- MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTER EDUCATION
|
|
- Milo Bates
- 5 years ago
- Views:
Transcription
1 - MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTER EDUCATION DIOPHANTINE APPROXIMATION AND THE IRRATIONALITY OF CERTAIN NUMBERS Eric Joes ad Thomas J. Osler Mathematics Departmet Rowa Uiversity 201 Mullica Hill Road Glassboro, New Jersey INTRODUCTION I may early courses i aalysis we examie the cocept of irratioal umbers. Relatively easy proofs of irratioality are give for umbers such as 12,.j3, lfj, etc. The irratioality of the umber e is slightly more difficult to show, but ca be explaied to studets who have studied ifiite series. I the paper [2], this elemetary method is explaied i detail ad exteded to a iterestig list of familiar umbers. I this paper we itroduce aother method, kow as Diophatie approximatio that will demostrate the irratioality of certai umbers. Diophatie approximatio is surprisigly simple to explai, ad ca be itroduced to studets who have studied ifiite series. This would iclude good studets i calculus as well as real aalysis courses. It is also a appropriate topic for a course i umber theory. We radomly examied 20 popular real aalysis texts ad did ot fid oe that icluded this topic. '~. ''''''"... c.'"""' ~ '~1i.. :s; ;.~'.~ -.- ~. 1.. ";~'..... i.~, ~. i~;? m ". :~~ 2. DIOPHANTINE APPROXIMATION The subject of Diophatie Approximatio utilizes a ovel method of showig the ature of real umbers, i particular whether the umbers are ratioal, irratioal, trascedetal, or algebraic. Surprisigly, we will deteie whether a give umber, x, is irratioal by studyig a sequece of ratioal umbers P that approach x. (Throughout this paper, P will ~ ~ deote a ratioal umber where the umerator ad deomiator are itegers.) We require that the deomiators qmootoically approach ifiity. For example, cosider the sequece of ratioal umbers defied by P +l -=--, q for =1,2,3,.... Clearly this sequece approaches the umber! as approaches ifiity. It is sequeces of this type that will be used i the 125
2 - MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTER EDUCATION followig discussio to prove the irratioality of certai umbers. I geeral, it is ot difficult to see that for ay umber x, ad a give deomiator q' we ca fid the umerator P such that P I x-- ~--. q 2q Assume that our umber x =f is a ratioal umber such that r ad s are atural umbers. Let us also suppose that P;I:. ~. This yields q s _r _ p _Irq-spi s q sq The umerator is a positive iteger, thus the smallest value it ca be is oe. We have the 1 r p 1 -< --- < sq - S q - 2q We see that s is idepedet of the approximatig fractio ~. We have derived the followig importat theorem. Theorem 1: Give x > 0 a ratioal umber, we choose a sequece of ratioal approximatios to x. Each term ofthis sequece P ;I:. x, both P q ad q are itegers ad the q grow mootoically to ifiity. The there exists a positive costat c such that P c -<X--. q q (The positive costat c referred to i this theorem is the umber t from the previous aalysis.) We will ow use Theorem 1 to prove the irratioality of certai umbers, as usual, by cotradictio. Suppose we have a sequece of ratioals P that approach x ad we ca show that q where r ~ co as ~ co. Ifx is ratioal, by Theorem 1, we would have the existece of a positive costat c such that 126
3 .,.' a (j - MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTER EDUCATION C P 1 -<x-- <--. q q qr This meas that c < - 1. ThO IS IS o. ImpOSSI 'ble SIce the umber c is r idepedet of r ad the umbers r approach ifiity. Thus we coclude that x is irratioal. 3. THE IRRATIONALITY OF e We ow use Theorem 1 to prove that e is irratioal. Start by defiig e as the ifiite series e = "'CXJ_oJ...-. We choose for our approximatig L... -! sequece P = "'k _oj...-. It is importat to otice that our deomiator q L... - k! q =!o The we have. 1 Factog (+l)! ~ ICXJ e-q:= k=+] k! = (+l)! + (+2)! + (+3)! +... we get P 1 (1 1 J e-q:= (+l)! 1+ (+2) + (+2)(+3) +... Ufortuately we caot sum the series i parethesis. However, we ca replace it by a geometric series which is larger. For this series we ca use P 1 ( 1 1 J e-q: < (+l)! 1+ (+2) + (+2) Recall that the geometric series 1+ r + r 2 + r P 1 1 e - - <---I ,- q (+l)! 1-1 (+2) Simplify the right side ofthe iequality to get P +2 e--<. q!(+l)2 0 0 =_1_. Therefore l-r Assume x =e is ratioal. From Theorem 1 we kow there exists a positive 127
4 - MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTER EDUCATION- costat c, idepedet of P such that q C P +2 -< e-- ~----! q!(+l)2. ld +2 ThIS yle s C < 2 which is impossible sice + 2 ~ 0 as ~ 00 (+l) ( +1)2 Thus our assumptio is wrog ad e is irratioal. 4. ANALYSIS AND GENERALIZATION OF THE PROOF Now we will geeralize the previous proof of the irratioality ofe. I order to do this we will preset a geeral class of umbers defied by series which will allow us to repeat the previous steps. We defie a geeral umber x as the ifiite series, x =L oo a =O a subject to the followig restrictios: a. a =1 or-i b. a =11 ck where the ck are itegers k=o c. ck < ck+1 d. limk~oo ck =00 Step A. Just as before, we allow the approximatig sequece to be P = L:=o a. Notice that our deomiator q = a' q ak Step B. Subtract the approximatig sequece from x ad expad the remaiig series x _ P =L:=+1 a k = a a a q ak a+1 a+2 a+3 Step C. Factor the first term from the series. 128
5 - MA THEMATICS AND COMPUTER EDUCATION Step D. Fid a geometric series that is greater tha the previous series. Because the sequece of itegers c are mootoically icreasig, ad 8 == ±1, we have 1 x_ P <_1_( J. Step E. Sum the geometric series. q a+l c+2 (C +2) (C+2) x _ p < 1 [c+ 2 ]. q CIC2"' C C +l C+2-1 Step F. Assume that x is ratioal. The by Theorem 1 there exists a positive C such that C = C < x- P < 1 [C +2]. a clc 2", c q cl c2",cc+1 c +2-1 Step G. Fid a cotradictio to prove x is irratioal. This meas C <--1 [ --'-'-'~ c +2 ] c+1 C+2-1 which is impossible sice [ C +2 ] ~ 1 ad _1_ ~ 0 as ~ 00. c+2-1 c+l 5. FAMILIAR NUMBERS THAT ARE IRRATIONAL Here we list several values of familiar fuctios that the above method will show to be irratioal. Examples: All the followig umbers with M == 1, 2, 3,... are irratioal. e llm = ~ I =o!m ~ ' 00 (_1) sm(li M) == I 2 I' =o(2+1)!m + (1) cos(l! M) = I 00-2' =O (2)!M CL) 1 smh(ll M) =I 2 I' ad =O (2 + l)!m + CL) 1 cosh(ll M) =L 2. =O (2)!M 129
6 t Explaatio: We will ow show the umber e = I with =o!m M = 1,2,3,... meets the ecessary restrictios from sectio 4. Clearly 8 k =I ad restrictio a is met. We ca see aj = M, az = 2M 2, a3 =3!M 3, etc. Additioally, ci = M, c2 = 2M, c3 == 3M,..., ck =km. Thus, restrictios b, c, ad d are met. Thus ellm with M =1,2,3,... is prove to be irratioal. We leave the remaiig umbers to the reader to examme. 6. FINAL REMARKS A umber is said to be algebraic of degree d if it is the root of a polyomial equatio with iteger coefficiets ofdegree d, ad ot the root of ay polyomial equatio of lesser degree. If a umber is ot algebraic it is called trascedetal. While irratioal umbers were recogized as early as 600 BCE, the existece of trascedetal umbers was ot demostrated util the ieteeth cetury. A extesio of our Theorem I kow as Liouville's theorem ca be used to demostrate that certai umbers are trascedetal. Here the iequality i our theorem is replaced by c P I -< x-- :S;-. qd q 2q The trascedetal ature of certai umbers x is the proved by cotradictio i much the same way as we proved irratioality i this paper. Liouville's theorem is oly slightly more difficult to prove tha our Theorem I ad a clear explaatio ca be foud i [I, pp ]. - MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTER EDUCATIONllM REFERENCES 1. R. Courat, ad H. Robbis, What is Mathematics?, A Elemetary Approach to Ideas ad Methods (revised by Ia Stewart), Oxford Uiversity Press, Oxford, ISBN: (1996). 2. N. Stugard ad T. 1. Osler, "A collectio of umbers whose proof of irratioality is like that of the umber e", Mathematics ad Computer Eduatio, Vol. 40, pp , ISSN: (2006). 130
Infinite Sequences and Series
Chapter 6 Ifiite Sequeces ad Series 6.1 Ifiite Sequeces 6.1.1 Elemetary Cocepts Simply speakig, a sequece is a ordered list of umbers writte: {a 1, a 2, a 3,...a, a +1,...} where the elemets a i represet
More information6.3 Testing Series With Positive Terms
6.3. TESTING SERIES WITH POSITIVE TERMS 307 6.3 Testig Series With Positive Terms 6.3. Review of what is kow up to ow I theory, testig a series a i for covergece amouts to fidig the i= sequece of partial
More information1. Introduction. Notice that we have taken the terms of the harmonic series, and subtracted them from
06/5/00 EAANGING TEM O A HAMONIC-LIKE EIE Mathematics ad Computer Educatio, 35(00), pp 36-39 Thomas J Osler Mathematics Departmet owa Uiversity Glassboro, NJ 0808 osler@rowaedu Itroductio The commutative
More information(A sequence also can be thought of as the list of function values attained for a function f :ℵ X, where f (n) = x n for n 1.) x 1 x N +k x N +4 x 3
MATH 337 Sequeces Dr. Neal, WKU Let X be a metric space with distace fuctio d. We shall defie the geeral cocept of sequece ad limit i a metric space, the apply the results i particular to some special
More informationStochastic Matrices in a Finite Field
Stochastic Matrices i a Fiite Field Abstract: I this project we will explore the properties of stochastic matrices i both the real ad the fiite fields. We first explore what properties 2 2 stochastic matrices
More informationSection 11.8: Power Series
Sectio 11.8: Power Series 1. Power Series I this sectio, we cosider geeralizig the cocept of a series. Recall that a series is a ifiite sum of umbers a. We ca talk about whether or ot it coverges ad i
More informationIt is often useful to approximate complicated functions using simpler ones. We consider the task of approximating a function by a polynomial.
Taylor Polyomials ad Taylor Series It is ofte useful to approximate complicated fuctios usig simpler oes We cosider the task of approximatig a fuctio by a polyomial If f is at least -times differetiable
More informationIf a subset E of R contains no open interval, is it of zero measure? For instance, is the set of irrationals in [0, 1] is of measure zero?
2 Lebesgue Measure I Chapter 1 we defied the cocept of a set of measure zero, ad we have observed that every coutable set is of measure zero. Here are some atural questios: If a subset E of R cotais a
More informationMA541 : Real Analysis. Tutorial and Practice Problems - 1 Hints and Solutions
MA54 : Real Aalysis Tutorial ad Practice Problems - Hits ad Solutios. Suppose that S is a oempty subset of real umbers that is bouded (i.e. bouded above as well as below). Prove that if S sup S. What ca
More information62. Power series Definition 16. (Power series) Given a sequence {c n }, the series. c n x n = c 0 + c 1 x + c 2 x 2 + c 3 x 3 +
62. Power series Defiitio 16. (Power series) Give a sequece {c }, the series c x = c 0 + c 1 x + c 2 x 2 + c 3 x 3 + is called a power series i the variable x. The umbers c are called the coefficiets of
More informationConvergence of random variables. (telegram style notes) P.J.C. Spreij
Covergece of radom variables (telegram style otes).j.c. Spreij this versio: September 6, 2005 Itroductio As we kow, radom variables are by defiitio measurable fuctios o some uderlyig measurable space
More informationSection 5.5. Infinite Series: The Ratio Test
Differece Equatios to Differetial Equatios Sectio 5.5 Ifiite Series: The Ratio Test I the last sectio we saw that we could demostrate the covergece of a series a, where a 0 for all, by showig that a approaches
More information3 Gauss map and continued fractions
ICTP, Trieste, July 08 Gauss map ad cotiued fractios I this lecture we will itroduce the Gauss map, which is very importat for its coectio with cotiued fractios i umber theory. The Gauss map G : [0, ]
More informationMAT1026 Calculus II Basic Convergence Tests for Series
MAT026 Calculus II Basic Covergece Tests for Series Egi MERMUT 202.03.08 Dokuz Eylül Uiversity Faculty of Sciece Departmet of Mathematics İzmir/TURKEY Cotets Mootoe Covergece Theorem 2 2 Series of Real
More information10.6 ALTERNATING SERIES
0.6 Alteratig Series Cotemporary Calculus 0.6 ALTERNATING SERIES I the last two sectios we cosidered tests for the covergece of series whose terms were all positive. I this sectio we examie series whose
More informationMAT 271 Project: Partial Fractions for certain rational functions
MAT 7 Project: Partial Fractios for certai ratioal fuctios Prerequisite kowledge: partial fractios from MAT 7, a very good commad of factorig ad complex umbers from Precalculus. To complete this project,
More informationMa 530 Infinite Series I
Ma 50 Ifiite Series I Please ote that i additio to the material below this lecture icorporated material from the Visual Calculus web site. The material o sequeces is at Visual Sequeces. (To use this li
More informationIRRATIONALITY MEASURES, IRRATIONALITY BASES, AND A THEOREM OF JARNÍK 1. INTRODUCTION
IRRATIONALITY MEASURES IRRATIONALITY BASES AND A THEOREM OF JARNÍK JONATHAN SONDOW ABSTRACT. We recall that the irratioality expoet µα ( ) of a irratioal umber α is defied usig the irratioality measure
More informationCarleton College, Winter 2017 Math 121, Practice Final Prof. Jones. Note: the exam will have a section of true-false questions, like the one below.
Carleto College, Witer 207 Math 2, Practice Fial Prof. Joes Note: the exam will have a sectio of true-false questios, like the oe below.. True or False. Briefly explai your aswer. A icorrectly justified
More informationSeries: Infinite Sums
Series: Ifiite Sums Series are a way to mae sese of certai types of ifiitely log sums. We will eed to be able to do this if we are to attai our goal of approximatig trascedetal fuctios by usig ifiite degree
More informationLesson 10: Limits and Continuity
www.scimsacademy.com Lesso 10: Limits ad Cotiuity SCIMS Academy 1 Limit of a fuctio The cocept of limit of a fuctio is cetral to all other cocepts i calculus (like cotiuity, derivative, defiite itegrals
More informationAdvanced Analysis. Min Yan Department of Mathematics Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
Advaced Aalysis Mi Ya Departmet of Mathematics Hog Kog Uiversity of Sciece ad Techology September 3, 009 Cotets Limit ad Cotiuity 7 Limit of Sequece 8 Defiitio 8 Property 3 3 Ifiity ad Ifiitesimal 8 4
More informationpage Suppose that S 0, 1 1, 2.
page 10 1. Suppose that S 0, 1 1,. a. What is the set of iterior poits of S? The set of iterior poits of S is 0, 1 1,. b. Give that U is the set of iterior poits of S, evaluate U. 0, 1 1, 0, 1 1, S. The
More informationCurve Sketching Handout #5 Topic Interpretation Rational Functions
Curve Sketchig Hadout #5 Topic Iterpretatio Ratioal Fuctios A ratioal fuctio is a fuctio f that is a quotiet of two polyomials. I other words, p ( ) ( ) f is a ratioal fuctio if p ( ) ad q ( ) are polyomials
More informationAP Calculus Chapter 9: Infinite Series
AP Calculus Chapter 9: Ifiite Series 9. Sequeces a, a 2, a 3, a 4, a 5,... Sequece: A fuctio whose domai is the set of positive itegers = 2 3 4 a = a a 2 a 3 a 4 terms of the sequece Begi with the patter
More information4x 2. (n+1) x 3 n+1. = lim. 4x 2 n+1 n3 n. n 4x 2 = lim = 3
Exam Problems (x. Give the series (, fid the values of x for which this power series coverges. Also =0 state clearly what the radius of covergece is. We start by settig up the Ratio Test: x ( x x ( x x
More informationThe natural exponential function
The atural expoetial fuctio Attila Máté Brookly College of the City Uiversity of New York December, 205 Cotets The atural expoetial fuctio for real x. Beroulli s iequality.....................................2
More information7 Sequences of real numbers
40 7 Sequeces of real umbers 7. Defiitios ad examples Defiitio 7... A sequece of real umbers is a real fuctio whose domai is the set N of atural umbers. Let s : N R be a sequece. The the values of s are
More informationChapter 9 - CD companion 1. A Generic Implementation; The Common-Merge Amplifier. 1 τ is. ω ch. τ io
Chapter 9 - CD compaio CHAPTER NINE CD-9.2 CD-9.2. Stages With Voltage ad Curret Gai A Geeric Implemetatio; The Commo-Merge Amplifier The advaced method preseted i the text for approximatig cutoff frequecies
More informationA detailed proof of the irrationality of π
Matthew Straugh Math 4 Midterm A detailed proof of the irratioality of The proof is due to Iva Nive (1947) ad essetial to the proof are Lemmas ad 3 due to Charles Hermite (18 s) First let us itroduce some
More informationINFINITE SEQUENCES AND SERIES
11 INFINITE SEQUENCES AND SERIES INFINITE SEQUENCES AND SERIES 11.4 The Compariso Tests I this sectio, we will lear: How to fid the value of a series by comparig it with a kow series. COMPARISON TESTS
More informationMA131 - Analysis 1. Workbook 2 Sequences I
MA3 - Aalysis Workbook 2 Sequeces I Autum 203 Cotets 2 Sequeces I 2. Itroductio.............................. 2.2 Icreasig ad Decreasig Sequeces................ 2 2.3 Bouded Sequeces..........................
More informationChapter 6 Overview: Sequences and Numerical Series. For the purposes of AP, this topic is broken into four basic subtopics:
Chapter 6 Overview: Sequeces ad Numerical Series I most texts, the topic of sequeces ad series appears, at first, to be a side topic. There are almost o derivatives or itegrals (which is what most studets
More informationThomas J. Osler Mathematics Department Rowan University Glassboro, NJ Introduction
Ja 4, 007 USING THEON S LADDER TO FIND ROOTS OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS Thomas J. Osler Mathematics Departmet Rowa Uiversit Glassboro, NJ 0808 Osler@rowa.edu. Itroductio Theo of Smra (circa 40 A. D.) described
More information... and realizing that as n goes to infinity the two integrals should be equal. This yields the Wallis result-
INFINITE PRODUTS Oe defies a ifiite product as- F F F... F x [ F ] Takig the atural logarithm of each side oe has- l[ F x] l F l F l F l F... So that the iitial ifiite product will coverge oly if the sum
More informationCreated by T. Madas SERIES. Created by T. Madas
SERIES SUMMATIONS BY STANDARD RESULTS Questio (**) Use stadard results o summatios to fid the value of 48 ( r )( 3r ). 36 FP-B, 66638 Questio (**+) Fid, i fully simplified factorized form, a expressio
More informationChapter 6 Infinite Series
Chapter 6 Ifiite Series I the previous chapter we cosidered itegrals which were improper i the sese that the iterval of itegratio was ubouded. I this chapter we are goig to discuss a topic which is somewhat
More informationChapter 7: Numerical Series
Chapter 7: Numerical Series Chapter 7 Overview: Sequeces ad Numerical Series I most texts, the topic of sequeces ad series appears, at first, to be a side topic. There are almost o derivatives or itegrals
More informationSequences I. Chapter Introduction
Chapter 2 Sequeces I 2. Itroductio A sequece is a list of umbers i a defiite order so that we kow which umber is i the first place, which umber is i the secod place ad, for ay atural umber, we kow which
More informationShort and fuzzy derivations of five remarkable formulas for primes
SHORT AND FUZZY DERIVATIONS Short ad fuzzy derivatios of five remarkable formulas for primes THOMAS J. OSLER. Itroductio The prime umbers have fasciated us for over 600 years. Their mysterious behaviour
More informationContinued Fractions and Pell s Equation
Max Lah Joatha Spiegel May, 06 Abstract Cotiued fractios provide a useful, ad arguably more atural, way to uderstad ad represet real umbers as a alterative to decimal expasios I this paper, we eumerate
More informationCSE 1400 Applied Discrete Mathematics Number Theory and Proofs
CSE 1400 Applied Discrete Mathematics Number Theory ad Proofs Departmet of Computer Scieces College of Egieerig Florida Tech Sprig 01 Problems for Number Theory Backgroud Number theory is the brach of
More informationMa 530 Introduction to Power Series
Ma 530 Itroductio to Power Series Please ote that there is material o power series at Visual Calculus. Some of this material was used as part of the presetatio of the topics that follow. What is a Power
More informationMATH 324 Summer 2006 Elementary Number Theory Solutions to Assignment 2 Due: Thursday July 27, 2006
MATH 34 Summer 006 Elemetary Number Theory Solutios to Assigmet Due: Thursday July 7, 006 Departmet of Mathematical ad Statistical Scieces Uiversity of Alberta Questio [p 74 #6] Show that o iteger of the
More informationENGI Series Page 6-01
ENGI 3425 6 Series Page 6-01 6. Series Cotets: 6.01 Sequeces; geeral term, limits, covergece 6.02 Series; summatio otatio, covergece, divergece test 6.03 Stadard Series; telescopig series, geometric series,
More informationRead carefully the instructions on the answer book and make sure that the particulars required are entered on each answer book.
THE UNIVERSITY OF WARWICK FIRST YEAR EXAMINATION: Jauary 2009 Aalysis I Time Allowed:.5 hours Read carefully the istructios o the aswer book ad make sure that the particulars required are etered o each
More informationLecture 10: Mathematical Preliminaries
Lecture : Mathematical Prelimiaries Obective: Reviewig mathematical cocepts ad tools that are frequetly used i the aalysis of algorithms. Lecture # Slide # I this
More informationSome sufficient conditions of a given. series with rational terms converging to an irrational number or a transcdental number
Some sufficiet coditios of a give arxiv:0807.376v2 [math.nt] 8 Jul 2008 series with ratioal terms covergig to a irratioal umber or a trascdetal umber Yu Gao,Jiig Gao Shaghai Putuo college, Shaghai Jiaotog
More informationSolutions to Tutorial 3 (Week 4)
The Uiversity of Sydey School of Mathematics ad Statistics Solutios to Tutorial Week 4 MATH2962: Real ad Complex Aalysis Advaced Semester 1, 2017 Web Page: http://www.maths.usyd.edu.au/u/ug/im/math2962/
More informationMath 299 Supplement: Real Analysis Nov 2013
Math 299 Supplemet: Real Aalysis Nov 203 Algebra Axioms. I Real Aalysis, we work withi the axiomatic system of real umbers: the set R alog with the additio ad multiplicatio operatios +,, ad the iequality
More informationClassroom. We investigate and further explore the problem of dividing x = n + m (m, n are coprime) sheep in
Classroom I this sectio of Resoace, we ivite readers to pose questios likely to be raised i a classroom situatio. We may suggest strategies for dealig with them, or ivite resposes, or both. Classroom is
More informationMA131 - Analysis 1. Workbook 9 Series III
MA3 - Aalysis Workbook 9 Series III Autum 004 Cotets 4.4 Series with Positive ad Negative Terms.............. 4.5 Alteratig Series.......................... 4.6 Geeral Series.............................
More informationMath 113 Exam 3 Practice
Math Exam Practice Exam will cover.-.9. This sheet has three sectios. The first sectio will remid you about techiques ad formulas that you should kow. The secod gives a umber of practice questios for you
More informationChapter 6: Numerical Series
Chapter 6: Numerical Series 327 Chapter 6 Overview: Sequeces ad Numerical Series I most texts, the topic of sequeces ad series appears, at first, to be a side topic. There are almost o derivatives or itegrals
More informationSequences and Series
Sequeces ad Series Sequeces of real umbers. Real umber system We are familiar with atural umbers ad to some extet the ratioal umbers. While fidig roots of algebraic equatios we see that ratioal umbers
More informationPhysics 116A Solutions to Homework Set #1 Winter Boas, problem Use equation 1.8 to find a fraction describing
Physics 6A Solutios to Homework Set # Witer 0. Boas, problem. 8 Use equatio.8 to fid a fractio describig 0.694444444... Start with the formula S = a, ad otice that we ca remove ay umber of r fiite decimals
More informationZeros of Polynomials
Math 160 www.timetodare.com 4.5 4.6 Zeros of Polyomials I these sectios we will study polyomials algebraically. Most of our work will be cocered with fidig the solutios of polyomial equatios of ay degree
More informationPROPERTIES OF THE POSITIVE INTEGERS
PROPERTIES OF THE POSITIVE ITEGERS The first itroductio to mathematics occurs at the pre-school level ad cosists of essetially coutig out the first te itegers with oe s figers. This allows the idividuals
More informationAxioms of Measure Theory
MATH 532 Axioms of Measure Theory Dr. Neal, WKU I. The Space Throughout the course, we shall let X deote a geeric o-empty set. I geeral, we shall ot assume that ay algebraic structure exists o X so that
More informationSequences. Notation. Convergence of a Sequence
Sequeces A sequece is essetially just a list. Defiitio (Sequece of Real Numbers). A sequece of real umbers is a fuctio Z (, ) R for some real umber. Do t let the descriptio of the domai cofuse you; it
More informationn=1 a n is the sequence (s n ) n 1 n=1 a n converges to s. We write a n = s, n=1 n=1 a n
Series. Defiitios ad first properties A series is a ifiite sum a + a + a +..., deoted i short by a. The sequece of partial sums of the series a is the sequece s ) defied by s = a k = a +... + a,. k= Defiitio
More informationAssignment 5: Solutions
McGill Uiversity Departmet of Mathematics ad Statistics MATH 54 Aalysis, Fall 05 Assigmet 5: Solutios. Let y be a ubouded sequece of positive umbers satisfyig y + > y for all N. Let x be aother sequece
More informationTEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE
COMPETENCY 1. ALGEBRA SKILL 1.1 1.1a. ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES Kow why the real ad complex umbers are each a field, ad that particular rigs are ot fields (e.g., itegers, polyomial rigs, matrix rigs) Algebra
More informationThe Riemann Zeta Function
Physics 6A Witer 6 The Riema Zeta Fuctio I this ote, I will sketch some of the mai properties of the Riema zeta fuctio, ζ(x). For x >, we defie ζ(x) =, x >. () x = For x, this sum diverges. However, we
More informationand each factor on the right is clearly greater than 1. which is a contradiction, so n must be prime.
MATH 324 Summer 200 Elemetary Number Theory Solutios to Assigmet 2 Due: Wedesday July 2, 200 Questio [p 74 #6] Show that o iteger of the form 3 + is a prime, other tha 2 = 3 + Solutio: If 3 + is a prime,
More informationChapter 10: Power Series
Chapter : Power Series 57 Chapter Overview: Power Series The reaso series are part of a Calculus course is that there are fuctios which caot be itegrated. All power series, though, ca be itegrated because
More informationMath 104: Homework 2 solutions
Math 04: Homework solutios. A (0, ): Sice this is a ope iterval, the miimum is udefied, ad sice the set is ot bouded above, the maximum is also udefied. if A 0 ad sup A. B { m + : m, N}: This set does
More informationA sequence of numbers is a function whose domain is the positive integers. We can see that the sequence
Sequeces A sequece of umbers is a fuctio whose domai is the positive itegers. We ca see that the sequece,, 2, 2, 3, 3,... is a fuctio from the positive itegers whe we write the first sequece elemet as
More informationCOMM 602: Digital Signal Processing
COMM 60: Digital Sigal Processig Lecture 4 -Properties of LTIS Usig Z-Trasform -Iverse Z-Trasform Properties of LTIS Usig Z-Trasform Properties of LTIS Usig Z-Trasform -ve +ve Properties of LTIS Usig Z-Trasform
More informationMath 140A Elementary Analysis Homework Questions 1
Math 14A Elemetary Aalysis Homewor Questios 1 1 Itroductio 1.1 The Set N of Natural Numbers 1 Prove that 1 2 2 2 2 1 ( 1(2 1 for all atural umbers. 2 Prove that 3 11 (8 5 4 2 for all N. 4 (a Guess a formula
More informationPROBLEM SET 5 SOLUTIONS 126 = , 37 = , 15 = , 7 = 7 1.
Math 7 Sprig 06 PROBLEM SET 5 SOLUTIONS Notatios. Give a real umber x, we will defie sequeces (a k ), (x k ), (p k ), (q k ) as i lecture.. (a) (5 pts) Fid the simple cotiued fractio represetatios of 6
More informationThe value of Banach limits on a certain sequence of all rational numbers in the interval (0,1) Bao Qi Feng
The value of Baach limits o a certai sequece of all ratioal umbers i the iterval 0, Bao Qi Feg Departmet of Mathematical Scieces, Ket State Uiversity, Tuscarawas, 330 Uiversity Dr. NE, New Philadelphia,
More informationSection 1.1. Calculus: Areas And Tangents. Difference Equations to Differential Equations
Differece Equatios to Differetial Equatios Sectio. Calculus: Areas Ad Tagets The study of calculus begis with questios about chage. What happes to the velocity of a swigig pedulum as its positio chages?
More informationSeunghee Ye Ma 8: Week 5 Oct 28
Week 5 Summary I Sectio, we go over the Mea Value Theorem ad its applicatios. I Sectio 2, we will recap what we have covered so far this term. Topics Page Mea Value Theorem. Applicatios of the Mea Value
More informationMath 140A Elementary Analysis Homework Questions 3-1
Math 0A Elemetary Aalysis Homework Questios -.9 Limits Theorems for Sequeces Suppose that lim x =, lim y = 7 ad that all y are o-zero. Detarime the followig limits: (a) lim(x + y ) (b) lim y x y Let s
More informationThe z-transform. 7.1 Introduction. 7.2 The z-transform Derivation of the z-transform: x[n] = z n LTI system, h[n] z = re j
The -Trasform 7. Itroductio Geeralie the complex siusoidal represetatio offered by DTFT to a represetatio of complex expoetial sigals. Obtai more geeral characteristics for discrete-time LTI systems. 7.
More informationDefinition 4.2. (a) A sequence {x n } in a Banach space X is a basis for X if. unique scalars a n (x) such that x = n. a n (x) x n. (4.
4. BASES I BAACH SPACES 39 4. BASES I BAACH SPACES Sice a Baach space X is a vector space, it must possess a Hamel, or vector space, basis, i.e., a subset {x γ } γ Γ whose fiite liear spa is all of X ad
More informationMath 220A Fall 2007 Homework #2. Will Garner A
Math 0A Fall 007 Homewor # Will Garer Pg 3 #: Show that {cis : a o-egative iteger} is dese i T = {z œ : z = }. For which values of q is {cis(q): a o-egative iteger} dese i T? To show that {cis : a o-egative
More informationON RUEHR S IDENTITIES
ON RUEHR S IDENTITIES HORST ALZER AND HELMUT PRODINGER Abstract We apply completely elemetary tools to achieve recursio formulas for four polyomials with biomial coefficiets I particular, we obtai simple
More information1 Generating functions for balls in boxes
Math 566 Fall 05 Some otes o geeratig fuctios Give a sequece a 0, a, a,..., a,..., a geeratig fuctio some way of represetig the sequece as a fuctio. There are may ways to do this, with the most commo ways
More information5 Sequences and Series
Bria E. Veitch 5 Sequeces ad Series 5. Sequeces A sequece is a list of umbers i a defiite order. a is the first term a 2 is the secod term a is the -th term The sequece {a, a 2, a 3,..., a,..., } is a
More informationMetric Space Properties
Metric Space Properties Math 40 Fial Project Preseted by: Michael Brow, Alex Cordova, ad Alyssa Sachez We have already poited out ad will recogize throughout this book the importace of compact sets. All
More informationPolynomials with Rational Roots that Differ by a Non-zero Constant. Generalities
Polyomials with Ratioal Roots that Differ by a No-zero Costat Philip Gibbs The problem of fidig two polyomials P(x) ad Q(x) of a give degree i a sigle variable x that have all ratioal roots ad differ by
More information11. FINITE FIELDS. Example 1: The following tables define addition and multiplication for a field of order 4.
11. FINITE FIELDS 11.1. A Field With 4 Elemets Probably the oly fiite fields which you ll kow about at this stage are the fields of itegers modulo a prime p, deoted by Z p. But there are others. Now although
More informationChapter 3. Strong convergence. 3.1 Definition of almost sure convergence
Chapter 3 Strog covergece As poited out i the Chapter 2, there are multiple ways to defie the otio of covergece of a sequece of radom variables. That chapter defied covergece i probability, covergece i
More information1. By using truth tables prove that, for all statements P and Q, the statement
Author: Satiago Salazar Problems I: Mathematical Statemets ad Proofs. By usig truth tables prove that, for all statemets P ad Q, the statemet P Q ad its cotrapositive ot Q (ot P) are equivalet. I example.2.3
More information3. Z Transform. Recall that the Fourier transform (FT) of a DT signal xn [ ] is ( ) [ ] = In order for the FT to exist in the finite magnitude sense,
3. Z Trasform Referece: Etire Chapter 3 of text. Recall that the Fourier trasform (FT) of a DT sigal x [ ] is ω ( ) [ ] X e = j jω k = xe I order for the FT to exist i the fiite magitude sese, S = x [
More informationSequences A sequence of numbers is a function whose domain is the positive integers. We can see that the sequence
Sequeces A sequece of umbers is a fuctio whose domai is the positive itegers. We ca see that the sequece 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3,... is a fuctio from the positive itegers whe we write the first sequece elemet
More informationNEW FAST CONVERGENT SEQUENCES OF EULER-MASCHERONI TYPE
UPB Sci Bull, Series A, Vol 79, Iss, 207 ISSN 22-7027 NEW FAST CONVERGENT SEQUENCES OF EULER-MASCHERONI TYPE Gabriel Bercu We itroduce two ew sequeces of Euler-Mascheroi type which have fast covergece
More informationPower Series Expansions of Binomials
Power Series Expasios of Biomials S F Ellermeyer April 0, 008 We are familiar with expadig biomials such as the followig: ( + x) = + x + x ( + x) = + x + x + x ( + x) 4 = + 4x + 6x + 4x + x 4 ( + x) 5
More informationAn introduction to the Smarandache Double factorial function
A itroductio to the Smaradache Double factorial fuctio Felice Russo Via A. Iifate 7 67051 Avezzao (Aq) Italy I [1], [2] ad [3] the Smaradache Double factorial fuctio is defied as: Sdf() is the smallest
More informationWHAT ARE THE BERNOULLI NUMBERS? 1. Introduction
WHAT ARE THE BERNOULLI NUMBERS? C. D. BUENGER Abstract. For the "What is?" semiar today we will be ivestigatig the Beroulli umbers. This surprisig sequece of umbers has may applicatios icludig summig powers
More informationsin(n) + 2 cos(2n) n 3/2 3 sin(n) 2cos(2n) n 3/2 a n =
60. Ratio ad root tests 60.1. Absolutely coverget series. Defiitio 13. (Absolute covergece) A series a is called absolutely coverget if the series of absolute values a is coverget. The absolute covergece
More informationMath 2784 (or 2794W) University of Connecticut
ORDERS OF GROWTH PAT SMITH Math 2784 (or 2794W) Uiversity of Coecticut Date: Mar. 2, 22. ORDERS OF GROWTH. Itroductio Gaiig a ituitive feel for the relative growth of fuctios is importat if you really
More informationArkansas Tech University MATH 2924: Calculus II Dr. Marcel B. Finan
Arkasas Tech Uiversity MATH 94: Calculus II Dr Marcel B Fia 85 Power Series Let {a } =0 be a sequece of umbers The a power series about x = a is a series of the form a (x a) = a 0 + a (x a) + a (x a) +
More informationSeptember 2012 C1 Note. C1 Notes (Edexcel) Copyright - For AS, A2 notes and IGCSE / GCSE worksheets 1
September 0 s (Edecel) Copyright www.pgmaths.co.uk - For AS, A otes ad IGCSE / GCSE worksheets September 0 Copyright www.pgmaths.co.uk - For AS, A otes ad IGCSE / GCSE worksheets September 0 Copyright
More informationE. Incorrect! Plug n = 1, 2, 3, & 4 into the general term formula. n =, then the first four terms are found by
Calculus II - Problem Solvig Drill 8: Sequeces, Series, ad Covergece Questio No. of 0. Fid the first four terms of the sequece whose geeral term is give by a ( ) : Questio #0 (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) 8,,, 4
More informationOn a Smarandache problem concerning the prime gaps
O a Smaradache problem cocerig the prime gaps Felice Russo Via A. Ifate 7 6705 Avezzao (Aq) Italy felice.russo@katamail.com Abstract I this paper, a problem posed i [] by Smaradache cocerig the prime gaps
More informationMA Lesson 26 Notes Graphs of Rational Functions (Asymptotes) Limits at infinity
MA 1910 Lesso 6 Notes Graphs of Ratioal Fuctios (Asymptotes) Limits at ifiity Defiitio of a Ratioal Fuctio: If P() ad Q() are both polyomial fuctios, Q() 0, the the fuctio f below is called a Ratioal Fuctio.
More informationSeries III. Chapter Alternating Series
Chapter 9 Series III With the exceptio of the Null Sequece Test, all the tests for series covergece ad divergece that we have cosidered so far have dealt oly with series of oegative terms. Series with
More information