Relational Algebra on Bags. Why Bags? Operations on Bags. Example: Bag Selection. σ A+B < 5 (R) = A B

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1 Relational Algebra on Bags Why Bags? A bag (or multiset ) is like a set, but an element may appear more than once. Example: {1,2,1,3} is a bag. Example: {1,2,3} is also a bag that happens to be a set. SQL, the most important query language for relational databases, is actually a bag language. Some operations, like projection, are more efficient on bags than sets. Operations on Bags Example: Bag Selection 15 Selection applies to each tuple, so its effect on bags is like its effect on sets. Projection also applies to each tuple, but as a bag operator, we do not eliminate duplicates. Products and joins are done on each pair of tuples, so duplicates in bags have no effect on how we operate. 16 R( A, B ) 5 6 σ A+B < 5 (R) = A B

2 Example: Bag Projection Example: Bag Product R( A, B ) 5 6 R( A, B ) S( B, C ) π A (R) = A R Χ S = A R.B S.B C Example: Bag Theta-Join Bag Union R( A, B ) S( B, C ) R R.B<S.B S = A R.B S.B C An element appears in the union of two bags the sum of the number of times it appears in each bag. Example: {1,2,1} {1,1,2,3,1} = {1,1,1,1,1,2,2,3}

3 21 Bag Intersection An element appears in the intersection of two bags the minimum of the number of times it appears in either. Example: {1,2,1,1} {1,2,1,3} = {1,1,2}. 22 Bag Difference An element appears in the difference A B of bags as many times as it appears in A, minus the number of times it appears in B. Example: {1,2,1,1} {1,2,3} = {1,1}. 23 Beware: Bag Laws!= Set Laws Some, but not all algebraic laws that hold for sets also hold for bags. Example: the commutative law for union (R S = S R ) does hold for bags. Since addition is commutative, adding the number of times x appears in R and S doesn t depend on the order of R and S. 24 Example: A Law That Fails Set union is idempotent, meaning that S S = S. However, for bags, if x appears n times in S, then it appears 2n times in S S. Thus S S!= S in general. e.g., {1} {1} = {1,1}!= {1}. What about Intersection? Intersection is idempotent for sets and bags.

4 Example: A Law That Fails Example: A Law That Fails Set union is idempotent, meaning that S S = S. However, for bags, if x appears n times in S, then it appears 2n times in S S. Set union is idempotent, meaning that S S = S. However, for bags, if x appears n times in S, then it appears 2n times in S S. Thus S S!= S in general. Thus S S!= S in general. e.g., {1} {1} = {1,1}!= {1}. e.g., {1} {1} = {1,1}!= {1}. What about Intersection? Intersection is idempotent for sets and bags. What about Intersection? Intersection is idempotent for sets and bags. Quiz 2: True or False? Quiz 2: True or False? ) Let R(A, B) and S(B, C) be two relations, σ A=B (R x S) = (R A=B S) TRUE 1) Let R(A, B) and S(B, C) be two relations, σ A=B (R x S) = (R A=B S) TRUE 2) For relations or bags, the size of R S is always strictly smaller than the size of R x S. FALSE 2) For relations or bags, the size of R S is always strictly smaller than the size of R x S. FALSE

5 Quiz 2: True or False? 25 1) Let R(A, B) and S(B, C) be two relations, σ A=B (R x S) = (R A=B S) TRUE EXTENDED RELATIONAL ALGEBRA 2) For relations or bags, the size of R S is always strictly smaller than the size of R x S. FALSE MICHAEL LIUT (LIUTM@MCMASTER.CA) DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTING AND SOFTWARE MCMASTER UNIVERSITY SE 3DB3 (Slides adapted from Dr. Fei Chiang) Fall 2016 The Extended Algebra Duplicate Elimination 2 3 δ = eliminate duplicates from bags. τ = sort tuples. γ = grouping and aggregation. Outerjoin : avoids dangling tuples = tuples that do not join with anything. R1 := δ(r2). R1 consists of one copy of each tuple that appears in R2 one or more times. Credit: Renee J. Miller

6 Example: Duplicate Elimination Sorting 4 5 R = ( A B ) δ(r) = A B R1 := τ L (R2). L is a list of some of the attributes of R2. R1 is the list of tuples of R2 sorted first on the value of the first attribute on L, then on the second attribute of L, and so on. Break ties arbitrarily. τ is the only operator whose result is neither a set nor a bag. Example: Sorting Aggregation Operators 6 7 R = ( A B ) 5 2 τ B (R) = [(5,2), (1,2), (3,4)] Aggregation operators are not operators of relational algebra. Rather, they apply to entire columns of a table and produce a single result. The most important examples: SUM, AVG, COUNT, MIN, and MAX.

7 Example: Aggregation Grouping Operator 8 9 R = ( A B ) SUM(A) = 7 COUNT(A) = 3 MAX(B) = 4 AVG(B) = 3 R1 := γ L (R2). L is a list of elements that are either: 1. Individual (grouping ) attributes. 2. AGG(A ), where AGG is one of the aggregation operators and A is an attribute. An arrow and a new attribute name renames the component.

Databases 2011 The Relational Algebra

Databases 2011 The Relational Algebra Databases 2011 Christian S. Jensen Computer Science, Aarhus University What is an Algebra? An algebra consists of values operators rules Closure: operations yield values Examples integers with +,, sets