Quantum Physics Lecture 4

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Camron Logan
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1 Quantum Physics Lecture 4 The Uncertainty Principle - continued Thought-experiments - microscope, single slit and 2-slit diffraction Some applications - propagation of wave group, minimum confinement energy Alternative E-t form Thermal Properties Specific Heat of solids - Classical model, failure at low temperature, Einstein model Black Body radiation (introduction)

2 Uncertainty and Error? Uncertainty looks like some sort of experimental error - It is not! - Measurement of one of x or p alters the value of the other. Experimental error can be arbitrarily reduced by better experiment. But uncertainty is a fundamental limit, and property of the wave nature of matter! Note central role of Planck s constant h Commonly use h-bar or h/2π = x J s ΔxΔp 2 (later) will see that is basic unit of angular momentum! Uncertainty in wave experiments? - Microscope and Diffraction

3 Thought-Experiment (microscope) Use optical microscope to find particle (e.g. electron) position. see the electron by scattering a photon into the lens....anywhere within the lens angle 2α. Photon momentum (p=h/λ) change causes recoil of electron! Along horizontal, change ranges from -psinα to +psinα i.e. range in photon momentum Δp = 2psinα = 2(h/λ)sinα.which becomes the uncertainty in particle momentum

4 Thought-Experiment (microscope) Uncertainty in particle position associated with diffraction limit : minimum separation of points is Δx = λ/sinα Δx.Δp = (λ/sinα)(2(h/λ)sinα) = 2h Δx.Δp 2 How could we improve microscope? by decreasing λ: decreasing Δx but increasing Δp? by decreasing α, decreasing Δp but increasing Δx? Quantum concept of photon is intrinsic: Classically, could decrease Δx without increasing Δp (lower intensity and wait?)

5 Thought-Experiment (single-slit) Remove complication of photon and electron by single-slit diffraction (of either) Slit width (s) is the uncertainty in position: Δx = s s θ λ At 1st diffraction minimum: s sinθ = λ Therefore, Δx = s = λ/sinθ = h/psinθ

6 Thought-Experiment (single-slit) Electron (or photon) arriving within central maximum must be deflected through angle range 0 to θ : this means uncertainty in tranverse momentum : p Δp If momentum is p, then, Δp = psinθ θ Δx.Δp = (h/psinθ)(psinθ) = h showing that Δx.Δp 2 Equivalent analysis of Young s (Two) Slits using 1st maximum, Where slit separation is the uncertainty in position (exercise) Q: which slit does the particle (or photon) go through?!!

$Two-slit experiment Observe: - Close one slit (i.e. the particle must go through the other) lose the 2-slit diffraction pattern!$

7 Two-slit experiment Observe: - Close one slit (i.e. the particle must go through the other) lose the 2-slit diffraction pattern! - Single particle causes single point of scintillation pattern results from addition of many particles! - Pattern gives probability of any single particle location G.I.Taylor Low intensity beam

8 Two slit experiment - summary (1) Both slits required to give pattern, even for single particle (2) Single particle arrives at single point. i.e. explores all regions available (see 1), but occupies only one point when actually measured (3) Arrival of individual particle conforms to statistical pattern of diffraction (complementarity). (4) Average over many particles gives standard diffraction pattern. (complementarity) Key features of quantum mechanics!

9 Practical applications of UP: propagation of a wave group? Establish particle position to an uncertainty Δx o at time zero: what is uncertainty Δx t at later time t? Δp 2Δx 0 UP implies and p = mv Δv = Δp m 2mΔx 0 So uncertainty in velocity implies uncertainty in position at time t Δx t = Δv.t t 2mΔx o Δx t t: uncertainty in position increases with time (dispersion) Δx t 1/Δx o : more you know now, less you know later

10 Application of UP : minimum energy of confinement Rough estimate KE of electron in hydrogen atom (in full, later lecture) Δx ~ radius of H atom = 5.3 x m Δp h/4πδx = 1 x kg m s -1 Treat electron as non-relativistic, KE = p 2 /2m o where p ~ Δp at least: KE Δp2 2m o = ( 1x10 24 ) 2 2 ( ) = 5.4x10 19 J = 3.4 ev ( ) 9.1x10 31 (see later lecture: KE=13.6 ev so correct order of magnitude)

11 Alternative form of UP: Δx.Δp h/4π related to spatial extent needed to measure λ What about the temporal extent needed to measure ω (or f)? - at least one period? Estimate: Δf.Δt 1 E=hf ΔE=hΔf So ΔEΔt h (correct maths gives) ΔEΔt 2 Eg. ΔE is the spectral width of optical emission lines, where Δt is lifetime of transition (see atomic transitions, later)

12 Specific heat C v of solids Solid is N atoms coupled, each having 3 degrees of freedom Classically Energy = k b T per oscillator (equipartition principle k b T/2 per deg of freedom, oscillator has 2, PE & KE) Total energy U = 3Nk b T (N is number of atoms, k b Boltzmann const) Now C v = du/dt So C v = 3Nk b (or 3R/mole, Dulong & Petit) i.e. a constant, independent of temperature T Experimental observation: OK at high T BUT C v falls (towards zero) at low temperatures 3Nk b Why is classical result wrong?

13 Specific heat of solids (cont.) Planck - Assumed energy of oscillators is quantised! E = n ω where n is a positive integer Probability of an energy E is Mean (expectation) energy is So total Energy U is 3N E = ( ) = e E / k b T = e n ω / k b T P E 3N n n n ωe n ω / k b T e n ω / k b T i.e. Quantum term on R.H.S. freezes out energy exchange at low temperature. Happens because the finite gap between states, ω becomes greater than k b T Similar quenching effect for molecule modes E = n = 3Nk b T ω / k bt e ω / k b T 1 n E P( E) P( E) C V = U T V ω = Nk b k b T 2 e ω / k b T e ω / k b ( T 1) 2 Einstein formula for specific heat

Blackbody Radiation At finite temperature matter glows i.e. emits radiation with a continuous spectrum.

) Blackbody = ideal 100% emitter/absorber in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings.

Measure: spectrum energy density u(ω) Observe that increasing temperature (1) increases u overall

14 Blackbody Radiation At finite temperature matter glows i.e. emits radiation with a continuous spectrum. e.g Infrared imaging of people, planet etc. Surface dependent (emissivity, silvery, black, etc.) Blackbody = ideal 100% emitter/absorber in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings. Practical realisation is a thermal cavity. Measure: spectrum energy density u(ω) Observe that increasing temperature (1) increases u overall (2) shifts peak emission to higher frequencies i.e. colour and intensity of hot objects vary with T Examples Bar fire, molten iron, stars, universe µwave background..

Quantum Physics Lecture 6

Quantum Physics Lecture 6 Thermal Phenomena Specific Heats - Classical model, failure at low temperature - Einstein model Black Body radiation - Classical model, UV catastrophe - Planck model - Wien &