Joints and Veins. Processes in Structural Geology & Tectonics. Ben van der Pluijm. WW Norton+Authors, unless noted otherwise 1/26/ :28
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1 Joints and Veins Processes in Structural Geology & Tectonics Ben van der Pluijm WW Norton+Authors, unless noted otherwise 1/26/ :28
2 We Discuss Joints and Veins Crack Modes Surface Features Formation and Propagation Elasticity Joint Arrays Joint Spacing Origin of Joints Veins Origin and History of Veins Syntaxial and Antitaxial Veins En-echelon Veins Structure and Society Joint & Veins PSG&T 2
3 Crack Modes Recall, shear-mode crack propagate as tensile-mode cracks Joint & Veins PSG&T 3
4 Joint Surfaces b. a. c. Courtesy T. Engelder a. Shatter cones (Sudbury) b. Arrest lines (New York) c. Plumes or Twist hackles (New York) Joint & Veins PSG&T 4
5 Plumose Structures (a) Straight plume. (b) Curvy plume. (c) Plume with arrest lines, indicating repeated opening. (d) vanderplume Joint & Veins PSG&T 5
6 Joint Structure (a) Components of ideal plumose structure on a joint. Face of joint 1 is exposed; joint 2 is within rock. (b) Cross sectional sketch showing dimple of a joint origin, controlled by an inclusion. Joint & Veins PSG&T 6
7 Systematic Joint Arrays (a) Traces of types of joint arrays on a bedding surface. (b) Arrangement of joint arrays with respect to fold geometrical axes. Joint & Veins PSG&T 7
8 Joint Development Sequence of joint development Time 1 refers to time before first joint forms, and time 7 is last. This scenario shows that joints form in a random sequence, but result in regular spacing (d m ). Why? Joint & Veins PSG&T 8
9 Stress Shadows and Joints Joint stress shadows (a) A grid of springs. (b) Cutting one spring causes a few springs to relax around cut, so only relatively small area is affected. (c) Cutting many springs in a row causes a wider band of springs to relax; thus, larger area is affected. Joint & Veins PSG&T 9
10 Stress shadow and joint spacing Thins beds have shorter joints, meaning smaller shadows. Thus, closer spacing. Stress shadow (shaded area) exists around each joint. Note how stress is transmitted across regions that are unfractured in 3D. Joint & Veins PSG&T 10
11 Joints and Lithology (and Elasticity) Multilayer with different elasticities (Young s moduli). Stiffer layers (dolomite) develop more closely spaced joints. Why? Young s modulus E (elasticity, measure of stiffness) and stress. E = s / e (Hooke s Law). For same extension (e): Large E (80MPa, stiffer) means large s, so more fractures (and earlier). Small E (20MPa) means small s, so fewer fractures. Joint & Veins PSG&T 11
12 Elasticity Elastic (or Hookean) Behavior: s = E. e E = Young s Modulus (rubber band) Joint & Veins PSG&T 12
13 Other Joints: Sheeting (or Unroofing) Joints Unloading (relaxing): Vertical extension, horizontal contraction (Poisson effect) as rock expands from unloading Joint & Veins PSG&T 13
14 Other Joints: Columnar (or Cooling) Joints Cooling: Horizontal stress as rock contracts vertically from cooling. Joint & Veins PSG&T 14
15 Other Joints: Hydraulic Fractures (a) Stresses near crack with fluid pressure that exceeds magnitude of σ 3, resulting in tensile stress, σ t, along crack. (b) Enlargement of crack tip. Opening stress (σ o ) due to fluid pressure exceeds closing stress (σ c ), which is sum of σ cp, closing stress where pore is in contact with crack, and σ cg, closing stress where grain is in contact with crack. Joint & Veins PSG&T 15
16 Joint terminations (a) Joints terminate without curving when they approach one another. (b) Joints curving into each other and linking. (c) Map view sketch illustrating how joint spacing is fairly constant because joints that grow too close together cannot pass each other. Joint & Veins PSG&T 16
17 Veins (=filled joints and fractures) and Vein Arrays (a) Planar array of veins. (b) Stockwork array of veins. (Vein fill is dark) Joint & Veins PSG&T 17
18 Vein Morphology Blocky vein Fibrous vein Joint & Veins PSG&T 18
19 Antitaxial and Syntaxial Veins Antitaxial veins where fill and wall contrast ( weak weld ); e.g., carbonate vein in sandstone or pyrite inclusion. Joint & Veins PSG&T 19
20 Antitaxial and Syntaxial Veins Antitaxial veins where fill and wall contrast ( weak weld ); e.g., carbonate vein in sandstone or pyrite inclusion. Syntaxial veins where vein fill same as wall rock ( strong weld ); e.g., quartz vein in quartzite. Joint & Veins PSG&T 20
21 Vein Opening and Vein Fibers Long axis of vein fibers tracks direction of extension, and change in extension direction leads to curved fibers. Syntaxial veins where vein fill same as wall rock ( strong weld ); e.g., quartz vein in quartzite. Antitaxial veins where fill and wall contrast ( weak weld ); e.g., calcite vein in quartzite, pyrite inclusion. Joint & Veins PSG&T 21
22 En-echelon and Sigmoidal Veins b) Formation of en-echelon array. c) Formation of sigmoidal en echelon veins, due to rotation of older, central part of veins, and growth of new vein material at original angle to shear surface. Rotated, filled crack New, filled crack DePaor, 2002 Joint & Veins PSG&T 23
23 Structure and Society: Fractures and Veins Mineralization Aquifers and groundwater All USGS Joint & Veins PSG&T 24
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