer Test in EE-3A Expt Continued Drilling Brings Signs of Hydraulic Communication with EE Experiment More Signs of Hydraulic Communication with EE The First Successful Connection: Expt (May 1985) Final Stage of Drilling in EE-3A Experiment Experiment Experiment 2066 A Seismic Anomaly Completion of the EE-3A Wellbore (May 1986) The Completion of the Phase II Reservoir: A Summary Chapter 7 Initial Flow Testing of the Phase II Reservoir, Redrilling of EE-2, and Static Reservoir Pressure Testing The Initial Closed-Loop Flow Test The Surface Facilities Circulation Components Data Acquisition and Control Seismic Instrumentation Wellbore Temperature Measuring Equipment Operational Plan Open-Loop Circulation Closed-Loop Circulation ICFT Results Circulation Performance Power Production Seismic Observations Hydraulic Characteristics of the Reservoir Thermal Studies Reservoir Through-Flow Fluid Volume (Based on Tracer Data) Geochemistry of the Circulating Fluid ICFT Summary Well EE-2: Second Repair Attempt, Redrilling, and Testing (November 1986 June 1988) Second Attempt to Repair Well EE Sidetracking and Redrilling of Well EE Preliminary Flow Testing (Expt. 2074) Completion of the EE-2A Wellbore Post-Completion Injection Testing in EE-2A (Expt. 2076) Extended Static Reservoir Pressure Test (Expt. 2077) Water Loss Trends The Fluid-Accessible Reservoir Volume Fluid Partitioning Between Joints and Microcracks...469

7 Contents xvii Chapter 8 The Surface Plant for the Long-Term Flow Test Design of the Facilities High-Pressure Segment Injection Wellhead (EE-3A) Injection Pumps High-Pressure Piping Production Segment Low-Pressure Segment Gas/Particle Separator Heat Exchanger Makeup-Water Pumps Low-Pressure Piping Automated Control and Monitoring System Ancillary Facilities On-site Water Well Water Storage Ponds Buildings Operations Building Data Acquisition Trailer Pump House Chemistry Trailers Seismic Monitoring Network Miscellaneous Equipment and Structures Environmental and Safety Controls Chapter 9 Long-Term Flow Testing of the Phase II Reservoir Development of the Operating Plan Preliminary Flow Tests Performance of the Surface Facilities During the Pre-LTFT Tests The Long-Term Flow Test: Operations ( ) First Steady-State Production Segment: April July Interim Flow Testing: August 1992 February Second Steady-State Production Segment: February April The First Experiment with Cyclic Operation: "Surging" the Production Flow The First Load-Following Experiment Extended Period of Minimal Operations: May 1993 May May July The Second Surging Experiment The Second Load-Following Experiment A Disastrous Annular Breakthrough at EE-3A Tracer Studies The Long-Term Flow Test: Results Performance of the Surface Plant Steady-State Production Production Well Backpressure Experiments Load-Following Revisited...524

8 xviii Contents Reservoir Engineering Studies Water Loss Impedance Distribution Across the Reservoir Reservoir Joint Opening/Closing Pressures The Dominance of the Joints in Controlling HDR Reservoir Behavior Temperature Data: Production Well Temperature Logging: Injection Well Postulated Reservoir Segmentation and Connections to the Phase I Reservoir Tracer and Geochemical Studies Reservoir Fluid Pathways Tracer Data as an Indicator of Reservoir Temperature Trends Geochemical Analyses and the Fresh-Water Flush Seismicity During the LTFT Reservoir Modeling Related to the LTFT Early Models PART IV Future Outlook for Hot Dry Rock Chapter 10 The Future of Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Energy Enhancing Productivity Extending the Lifetime of the System Establishing the Universality of Hot Dry Rock Addressing the Remaining Issues Future Innovations in HDR Technology Advanced Drilling Load-Following and Pumped Storage Treating Wastewater New Circulation Fluids and Circulation Conditions New Approaches to the Detection and Location of HDR-Associated Microseismic Events Summary Appendix Glossary Bibliography Index...641

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