LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses

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1 Louisiana State University LSU Digital Commons LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses Graduate School 1986 The Content of Implicit Leadership Theories: an Investigation of Achievement Orientation, Task Orientation, and Relationships Orientation Under Varied Task Difficulty and Achievement Conditions. Joseph King Kavanaugh Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College Follow this and additional works at: Recommended Citation Kavanaugh, Joseph King, "The Content of Implicit Leadership Theories: an Investigation of Achievement Orientation, Task Orientation, and Relationships Orientation Under Varied Task Difficulty and Achievement Conditions." (1986). LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at LSU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses by an authorized administrator of LSU Digital Commons. For more information, please contact

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3 K avanaugh, J o s e p h King THE CONTENT OF IMPLICIT LEADERSHIP THEORIES: AN INVESTIGATION OF ACHIEVEMENT ORIENTATION, TASK ORIENTATION, AND RELATIONSHIPS ORIENTATION UNDER VARIED TASK DIFFICULTY AND ACHIEVEMENT CONDITIONS The Louisiana S tale University and Agricultural and M echanical Col. Ph.D University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106

4 PLEASE NOTE: tn all cases this material has been filmed in the best possible way from the available copy. Problems encountered with this docum ent have been identified herewith a check mark Glossy photographs or p a g e s 2. Colored illustrations, paper or prin t 3. Photographsw ithdark backgrou n d 4. Illustrations are poor copy 5. Pages with black marks, not original copy t/ 6. Print shows through as there is text on both sides of p a g e 7. Indistinct, broken or small print on several pages - 8. Print exceeds m argin requirem ents 9. Tightly bound copy with print lost in spine 10. Computer printout pages with indistinct print 11. Page(s) lacking when material received, and not available from school or author. 12. Page(s) seem to be missing in numbering only as text follows. 13. Two pages num bered. Text follows. 14. Curling and wrinkled pages is" 15. Dissertation contains pages with print at a slant, filmed a s received _ 16. Other University Microfilms International

5 THE CONTENT OF IMPLICIT LEADERSHIP THEORIES: AN INVESTIGATION OF ACHIEVEMENT ORIENTATION, TASK ORIENTATION, AND RELATIONSHIPS ORIENTATION UNDER VARIED TASK DIFFICULTY AND ACHIEVEMENT CONDITIONS A Dissertation Subm itted to the G raduate F a c u lty of th e L o u isian a S ta te U n iv e rs ity and A g r ic u ltu r a l and M echanical C ollege in p a r t i a l f u lf illm e n t of the req u irem en ts f o r th e d eg ree of D octor of Philosophy in The D epartm ent of Management by Joseph King Kavanaugh B.A., Oakland U n iv e rs ity, 1968 M. E d., Ohio U n iv e rs ity, 1969 M.A., Ohio U n iv e rs ity, 1970 May 1986

6 Acknowledgements This d i s s e r t a t i o n is th e cu lm in atio n o f a s i g n i f i c a n t decade in my l i f e. W hile th e achievem ent is m ine, i t would n o t have been p o s s ib le w ith o u t th e su p p o rt and encouragem ent of many. I t is d e d ic a te d to them: To Edward B irc h, now V ice C h an cello r a t th e U n iv e rs ity of C a l if o r n ia Santa B arb ara, who f i r s t made c le a r to me th e choice between " fis h in g and c u ttin g b a i t " ; to my c o lle a g u e s a t Loyola U n iv e rs ity who s u s ta in e d me in my stu d y ; to my a s s o c ia te s in th e J e s u i t A sso c ia tio n of S tu d en t P ersonnel A d m in istra to rs and Mickey Hawkshead fo r t h e i r a s s is ta n c e in d a ta c o lle c tio n, and Mary Johnson fo r th e re p e a te d ty p in g o f th e many ta b l e s ; and to many, many f r ie n d s who c o n tin u a lly m otivated me by t h e i r in q u ir ie s re g a rd in g my p ro g re s s. No d o c to ra l s tu d e n t has been b le ss e d w ith a more su p p o rtiv e com m ittee th a n I en jo y ed. P ro fe ss o rs James Werbel and P erry P r e s th o ld t guided t h i s stu d y w ith c a r e, concern, and p e rso n a l i n t e r e s t. They showed me a glim pse of th e ex citm en t to be found in academ ic re s e a rc h. P ro fe ss o rs Edmund Gray and Eugene McCann gave me much-needed encouragem ent when i t was t r u l y needed. P ro fe s s o r O. J e f f H a rris, a s m ajor p ro f e s s o r, knew my needs b e t t e r th an I, and gave me th e freedom to develop my own s tu d y. Most im p o rta n tly, he su p p o rted me and renewed my confidence when my perform ance d id n o t w a rra n t i t. I am g r e a t l y in h is

7 debt. Vincent P. Knipfing, Vice President for Student Affairs at Loyola University, a kind friend and terrific boss, deserves thanks for use of the University's resources and special leave arrangements which made my residency year and ' dissertation research possible. He is also recognized for his personal encouragement and overwhelming patience as I juggled academic pursuits and professional responsibilities, not always to the benefit of the latter. Finally, a large piece of this dissertation belongs to my wife Carol and my children Emily and Clay. The incalculable hours in the library, evenings and weekends of cloistered study and writing, and the emotional demands of doctoral study all exacted their toll. For my children, there are long periods of their childhoods where the "D" in their lives stood for doctorate rather than dad. For Carol, this represents the end of a long, arduous emotional journey and a shared dream fulfilled. In may ways, this dissertation is theirs. They have worked for it as hard as I. And I thank them very, very much. New Orleans, Louisiana May 7,

8 Table of^contents Page Acknowledgements Table of C ontents L is t of Tables i i iv v i i i L is t of F ig u re s... L i s t of I l l u s t r a t i o n s A b s tra c t In tro d u c tio n x i x i i x iv CHAPTER ONE: Review of the L i te r a tu r e...1 I. C o g n itiv e C a te g o riz a tio n...1 I I. Achievement M o tiv atio n I I I. Leader Emergence CHAPTER TWO: R esearch Model and H ypotheses...37 I. S tatem ent of th e Problem.'...37 I I. J u s t i f i c a t i o n...39 I I I. P re s e n ta tio n o f th e Model...42 IV. D e sc rip tio n and J u s t i f c a t i o n of V a ria b le s A. Achievement O rie n ta tio n (of the P e rc e iv er) B. Task D i f f i c u l t y...47 C. Task O rie n ta tio n...48 D. R e la tio n s h ip s O rie n ta tio n...49 E. Achievement O rie n ta tio n (of th e C andidate)...50 V. D iscu ssio n...50 V I. P re s e n ta tio n of Hypotheses...54 A. W ith in -S u b ject Hypotheses...56

9 1. What is th e Schema fo r th e Emergent L e a d e r? B. B etw een-subject Hypotheses Does th e P e r c e iv e r 's Achievement O rie n ta tio n M oderate th e C ontent of th e Schema? Does Task D i f f ic u lt y M oderate Leader E m e r g e n c e? Do We P re fe r Leaders Who Are Like O u rse lv e s? What Are th e Minimal C r i t e r i a f o r Leader Emergence?...64 CHAPTER THREE: D esign and E xecution of R esearch 66 I. E xperim ental Design...66 I I. Sample...67 I I I. Measurements...68 A. S c a le s o f Dependent M easures...68 B. O p e ra tio n a liz a tio n of V a ria b le s Leader Q u a litie s Task D i f f i c u l t y...71 C. P r e t e s t of Task D if f ic u lt y In stru m en t D. S e le c tio n o f In stru m en ts M an ifest Meeds Q u e s t i o n n a i r e A d je ctiv e Check L is t...75 IV. Methods o f A n aly sis A. Methods o f D ata C o lle c tio n...76 B. Treatm ent o f Data...79 V. Summary...80 CHAPTER FOUR: P r e s e n ta tio n o f R e s u lts...81 I. What is th e Schema fo r Emergent Leader?...82 v

10 A. Q u a lif ic a tio n s of Leader...83 B. Leader Acceptance I I. I I I. IV. What Are th e Minimal C r i t e r i a fo r Leader Emergence? Does th e P e r c e iv e r 's Achievement M o tivation M oderate th e C ontent of th e Schema?...94 Does Task Difficulty Moderate Leader Emergence? V. Do We p r e f e r L eaders Like O u rselv es? V I. Summary 106 CHAPTER FIVE: Analysis, Conclusions, Recommendations I. Schema S tr u c tu re and Leader Emergence I I. The In flu e n c e o f M oderating V a ria b le s A. Task D if f ic u lt y B. Achievement M o tiv atio n I I I. P r e f e r r in g Leaders Like O u rselv es IV. R ev isio n s to th e Model V. L im ita tio n s o f th e Study V I. Recommendations fo r F u tu re R esearch BIBLIOGRAPHY 164 APPENDICES 182 I. P r e te s t Task D e sc rip tio n R ating Form I I. T est Packet A. Task Descriptions 1. M oderate Task D i f f i c u l t Task B. C andidate P r o f i l e s C. P erso n al In fo rm atio n Sheet...201

11 VITA

12 Tables Table l. a. l. b. Page S ig n if ic a n t E f fe c ts C andidate Q u a lif ic a tio n s and A cceptance R atings W ithin S u b ject and Grouping V a r i a b l e s.... I l l Means o f Low/High C o n d itio n s W ith in -S u b je c t and Grouping V a r i a b l e s LEADERSHIP SCHEMA Q u a lif ic a tio n s and A cceptance P r o f i l e s Based Upon R atin g s Means T est o f C e ll Means P erso n al Achievement X Task O rie n ta tio n I n te r a c tio n Q u a lifie d R a t i n g s LEADERSHIP SCHEMA Q u a lif ic a tio n s and A cceptance P r o f ile s Based Upon Rank O r d e r in g s LEADERSHIP SCHEMA Low and High Achievement Orientation Profiles Q u a lifie d and A ccepted R a tin g s T est of C e ll Means Task O rie n ta tio n X R e la tio n s h ip s O rie n ta tio n I n te r a c tio n A cceptance S c o r e s QUALIFICATIONS AND ACCEPTANCE SCHEMA High A chievers/m oderate Task D i f f i c u l t y QUALIFICATIONS AND ACCEPTANCE SCHEMA Low A chievers/m oderate Task D i f f i c u l t y QUALIFICATIONS AND ACCEPTANCE SCHEMA High A chievers/h igh Task D i f f i c u l t y QUALIFICATIONS AND ACCEPTANCE SCHEMA Low A chievers/h igh Task D i f f i c u l t y LEADERSHIP SCHEMA High and Low A chievers Q u a lifie d R a t i n g s LEADERSHIP SCHEMA High and Low A chievers A cceptance R a tin g s...123

13 13. T est of c e l l Means Task O rie n ta tio n X Achievement I n te r a c tio n Q u a lifie d S c o re s PR I n te r a c tio n Under V aried Task D if f ic u lt y and S u b je c t Achievement C o n d itio n s Q u a lif ic a tio n s and A cceptance R a t i n g s LEADERSHIP SCHEMA High and M oderate Task D if f ic u lt y C o n d itio n s Q u a lifie d R a t i n g s LEADERSHP SCHEMA High and M oderate Task D if f ic u lt y C o n d itio n s A cceptance R a tin g s C o rre la tio n C o e f fic ie n ts S e lf - Q u a lif ic a tio n s Scores W ith Achievement Scores and R atin g s fo r C andidates w ith Same Achievement O r ie n ta tio n ix

14 Figure Page 1. I n te r a c tio n of P erso n al Achievement O rie n ta tio n and Task O rie n ta tio n Qual if ied Rat i n g s i n t e r a c t i o n of R e la tio n s h ip s O r ie n ta tio n and Task O rie n ta tio n A cceptance R a tin g s I n te r a c tio n of Achievement M o tivation o f th e S u b ject and Task O rie n ta tio n Q u a lifie d R a t i n g s PRDA I n te r a c tio n Q u a lif ic a tio n s R atin g s of L e a d e r s PRDA I n te r a c tio n A cceptance R atings o f L e a d e r s PRD I n te r a c tio n Q u a lif ic a tio n s R atin g s of L e a d e r s PRD I n te r a c tio n A cceptance R atin g s o f L e a d e r s x

15 IjlygtretiQiis Illustration Page 1. MODEL: C ontent of th e I m p lic it Theory o f Emergent L e a d e rsh ip REVISED MODEL xi

16 Abstract T his stu d y of c o g n itiv e c a te g o r iz a tio n e x p lo re s the c o n te n t of the schema "em ergent le a d e r." Three v a r ia b le s, each w ith two l e v e l s, a re ro ta te d to form e ig h t le a d e r p r o f i l e s. These v a r ia b le s a re achievem ent, ta s k, and r e la tio n s h ip s o r i e n t a t i o n s. Each p r o f i l e is e v a lu a te d by s u b je c ts on two dependent m easures, le a d e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s and le a d e r a cc e p tan c e. P r o f ile s a re ran k -o rd ered based on r a tin g s g iv e n, e s ta b lis h in g the schema s t r u c t u r e s fo r q u a lif ie d le a d e r and a c c e p ta b le le a d e r, which in tu rn e s t a b l i s h minimal c o n d itio n s fo r le a d e r em ergence. The em ergent le a d e r is d e fin e d as one who is b o th q u a lif ie d and a c c e p ta b le to group members. Level of task d i f f i c u l t y and th e p e r c e i v e r 's achievem ent m o tiv a tio n a re proposed as m oderating v a ria b le s in flu e n c in g c a n d id a te le a d e rs h ip r a tin g s. High ta sk o r ie n ta tio n dom inates th e schem ata fo r le a d e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s and a ccep tan ce. I t is a n e c e ssa ry f a c to r in o rd e r to form a p e rc e p tio n of th e c a n d id a te as q u a lif ie d and to be a c c e p te d. A lone, i t is s u f f i c i e n t to form th e p e rc e p tio n of a m inim ally q u a lif ie d le a d e r. This is tr u e f o r the o v e r a ll schema and fo r th e low a c h ie v e r 's schema. In the high a c h ie v e r 's schema, however, ta sk o r i e n ta tio n alone is n o t s u f f i c i e n t to be p erceiv ed as a q u a lif ie d le a d e r. xii

17 P e rso n a l achievem ent and r e la tio n s h ip s o r ie n ta tio n s are supplem entary to task o r i e n ta tio n in form ing p e rc e p tio n s of le a d e r s h ip. Alone o r in com bination, th e y a re i n s u f f i c i e n t to form a le a d e rs h ip p e rc e p tio n. The d if f e r e n c e in c o n tr ib u tio n each makes to s tre n g th e n in g th e p e rc e p tio n of a q u a lif ie d le a d e r is n o t s i g n i f i c a n t. However, f o r le a d e r a cc e p ta n c e, r e la tio n s h ip s o r ie n ta tio n enhances le a d e r p e rc e p tio n s s i g n i f i c a n t l y more than p e rso n a l achievem ent o r i e n t a t i o n. A h i e r a r c h i c a l model of schema s t r u c t u r e is su g g e ste d. Achievement m o tiv a tio n of th e s u b je c t and task d i f f i c u l t y m oderate q u a l i f i c a t i o n s and accep tan ce r a tin g s. Where m oderators o p e ra te, th e y a l t e r le a d e rs h ip r a tin g s b u t do n o t n o ta b ly a l t e r schema s t r u c t u r e s. M inimal c r i t e r i a fo r le a d e rs to emerge re q u ire a task o r ie n ta tio n supplem ented by a l e a s t one of th e o th e r p e r s o n a lity f a c to r s s tu d ie d, p e rso n a l achievem ent or r e la tio n s h ip s o r i e n t a t i o n. The c an d id a te d e m o n stratin g a l l th re e a t t r i b u t e s re c eiv e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher q u a l i f i c a t i o n s r a tin g s than any o th e r c a n d id a te. F i n a l l y, th e stu d y sought to determ ine w hether we p r e f e r le a d e rs who a re l i k e o u rs e lv e s. Due to o p e r a tio n a l iz a tio n problem s, the fin d in g s a re in c o n c lu siv e.

18 Introduction This in q u iry began by in v e s tig a tin g a r a th e r common presum ption in th e everyday u n d erstan d in g of le a d e r s h ip. Those who a re m otivated to ach iev e emerge as le a d e rs w ith in t h e i r groups and o r g a n iz a tio n s. R esearch has found t h a t no such s tra ig h tfo rw a rd r e la tio n s h ip e x is t s betw een th e d e s ir e to achieve and le a d e r em ergence. R a th e r, achievem ent m o tiv atio n is one d eterm in an t of b e h av io rs r e s u ltin g in le a d e r em ergence.1 Contemporary l i t e r a t u r e of le a d e rs h ip e x p lo re s the in flu e n c e o f c o g n itiv e a t t r i b u t i o n on r a tin g s of le a d e rs and s u b o rd in a te s, and th e emergence of le a d e r s. These s tu d ie s i n v e s t ig a te d i f f e r e n t f a c to r s which in flu e n c e a t t r i b u t i o n s, such as knowledge of perform ance. This stu d y d e lv es more d eep ly in to th e a t t r i b u t i o n fo rm atio n p ro cess by examining th e s o c ia l c o n s tr u c tio n s which serv e as the o p e ra tin g paradigm s fo r p e rc e p tio n s. These paradigm s, or schem ata, a re p a tte r n s of in fo rm atio n which are employed to make sense out of a c o n sta n t stream of d a ta boitbarding the s e n s e s. Schemata help s o r t and o rg an ize d a ta in to p a tte r n s which can then be reco g n ized and gain meaning. ^Richard M. S o rre n tin o, "An E xtension of Theory of Achievement M o tiv atio n to th e Study of Emergent L e a d e rsh ip," Jo u rn a l of P e rs o n a lit y and So c ia l Psychology 26 (1973): 356. xiv

19 The purpose of t h i s re se a rc h is to in v e s tig a te the c o n te n t of th e c o g n itiv e schem ata which d e fin e th e concept o f em ergent le a d e r. Schemata appear to be com prised of two b a s ic com ponents, a s o c ia liz e d component drawn from the c u ltu r e and the ex p erien ces of o th e r s, and a p e rso n a liz e d component based upon in d iv id u a l ex p erien c e s and th e assessm ent of those e x p erien ces in l i g h t of in d iv id u a l q u a l i t i e s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s. The f i r s t component is d e riv e d by s o c ia l le a rn in g and in c lu d e s th e u n d e rstan d in g s gained from ob serv in g th e e x p erien c e s of o th e r s. These in c lu d e th e q u a l i t i e s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of o th e rs observed in le a d e rs h ip p o s itio n s, th e problem s which th ey have fa c e d, and th e means by which th ey have been re so lv e d, e i t h e r s u c c e s s f u lly or o th e rw ise. The in d iv id u a l le a r n s from th e se o b s e r v a tio n s, e s ta b lis h e s co n n ectio n s betw een a c tio n s and outcom es, and e f f e c t i v e l y forms a schema fo r le a d e r s h ip. This component of th e schema a ls o in c lu d e s those u n d e rstan d in g s which a re g e n e ra l to th e c u ltu r e and pro v id e th e b a s is fo r a common language. That i s, w ith in th e c u ltu r e g e n e r a lly, th e r e a re a few q u a l i t i e s which a re r e a d ily agreed to be r e p r e s e n ta tiv e of th e concept o f a le a d e r. The second component is re p r e s e n ta tiv e of the i n d i v i d u a l 's p e rso n a l e x p e rie n c e. In t h i s p o rtio n th e p e r s o n 's own t a l e n t s, a b i l i t i e s, q u a l i t i e s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s form th e b a s is fo r th e schema. In d iv id u a l le a d e rs h ip e x p e rie n c e s, s u c c e s s fu l or o th e rw is e, a re xv

20 a s s o c ia te d w ith p e rso n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to d e fin e e f f e c t iv e le a d e r s h ip and i t s a s s o c ia te d p e rso n a l q u a l i t i e s. F u r th e r, how th e in d iv id u a l e v a lu a te s th ese p e rso n a l e x p erien ces is in p a r t a fu n c tio n o f h is or her u n iq u en ess, a fu n c tio n of in d iv id u a l d if f e r e n c e v a r ia b le s. Thus, e v a lu a tio n of p e rso n a l le a d e rs h ip ex p erien ces is a fu n c tio n of numerous v a r ia b le s, such as need to a c h ie v e, on which th e in d iv id u a l d i f f e r s from o th e r s. In th e p ro cess of d eterm in in g w hether an in d iv id u a l q u a l i f i e s as a le a d e r, th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and e x p erien ce of th e in d iv id u a l a re matched a g a in s t th e le a d e rs h ip schema which forms a p ro to ty p e fo r e v a lu a tin g p o te n tia l le a d e r s. The more c lo s e ly th e i n d iv id u a l's q u a l i t i e s a lig n w ith the schem a, the more q u a lif ie d the p erson i s p erceiv ed to b e. I f th e p ro c e ss works in t h i s manner th en the c o n te n t of an i n d i v i d u a l 's schema can be mapped by exam ining th e q u a l i t i e s o f those in d iv id u a ls who a re b e lie v e d to be q u a lif ie d as le a d e r s. This stu d y w i l l ex p lo re th e c o n te n t of th e schema "em ergent le a d e r ". Three v a r ia b le s w ill be te s te d fo r t h e i r in flu e n c e w ith in the schema: 1) p e rso n a l achievem ent o r ie n ta tio n ; and two m easures of le a d e rs h ip c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s, 2) ta sk o r ie n ta tio n ; and 3) r e la tio n s h ip s o r i e n t a t i o n. Contem porary le a d e rs h ip th e o ry i s c o n te x tu a l, and e s ta b lis h e s fir m ly the s i g n i f i c a n t in flu e n c e of s i t u a t i o n a l m oderators on le a d e r e f f e c t iv e n e s s. P rio r in v e s tig a tio n s on schem ata e s t a b l i s h two th e se s : 1) Schemata a re broad xv i

21 c a te g o r iz a tio n s which apply a c ro ss s i t u a t i o n s and are not s e n s i t i v e to in d iv id u a l d i f f e r e n c e s, t h a t i s, they are 2 norm ative s o c ia l c o n s tr u c tio n s w ith in th e c u ltu r e ; or 2) schem ata a re o rg a n iz a tio n, job and in d iv id u a l s p e c if ic w ith each in d iv id u a l form ing s e p a r a te, p e rs o n a liz e d schem ata fo r each p o s itio n w ith in the group or o rg a n iz a tio n. The l a t t e r h y p o th e sis, t h a t schem ata are c o n te x tu a lly s p e c i f i c, w ill be te s t e d in t h i s stu d y by vary in g th e le v e l of job d i f f i c u l t y. I f t r u e, job d i f f i c u l t y w ill m oderate th e c o n te n t of th e le a d e r schema. The means by which c a n d id a te s a re i n i t i a l l y p erceiv ed as q u a lif ie d fo r le a d e rs h ip is re p re se n te d as a matching p ro cess in th e model developed. In t h is p ro c e ss, the q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of th e c an d id a te a re compared to the p e r c e iv e r 's schema o f le a d e rs h ip fo r the p a r t i c u l a r p o s itio n so u g h t, w ith the c an d id a te b e s t m atching th e schema being th e most l i k e l y to be su p p o rted fo r emergence as le a d e r. This m atching t h e s i s w ill be te s t e d. F i n a l l y, p e rc e p tio n re s e a rc h p ro v id es ev id en ce t h a t th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e p erso n form ing the schema in flu e n c e th e q u a l i t i e s of the schema. The stu d y w i l l examine t h i s 2 Howard M. Weiss and Seymour A d le r, "C o g n itiv e Com plexity and the S tru c tu re of I m p l ic it L ead ersh ip T h e o r i e s Jo u rn a l of App lie d Psych o lo gy 66 (1981): Bobby J. C ald er, "An A ttr ib u tio n Theory of L e a d ersh ip," in B arry M. Staw and G erald R. S a la n c ik, JJew D ire c tio n s in Organ iz a t io n a l Behav jo r (Chicago: S t. C la ir P re s s, 1977): 190.

22 th e s is by t e s t i n g whether achievem ent m o tiv atio n of the s u b je c t has a s i g n i f i c a n t m oderating e f f e c t on th e c o n te n t o f th e schema. xviii

23 .CJBAEIS&-QHE Review. _of the literature L. C.o.gnit ive_ca.tes.qi.i&.a.t ion. S o cial r e a l i t y is phenom enological in n a t u r e.! i t is a c o n s te lla tio n of th o u g h ts, p e rc e p tio n s, and f e e lin g s w hich, ta k en to g e th e r in r e la t i o n s h i p to one a n o th e r, form th e in d iv id u a l's phenomenal f i e l d. In o rd e r fo r th e in d iv id u a l t o p e rc e iv e and respond m e an in g fu lly, th e s e n s a tio n s of th e phenomenal w orld must be o rg an ized by th e i n d iv id u a l's c o g n itiv e s t r u c t u r e. C o g n itiv e s t r u c t u r e, th e system o f i n t e r r e l a t i o n s among th o u g h ts, en ab le s sen so ry d a ta to be formed in to m eaningful p a t t e r n s which serv e as th e b a s is of p e r c e p tio n.2 In c o g n itiv e psychology th e r e is renewed i n t e r e s t in schema and r e la te d co n cep ts as th e most prom ising a rc h e ty p e s o f c o g n itiv e s t r u c t u r e. Among th e r e l a t e d concepts a s s o c ia te d w ith schema a re p r o to t y p e s,2 im p lic it J e f f r e y P f e f f e r, "Management As Symbolic A ctio n : The C re atio n and M aintenance o f O rg a n iz a tio n a l P aradigm s," in L. L. Cummings and B arry M. Staw (E d s.), R esearch in O rg a n iz a tio n a l B eh av io r. V o l. 3 (1984): D aniel M. Wegner and Robin R. V a lla c h e r, Implicit Psychology (New York: Oxford U n iv e rs ity P r e s s, 1977): 4. 3 Nancy C antor and W alter M ischel, " T r a its as P ro to ty p e s: E f f e c ts of R eco g n itio n Memory," Jo u rn a l of P.erso n alitv and So c ia l Psychology 35 (1977):

24 2 t h e o r i e s, 4 c au sal sch em ata,5 and s c r i p t s. 6 Schemata (s in g u la r, schema) a re c o g n itiv e s t r u c t u r e s s p e c i f i c a l l y a s s o c ia te d w ith o b je c t s, p e rso n s, or s o c ia l s i t u a t i o n s. They a r e th e means by which A is p e rc e iv e d to be th e l e t t e r "A"; an e x u b e ra n t, outgoing p a r ty - ty p e is c l a s s i f i e d a s an e x tr o v e r t; and a g i r l sco u t m eeting is d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from a b a s e b a ll game. A schema is a netw ork o f r e la tio n s h ip s between v a r ia b le s which d e fin e th e complex phenomenon p e rc e iv e d. Schemata r e p re s e n t c o g n itiv e c a te g o rie s and a s s i s t in th e a c q u is itio n and r e c a l l of in fo rm a tio n, th e e v a lu a tio n of sen so ry in p u t, and th e p ro c e ssin g o f memory. Most im p o rta n tly, schem ata p ro v id e f o r th e a c c u ra te encoding and m o d ific a tio n o f p e rc eiv e d r e a l i t y. For broad c o g n itiv e c a te g o r ie s, th e r e a r e c e n tr a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c r i t i c a l to d e fin in g an o b je c t, p e rso n, or s o c ia l s i t u a t i o n as belonging to t h a t c a te g o ry. Thus a b a l l, a clown, and a g i r l sc o u t m eeting have c e n tr a l q u a l i t i e s w ith o u t which th ey could n o t be a c c u ra te ly 4 A. P. B rie f and H. K. Downey, "C o g n itiv e and O rg a n iz a tio n a l S tr u c tu r e s : A C onceptual A n a ly sis of I m p lic it O rganizing T h e o rie s," Human R e la tio n s 36 (1983): ; a ls o, David J. S ch n eid er, " I m p lic it P e r s o n a lity Theory: A Review," P sycholog ic a l B u lle tin 79 (1973): H. H. K e lley, "C ausal Schemata and th e A ttr i b u tio n P ro c e s s," in E. J o n e s, D. Kanouse, H. K e lle y, R. N is b e tt, S. V a lin s, and B. Weiner (E d s.), A t t r i b u t i o n :._^ P erc e iv in g th e Causes o f B ehavior (M orristow n, N. J. : G eneral Learning P r e s s, 1972): Dennis A. G io ia and P e te r P. P o o le, " S c r ip ts in O rg a n iz a tio n a l B eh a v io r," Academy._<if-Management Review 9 (1984):

25 3 i d e n t i f i e d. These core c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s com prise th e p ro to ty p e fo r th e c o g n itiv e categ o ry and i t s a s s o c ia te d schema. W hile th e p ro to ty p e may n o t re p re s e n t a l l of th e dim ensions and r e l a t i o n a l nuances o f th e schema, i t does c o n s ti tu te a s k e le to n of th e schema around which refin em en ts can be developed. A schema is a s e t of i n t e r r e l a t e d v a r ia b le s which d e fin e a p e rc e p tu a l c o n s tr u c t. W hile th e v a r ia b le s can tak e on d i f f e r e n t v a lu e s, th e core s tr u c tu r e of th e v a r ia b le s and th e r e la t i o n s h i p between them does n o t change. For exam ple, our p e rc e p tu a l c o n s tr u c t o f a b a l l may be t h a t i t is round, th re e -d im e n s io n a l, and has s iz e and c o lo r. W hile th e v alu es tak en by s iz e and c o lo r may be numerous, th e p r o to ty p ic v a r ia b le s of roundness and th re e -d im e n sio n a ln e s s a re in v a r ia n t. I f i t has on ly two dim ensions i t is a c ir c le? i f i t has an edge in th e s u r f a c e, i t becomes a f ig u r e o th e r th an a b a l l. Schemata a re th e means by which we make sen se of th e w orld around us,, bo th sim ple p e rc e p tio n s and complex s o c ia l phenomena. Wegner and V a lla c h e r o b serv e, The in d iv id u a l is c o n tin u a lly s t r i v i n g to u n d erstan d h is s o c ia l r e a l i t y.... ( I ) n a s e n se, th e n, every p erso n is a n aiv e p s y c h o lo g ist who goes about h is a c t i v i t i e s c o lle c tin g d a ta about p e o p le, t e s t i n g h is gu esses about how peo p le behave and th in k, b u ild in g t h e o r ie s to e x p la in th e d a ta and to p r e d ic t and c o n tro l f u tu r e e v e n ts and

26 4 y e t is seldom aware t h a t he is doing th e se th in g s.v Schemata r e p re s e n t im p lic it th e o r ie s o f s o c ia l r e a l i t i e s. O ften, im p lic it th e o r ie s of th e w orld {schemata) o p e ra te a u to m a tic a lly. However, th e p resen ce of stro n g c o u n te r -p ro to ty p ic d a ta r e q u ire s conscious a t t e n t i v e p ro c e ssin g to determ ine th e a p p ro p ria te c a te g o r iz a tio n of th e s t i m u l u s.8 To c l a r i f y some problem s in language used in th e stu d y of c o g n itiv e c a te g o r iz a tio n and s o c ia l p e rc e p tio n, c a te g o rie s a re broad term s used fo r th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f d a ta. P a r ti c u la r a t t r i b u t e s, q u a l i t i e s, or o th e r re p r e s e n ta tiv e dim ensions a re a ssig n e d to th e categ o ry. Each categ o ry su p p o rts one or more p ro to ty p e s r e f l e c t i v e of th e a t t r i b u t e s o f th e c ate g o ry. An in d iv id u a l, a ssig n e d to th e cate g o ry based upon a few p e rso n a l a t t r i b u t e s, o fte n is re p re se n te d a t a l a t e r tim e as p o sse ssin g a d d itio n a l q u a l i t i e s r e l a t e d to th e categ o ry or i t s p ro to ty p e s which were n o t p re s e n t o r i g i n a l l y. Schemata a re th e c o n ce p tu a liz ed p a tte r n s of r e la tio n s h ip between th e a t t r i b u t e s in th e c ateg o ry ; p ro to ty p e s a re v i s u a l i z a t i o n s or p e r s o n if ic a ti o n s of a p a r t i c u l a r schema. 7Wegner and V a lla c h e r (1977): Q Jack M. Feldman, "Beyond A ttr ib u tio n Theory: C o g n itiv e P ro cesses in Perform ance A p p ra is a l," Jo u rn a l of A PPlied-Bsvchology 66 (1981): 129.

27 5 R ec e n tly, management l i t e r a t u r e has given a t t e n t i o n to a t t r i b u t i o n a l phenomena.9 A ttr i b u tio n s, w h ile most o fte n r e l a t e d to cau sal e x p la n a tio n s 10 can a ls o be d is p o s it io n a l in n a t u r e.11 The p a tte r n re c o g n itio n model of schema by Cantor and M ischel "p ro v id es an a l t e r n a t i v e to a t t r i b u t i o n a l models o f t r a i t in fe re n c e.... Everyday e x p erien ce su g g e sts t h a t you do n o t have to make an a t t r i b u t i o n a l a n a ly s is every tim e you want to know what someone is l i k e. O ften you may sim ply say som ething l i k e : 'T h is p erso n who seems t o be en jo y in g h im se lf a t t h i s loud p a r ty, who is d rin k in g a g r e a t d e a l, and who is ta lk in g to l o t s of people is j u s t l i k e most of th e e x tr o v e r ts I know.*"12 q Stephen G. Green and Terence R. M itc h e ll, " A ttr ib u tio n a l P ro cesses of Leaders in Leader-Member I n t e r a c t i o n s, O rg a n isatio n a ljb eh a v io r and Human-Performance 23 (1979): ; a ls o, James S. P h i l l i p s and R obert G. Lord, "C ausal A ttr ib u tio n s and P e rc e p tio n s o f L e a d e r s h ip," O rg a n is a tio n a l B ehavior and Human Perform ance 28 (1981): B arry M. Staw, " A ttrib u tio n of th e 'Causes* of Perform ance: A G eneral A lte r n a tiv e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f C ro ss- S e c tio n a l R esearch on O rg a n iz a tio n s," Org a n iz a tio n a l B.eh.aYiQL-and^Buman.E&Lfamiaace 13 (1975): ; a ls o, Bobby J. C ald er, "An A ttr ib u tio n Theory of L e a d e rsh ip," in B arry M. Staw and G erald R. S a la n c ik, Mew D ire c tio n s _ in O rg a n iz a tio n a l B ehavior (Chicago: S t. C la ir P r e s s, 1977): ^ R o b e r t G. Lord and Jo n ath an E. Sm ith, " T h e o re tic a l, In fo rm atio n P ro c e ssin g, and S itu a tio n a l F a c to rs A ffe c tin g A ttr ib u tio n Theory Models o f O rg a n iz a tio n a l B eh av io r," Academy o f ^Management-Review 8 (1983): 50-60; a l s o, E. E. Jones and K. E. D av is, "From A cts to D is p o s itio n s : The A ttr ib u tio n P ro cess in Person P e rc e p tio n," in L. Berkowitz (Ed.) Advances in E xperim e n ta l.s o c ia l Psychology 63 (1965, V ol. 2 ): ^ ^ e g n e r and V a lla c h e r:

28 6 P h i l l i p s and Lord s tu d ie d c a u sa l a t t r i b u t i o n s as th e so u rce o f le a d e r s h ip p e rc e p tio n s. T h e ir r e s u l t s showed t h a t e x p l i c i t cau sal a n a ly s e s w ere u n n e ce ssa ry. They su g g est t h a t t h e i r d a ta w ere more c o n s is te n t w ith c o g n itiv e c a te g o r iz a tio n p r o c e s s e s.1-* F undam entally, i t is u n c le a r i f th e r e is any fu n c tio n a l d if f e r e n c e between th e p a tte r n re c o g n itio n model and t h a t of d is p o s it io n a l a t t r i b u t i o n s. They bo th rev o lv e on th e p re sen c e of p r o to ty p ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s, and th e assignm ent o f an in d iv id u a l to a categ o ry based upon th e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s. Feldman o b serv es t h a t C antor and M isc h e l's re s e a rc h s u p p o rts th e idea "of d is p o s it io n a l a t t r i b u t i o n s as a c a te g o r iz a tio n p r o c e s s."*-4 one s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e is t h a t a t t r i b u t i o n s e x p la in p a s t b e h a v io r, w h ile schem ata, s c r i p t s and o th e r c o g n itiv e r e p r e s e n ta tio n s o p e ra te in a contem poraneous tim e frame or a r e p r o je c tiv e. The work on s c r i p t s is s tr o n g ly s u g g e s tiv e of t h i s dynamism.15 Lord and Smith see th e prim ary d if f e r e n c e being th e le v e l of c o g n itiv e a c t i v i t y re q u ire d. C o n sidering an example of 13 James S. P h i l l i p s and R obert G. Lord, "Causal A ttr ib u tio n s and P e rc e p tio n s o f L e a d e rsh ip," O rg a n iz a tio n a l Behavior_and Human-Performance 28 (1981): Jack M. Feldman, "Beyond A ttr i b u tio n Theory: C o g n itiv e P ro ce sse s in Perform ance A p p ra is a l," Journal o f A pplied Psychology 66 (1981): 133. "^D ennis A. G io ia and P e te r P. P o o le, " S c rip ts in O rg a n iz a tio n a l B eh a v io r," Academy of _Manag.ement Review 9 (1984): ; a l s o, D ennis A. G io ia and C h arles C. Manz, "Linking C o g n itio n and B ehavior: A S c r ip t P ro ce ssin g I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of V ic a rio u s L ea rn in g," Academy of Management Review 10 (1985):

29 7 w hether a p erso n p o sse sse s le a d e r s h ip q u a l i t i e s, th ey su g g est t h a t a t t r i b u t i o n a l assig n m en ts r e q u ir e h ig h ly c o g n itiv e, c o n scio u s, " c o n tro lle d " d e c is io n -p r o c e s s e s w h ile " le s s c o g n itiv e models m ight r e ly on p r in c ip le s such as th e match of th e stim u lu s p erso n in q u e s tio n to th e p e r c e iv e r f s p r o t o t y p e."16 The lin k a g e betw een a t t r i b u t i o n models of le a d e rs h ip and schem ata or im p lic it th e o r ie s is ad d ressed by C ald er. In a t t r i b u t i o n a l a n a ly s e s, "behavior is te s t e d a g a in s t s ta n d a rd s of d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s, t y p i c a l i t y and s o c ia l d e s i r a b i l i t y, a l t e r n a t i v e b e h a v io ra l c h o ic e s, and g o a ls. I m p lic it th e o r ie s a re im p o rtan t in a s s e s s in g th e 't y p i c a l i t y ' o f b e h a v io r."17 Presum ably, t h i s is a p ro c e ss of m atching e x p l i c i t b eh av io r a g a in s t a p r o to ty p ic model of b eh av io r f o r le a d e r s. The s tro n g e r th e m atch, th e more " ty p ic a l" th e b e h av io r. C a ld e r 's l o g ic s u g g e sts t h a t im p lic it th e o r ie s a re n e c e ssa ry to be a b le to make a t t r i b u t i o n s, b u t t h a t p e rc e p tio n s based upon such th e o r ie s need n o t employ a t t r i b u t i o n a l p ro c e s s e s. A le a d e r s h ip p e rc e p tio n can be formed sim ply by m atching b eh av io r to a le a d e rs h ip p ro to ty p e. C alder em braces th e phenom enological p e rs p e c tiv e when he s t a t e s, " le a d e rs h ip e x i s t s on ly a s a 16 R obert G. Lord and Jo n ath an E. Sm ith, " T h e o re tic a l, In fo rm atio n P ro c e ssin g, and S it u a tio n a l F a c to rs A ffe c tin g A ttr i b u tio n Theory Models o f O rg a n iz a tio n a l B eh av io r," Academy_o.Management.Review 8 (1983): Bobby J. C ald er, "An A ttr i b u tio n Theory of L e a d e rsh ip," in B arry M. Staw and G erald R. S a la n c ik, New D ire c tio n s_ in.o rg a n iz a tio n a l.b e h a v io r (Chicago: S t. C la ir P r e s s, 1977): 198.

30 8 p e rc e p tio n... I t is...ex tre m ely im p o rtan t as n aiv e p sy ch o lo g y."18 C o g n itiv e c a te g o r iz a tio n se rv e s as a u s e fu l framework 1 Q fo r exam ining le a d e r s h ip p e rc e p tio n s. * in such s tu d ie s, q u a l i t i e s of an in d iv id u a l a re matched a g a in s t a p ro to ty p e fo r th e c o g n itiv e categ o ry 'l e a d e r 1. S u f f i c i e n t alignm ent r e s u l t s in th e stim u lu s p erso n being c l a s s i f i e d in to th e e x i s t a n t categ o ry o f le a d e r. "Such a p ro c e ss p ro v id e s o b se rv e rs w ith an e f f i c i e n t means of s to r in g le a d e r - r e l e v a n t in fo rm atio n because i t allo w s them to map n o n id e n tic a l le a d e rs in to e q u iv a le n t, p r e e x is ti n g, and m eaningful c o g n itiv e c a t e g o r i e s." 20 The meaning of le a d e r s h ip fo r any p a r t i c u l a r group a t any p a r t i c u l a r tim e in flu e n c e s which a t t r i b u t e s w i l l be p e rc e iv e d as le a d e r s h ip. The s o c ia l r e a l i t y of le a d e r s h ip and i t s meaning, in tu r n, "depend upon a d eep ly embedded s e t o f b e l i e f s which lin k b e h a v io rs, p e rs o n a l q u a l i t i e s, and s e t s o f h a p p e n in g s." 2* 180p. c i t., 202. IQ R obert G. Lord, R. J. F o ti, and J. S. P h i l l i p s, "A Theory of Leader C a te g o riz a tio n," in J. G. Hunt, V. Sakaran, and C. S chriesheim (E d s.), L ead ersh ip ; Beyond.E stablishm ent Views (C arbondale; Southern I l l i n o i s P r e s s, 1981); a ls o, James S. P h i l l i p s and R obert G. Lord, "Schem atic In fo rm a tio n P ro cessin g and P e rc e p tio n s o f L ead ersh ip in P roblem -Solving G roups." Jo u rn a l o f A pplied Psychology 67 (1982): Op. c i t., Sonja M. Hunt, "The Role of L ead ersh ip in th e C o n stru c tio n o f R e a lity," in B arbara K ellerm an (E d.), L ead ersh ip ; H a ltid ia g ip lin a ex -B ecapect ives (Englewood C l i f f s, N. J. : P r e n tic e B a ll, 1984): 171.

31 9 I m p l ic it t h e o r ie s have a ls o re c e iv e d a t t e n t i o n in th e le a d e r s h ip l i t e r a t u r e, most o fte n as a m ed iatin g v a r ia b le in r a tin g s of le a d e r b eh av io r and le a d e r s h ip e f f e c t i v e n e s s. 22 Lord e t. a l. 2 3 m ain tain t h a t a l l o b se rv e rs have im p lic it th e o r ie s of le a d e r s h ip which c o n s ti tu te th e s ta n d a rd s by which le a d e r b eh av io r and perform ance a re a s s e s s e d. These s ta n d a rd s com prise th e le a d e r p ro to ty p e, when o b serv in g or r a tin g perform ance, le a d e r b eh av io r is m easured a g a in s t t h i s p ro to ty p e. P h i l l i p s 2 4 found o b se rv e rs tend to a s c r ib e to th e le a d e r more b eh av io r t h a t is c o n s is te n t w ith an i n i t i a l le a d e r s h ip la b e l (p r o to ty p ic b eh av io r) th a n b eh av io r t h a t is e i t h e r in c o n s is te n t w ith t h a t la b e l or u n re la te d to i t (n o n p ro to ty p ic b e h a v io r). In a d d itio n, o b se rv e rs a re more capable o f a c c u r a te ly r e p o rtin g th e p re sen c e of n o n p ro to ty p ic b eh av io r th an p r o to ty p ic b eh av io r w ith in an oo Anthony D. B u t t e r f i e l d and Gary N. P ow ell, " E ffe c t of Group P erform ance, Leader Sex, and R ater Sex on R atin g s of Leader B eh a v io r," O rq a n isa t io n a l.b ehavior and.human Perform ance 28 (1981): ; James R. L arson, J r., "C ognitive Mechanisms M ediating th e Im pact of I m p l ic it T h eo ries o f Leader B ehavior on Leader B ehavior R a tin g s," O rg a n iz a tio n a l B ehavior _and Human.Perform ance 29 (1982): ; James S. P h i l l i p s, "The Accuracy of L ead ersh ip R a tin g s: A C o g n itiv e C a te g o riz a tio n P e r s p e c tiv e," O rg a n isatio n a l^ B e h a v io r and Human Perform ance 33 (1984): ; M ichael C. Rush, Ja y C. Thomas, and R obert G. Lord, " I m p lic it L ead ersh ip Theory: A P o te n tia l T h reat to th e I n te r n a l V a lid ity of Leader B ehavior Q u e s tio n n a ire s," O rgani& ationaljaehavfor..and.bum ar -B& tf-q m aace 20 (1977): R obert G. Lord, John F. B inning, M ichael C. Rush, and J a y C. Thomas, "The E f fe c t of Perform ance Cues and Leader B ehavior on Q u e stio n n a ire R atin g s of L ead ersh ip B eh av io r," O rg a n iz a tio n a l Behavio.r and Human -Perform ance 21 (1978): P h i l l i p s (1984).

32 10 immediate r a tin g c o n d itio n. T his a cc u ra cy, however, d e t e r i o r a t e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y w ith a tem poral d e lay in r a tin g. In c o n tr a s t, to th e e x te n t t h a t p r o to ty p ic b eh av io r is a c c u ra te ly ra te d w ith in th e immediate c o n d itio n, tem poral d elay has no s i g n i f i c a n t im pact on o b s e rv e rs ' r a tin g accuracy fo r th e se b e h a v io rs. Accuracy of th e immediate b e h a v io ra l r a tin g and th e d elay in re c o rd in g th e r a tin g a re s i g n i f i c a n t f a c to r s in flu e n c in g r a tin g s accuracy of both p r o to ty p ic and n o n p ro to ty p ic b e h av io r, alth o u g h somewhat d i f f e r e n t p ro c e sse s a re a t work. P h i l l i p s confirm s e a r l i e r work by Rush, Thomas and Lord which found t h a t r a tin g s o f le a d e r b ehavior as a sse sse d by th e Leader B ehavior D e sc rip tio n Q u e stio n n a ire (Form XII) were s u s c e p tib le to in flu e n c e by im p lic it le a d e r s h ip th e o r i e s. Perform ance in fo rm atio n in flu en c ed r a tin g s of b oth c o n s id e ra tio n and i n i t i a t i n g s tr u c t u r e. Sex of th e s u p e rv iso r was a ls o found to m a rg in a lly in flu e n c e r a tin g s on i n i t i a t i n g s t r u c t u r e. Rush e t. a l. su g g est i t is through th e perceptual-m em ory p ro c e sse s t h a t im p lic it th e o r ie s impact on LBDQ r a tin g s. What i s... l i k e l y is t h a t r a t e r s re ly h e a v ily on s te r e o ty p e s and im p lic it th e o r ie s to reduce th e amount of in fo rm atio n p ro c e ssin g re q u ire d in p e rc e iv in g and u n d e rstan d in g th e b eh av io r of o t h e r s Rush, Thomas and Lord (1977): 105.

33 11 Most r e c e n tly, s e le c tiv e encoding and p r o b a b i l i s t i c response b ia s have been i d e n tif ie d as two s e p a ra te c o g n itiv e mechanisms th rough which im p lic it th e o r ie s o p e ra te to in flu e n c e r a tin g s of le a d e r b e h av io r. Growing evidence le a d s Larson e t. a l. to c a u tio u s ly conclude, "th e confounding in flu e n c e of r a t e r s ' im p lic it t h e o r ie s of le a d e r b eh av io r pose a s i g n i f i c a n t t h r e a t to th e v a l i d i t y of q u e s tio n n a ire -b a s e d le a d e r b eh av io r r a t i n g s. " 26 The c o g n itiv e c a te g o r iz a tio n model o f le a d e r s h ip has re c e iv e d su p p o rt in numerous s t u d i e s. 2? These fin d in g s su g g est t h a t sen so ry in fo rm atio n p ro c e ssin g is s im p lif ie d th rough th e use of a le a d e r s h ip schema and a s s o c ia te d p ro to ty p e s. C o g n itiv e p ro c e sse s a re c e n tr a l to th e o p e ra tio n o f im p lic it th e o r ie s. Thus, c o g n itiv e com plexity should s i g n i f i c a n t l y in flu e n c e how such th e o r ie s impact le a d e rs h ip r a t i n g s. The r e l a t i o n s h i p between c o g n itiv e com plexity and th e s t r u c t u r e of im p lic it le a d e r s h ip th e o r ie s was examined by Weiss and A dler who found " im p lic it t h e o r ie s 26 James R. Larson, J r., John B. L in g le, and Mark M. S cerbo, "The Im pact o f Perform ance Cues on L eader-b ehavior R atin g s: The Role of S e le c tiv e In fo rm a tio n A v a ila b i lity and P r o b a b i l i s t i c Response B ia s," Organ iz-atio n al JBehavior and Human Perform ance 33 (1984): M ichael C. Rush, James S. P h i l l i p s and R obert G. Lord, " E ffe c ts of a Temporal B elay in R atin g on Leader B ehavior D e s c rip tio n s : A L abo rato ry I n v e s tig a t io n," J o u rn a l o.a p p lied Psychology 66 (1981): ; a ls o, P h i l l i p s and Lord (1981); Lord, F o ti, and P h i l l i p s (1981); and P h i l l i p s (1984).

34 12 2 ft to be u n a ffe c te d by d if f e r e n c e s in c o g n itiv e c o m p le x ity.b^ The f a c to r s t r u c t u r e of im p lic it th e o r ie s formed from w orker d e s c r ip tio n s of le a d e r b eh av io r corresponded w ith th o se g e n erated by an u n d erg rad u ate psychology sam ple s p e rc e p tio n s of th e " id e a liz e d " le a d e r. The a u th o rs co n clu d er " t r a d i t i o n a l le a d e r dim ensions a re extrem ely s ta b l e a c ro s s in d iv id u a l d if f e r e n c e s in c o g n itiv e c o m p le x ity." 2 B u t t e r f i e l d and Pow ell found t h a t in d ic a to r s of group perform ance s i g n i f i c a n t l y in flu en c ed th e e v a lu a tio n o f le a d e r b e h a v io r. Managers w ith id e n t i c a l s t y l e s w ere ra te d d i f f e r e n t l y depending upon w hether th e in d ic a te d group perform ance was high or low. R a te rs a t t r i b u t e d h ig h e r le v e ls o f both c o n s id e ra tio n and i n i t i a t i n g s t r u c tu r e b eh av io r to le a d e rs o f h ig h perform ing g ro u p s. These in v e s tig a to r s observe t h a t th e r a t e r s " im p lic it th e o r ie s of le a d e rs h ip a s s o c ia te hig h perform ance w ith more le a d e r s h ip b e h a v io r, perhaps on th e assum ption t h a t...th e le a d e r must be engaging in b eh av io r t h a t b rin g s th e perform ance a b o u t." Howard M. W eiss and Seymour A d le r, "C o g n itiv e C om plexity and th e S tr u c tu r e o f im p lic it L ead ersh ip T h e o rie s," Jo u rn a l.o f-a p p lie d -P sy c h o lo g y 66 (1981): p. c i t., Anthony D. B u t t e r f i e l d and Gary N. P ow ell, " E ffe c t of Group Perform ance, Leader Sex, and R ater Sex on R atin g s of Leader B eh av io r," O rg a n iz a tio n a l-b e h a v io r and-human Perform ance 28 (1981): 137.

35 13 These s tu d ie s su p p o rt th e p ro p o s itio n t h a t c o g n itiv e c a te g o r iz a tio n p ro c e sse s do in flu e n c e th e p e rc e p tio n o f le a d e r s h ip, th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of p a r t i c u l a r b eh av io r as le a d e r s h ip b e h a v io r, and th e la b e l l i n g of s p e c i f i c in d iv id u a ls as le a d e r s. The fo rm atio n of d is p o s it io n a l a t t r i b u t i o n s o f le a d e r s h ip is based upon th e s e processes* D eterm ining th e c o n ten t of th e schema f o r le a d e r is c r i t i c a l to u n d e rstan d in g how in d iv id u a ls a re id e n t i f i e d and la b e l le d as such. The l i t e r a t u r e o f p e rc e p tu a l phenomena is n o t d i r e c t l y concerned w ith th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between c o n te x tu a l v a r ia b le s and p e rc e p tio n fo rm a tio n, y e t t h i s is im p o rtan t to an u n d erstan d in g o f le a d e r s h ip. L ead ersh ip l i t e r a t u r e e s ta b lis h e s t h a t changes in s i t u a t i o n a l v a r ia b le s do in flu e n c e le a d e r e f f e c tiv e n e s s and group perform ance. In p a r t i c u l a r, no s tu d ie s have been id e n t i f i e d which in v e s tig a te how changes in ta s k d i f f i c u l t y in flu e n c e th e p e rc e p tio n of le a d e r s h ip. The l i t e r a t u r e im p lies t h a t th e p e rc e p tu a l p ro c e ss is based upon a m atching o f s u b je c t b eh av io r a g a in s t th e model p ro to ty p e. T his assum ption o f a m atching mechanism u n d e rly in g p e rc e p tu a l phenomena has n o t been t e s t e d in any of th e s tu d ie s i d e n t i f i e d. F in a lly, no s tu d ie s have been i d e n t i f i e d which ex p lo re th e b o u n d aries of a c o g n itiv e c a te g o ry, seek in g to id e n tif y th e n e ce ssa ry and s u f f i c i e n t c o n d itio n s re q u ire d to c l a s s i f y an o b je c t, b e h a v io r, or p erso n w ith in th e c ate g o ry.